MODULE 2

ALGEBRA
 ISC XI- Applied Mathematics

2
(i) Logarithm

SCOPE

Introduction and definition of logarithm and anti-logarithm.

Properties: Common & Natural logarithms
Problems based logarithm and anti-logarithm.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Students will be able to:

• define logarithm and antilogarithms.
• form and prove the laws of logarithms.
• solve the problems using logarithms.

PRE-REQUISITES

• Algebraic simplifications.
• Evaluating exponential expressions with simple positive and rational exponents.

Introduction
At the secondary level, exponential equations are solved by expressing both sides in terms of the same base.
In this chapter, we study a more formal method of solving
exponential equations by using the inverse of the exponential
function. We call this logarithm. An exponential equation is in the form
Rewriting an exponential statement in logarithmic form 𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 = b.
transforms the unknown from an exponent into a regular • 𝑎𝑎 is the base
variable. This equivalence allows us to view exponential and
logarithmic statements from two interchangeable • 𝑥𝑥 is the exponent or power.
perspectives.

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 ISC XI- Applied Mathematics

Definition
If ‘𝑎𝑎’ is a positive real number (except 1), 𝑛𝑛 is any real number and 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝑏𝑏 , then 𝑛𝑛 is called the logarithm of
𝑏𝑏 to the base 𝑎𝑎. It is written as log 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 ( read as logarithm or log of 𝑏𝑏 to the base 𝑎𝑎). Thus, log 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑛𝑛 means
𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝑏𝑏 , and if 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝑏𝑏 then log 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑛𝑛.
Therefore, 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏 = 𝒃𝒃  𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒂𝒂 𝒃𝒃 = 𝒏𝒏.
𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝑏𝑏 is called the exponential form and log 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑛𝑛 is called the logarithmic form.
For example,
Logarithms are only applicable to
2
10 = 100log10 100 = 2 positive values, and the base must be a
positive number that is not equal to 1.
10−2 = 0.01log10 0.01 = −2 This is due to the fact that exponents
50 = 1log 5 1 = 0 consistently yield positive outcomes for
positive bases. Negative or zero bases
1
92 = 3log 9 3 =
1 lead to undefined values in real numbers
2

Note:

• It is true (−2)2 =4. But the expression log −2 4 = 2 is invalid, because base cannot be negative. Here base
is −2.
• It is true (−2)3 = − 8. But the expression log −2(−8) = 3 is invalid, because the base as well as the
number is negative.
• In log 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 neither a nor b can be negative but the value log 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏can be negative. For example, log10 0.1 =
1
−1 , since 10−1 = = 0.1.
10
• log1 𝑎𝑎 is not defined because every power of 1 is 1, not equal to 𝑎𝑎.
• log 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 is meaningful, when 𝑏𝑏 > 0, 𝑎𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 1.
Further,
(a) If a > 1 , then
positive, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏 > 1
log 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 = � 0, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏 = 1
negative, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 0 < 𝑏𝑏 < 1

(b) If 0 < 𝑎𝑎 < 1 , then

positive, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 0 < 𝑏𝑏 < 1
log 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 = � 0, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏 = 1
negative, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏 > 1

Laws of logarithm
1. 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒂𝒂(𝒎𝒎 × 𝒏𝒏) = 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒂𝒂 𝒎𝒎 + 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒂𝒂 𝒏𝒏
i.e. the logarithm of the product of two quantities is equal to the sum of their logarithms taken
separately.
Corollary, log 𝑎𝑎 (𝑚𝑚 × 𝑛𝑛 × 𝑝𝑝 ×. . ) = log 𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚 + log 𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛 + log 𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝+. .
𝒎𝒎
2. 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒂𝒂 � � = 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒂𝒂 𝒎𝒎 − 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒂𝒂 𝒏𝒏
𝒏𝒏

i.e. the logarithm of the quotients of two quantities is equal to the difference of their logarithms taken
separately.
𝑚𝑚×𝑛𝑛
Corollary, log 𝑎𝑎 � �= log 𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚 + log 𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛 − log 𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝
𝑝𝑝
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3. 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒂𝒂(𝒎𝒎𝒏𝒏 ) = 𝒏𝒏. 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒂𝒂 𝒎𝒎

i.e. the logarithm of a power of a number is the product of the power and the logarithm of the number.
𝟏𝟏
4. 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏 (𝒎𝒎) = . 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒂𝒂 𝒎𝒎
𝒏𝒏

i.e. the logarithm a number to the base power of a number is the product of the reciprocal of the power
and the logarithm of the number.
𝒑𝒑
Corollary, 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒂𝒂𝒒𝒒 (𝒎𝒎𝒑𝒑 ) = . 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒂𝒂 𝒎𝒎
𝒒𝒒

5. 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒂𝒂 𝟏𝟏 = 0 and 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒂𝒂 𝒂𝒂 =1 for any positive real ‘𝑎𝑎’ except 1.

6. Change of base: log 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 = log 𝑐𝑐 𝑏𝑏 × log 𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐, where 𝑎𝑎 , 𝑏𝑏 , 𝑐𝑐 > 0; 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 1, 𝑐𝑐 ≠ 1
log𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏
This result may also be written as log 𝑐𝑐 𝑏𝑏 = .
log𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐
log𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 1
Corollary, if we substitute b = a in the above result, we get log 𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎 = = .
log𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐 log𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐

Thus, log 𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎 × log 𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐 = 1 , i.e. log 𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎 , log 𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐 are reciprocal to each other.
7. 𝒂𝒂𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒂𝒂 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒙𝒙

System of Logarithm
There are two main systems of logarithms: common logarithms and natural logarithms.

1. Common Logarithm
These logarithms use the base 10. Common logarithms are widely used in science and engineering because
base 10 aligns with our decimal number system.
They are often denoted as log(𝑥𝑥).
Any number (> 0 except 1) can be used as the base of logarithms and corresponding to any such base,
logarithms of all numbers (> 0) can be found. But for approximate numerical calculations, the base is always
taken to be 10 and the logarithm of a number with 10 as base is called common logarithm of that number. The
system of logarithms with 10 as base is known as common logarithms (log10 𝑥𝑥 ≈ log 𝑥𝑥).
The integral part of the logarithm of a positive number, after expressing the decimal part as non-negative, is
called characteristic, and the non-negative decimal part is called mantissa.
The logarithm log10 64 = 1.8062 consists of two parts:
• The integral part, known as the characteristic, which is 1.
• The decimal part, known as the mantissa, which is 0.8062.

The characteristic can be positive or negative, while the mantissa is always positive.

Rule to find out Characteristic of Logarithms

The logarithm of a number is partly integral (that is, it is an integer) and partly fractional.
The integer part of the logarithm, which indicates the order of magnitude (power of 10) of the original number.
The non-integral part of the logarithm, which represents the digits of the original number but not its order of
magnitude.

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• The characteristic and mantissa are used to locate the correct entry in the log table.
• The characteristic helps to determine the position of the decimal point in the result, which indicates the
order of magnitude (similar to the exponent in scientific notation) while the mantissa provides the
significant digits.

The purpose of the rules for characteristic and Mantissa: These guidelines are not random – they stem
from the connection between logarithms and scientific notation. The characteristic indicated the order of
magnitude (similar to the exponent in scientific notation), whereas the mantissa records the significant
digits.

Rule 1: For any number N ≥ 1, let the number of digits before the decimal be 𝑛𝑛. Then the characteristics of
log N will be (𝑛𝑛 − 1).
Example:

Number 3.278 32.78 328.7

No. of digit before decimal place(n) 1 2 3
Characteristics (n − 1) of log N 0 1 2

Rule 2: For any number N < 1, let the number of zeros immediately after the decimal be 𝑛𝑛. Then the
characteristic of log N will be − ( 𝑛𝑛 + 1) which is written as 𝑛𝑛 + 1 .
Example:

Number 0.251 0.0251 0.00251

No. of zeros immediately after decimal (𝑛𝑛) 0 1 2

Characteristic of log N 1 2 3
Remark: 3. 425 is not same as −3.425.

3. 425 = −3 + 0.425 = −2.575

and −3.425 = −3 − 0.425
Logarithmic Tables
In logarithmic tables, the mantissas of logarithms of numbers ranging from 10 to 99 with the base 10 are given.
Remark: The mantissa of the logarithm of a number does not change if the decimal point in the number is
shifted.
For example,
log 15.32 = 1.1853, log 153.2 = 2.1853, log 0.1532 = 1. 1853.
i.e. mantissas are same 0.1853.
Antilogarithm
The anti-logarithm of a number is the inverse process of finding the logarithms of the same number. If 𝑛𝑛 is the
logarithm of a number 𝑚𝑚 with a given base 𝑎𝑎, then 𝑚𝑚 is the anti-logarithm (antilog) of 𝑛𝑛 to the base 𝑎𝑎.
If 𝑛𝑛 = log 𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚 , then 𝑚𝑚 = antilog of 𝑛𝑛.
The antilogarithm of a number 𝑛𝑛 in common logarithm is the number 𝑚𝑚 if log10 𝑚𝑚 = 𝑛𝑛, and it is written as
antilog 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑚𝑚.

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Just as we have logarithmic tables, we also have antilogarithmic tables, which provide values for mantissas
ranging from 0 to .99. The method of reading antilogarithmic tables is similar to that of logarithmic tables.
Finding the Antilogarithm
To find the antilog of 2.5687:
1. Locate the value corresponding to the mantissa .5687 in the antilog table.

2. The value found is 3698 + 6 = 3704.

3. Since the characteristic is 2, place the decimal point after three digits: 370.4.
Example,
• antilog 1.861 = 72.61
• antilog 2.861 = 726.1
• antilog 1. 861 = 0.7261
The decimal placement depends on the characteristic of the logarithm.
Note:
The logarithms and anti-logarithms with base 10 can be converted into natural logarithms and anti-logarithms
by multiplying it by 2.303.

2. Natural Logarithm
The logarithm to the base ‘𝑒𝑒’ is called natural logarithm, where ‘e’ is an irrational number defined as
1 1 1
e = 1 + 1! + 2! + 3! + ⋯
We use ln 𝑥𝑥 to represent log 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥, and call ln 𝑥𝑥 the natural logarithm of 𝑥𝑥. The base 𝑒𝑒 which is approximately
equal to 2.718. Natural logarithm was discovered by Scottish mathematician John Napier.
Natural logarithms are particularly significant in mathematics, especially in calculus and exponential growth
or decay models.
The antilogarithm of a number 𝑛𝑛 in natural logarithm is the number 𝑚𝑚, if log 𝑒𝑒 𝑚𝑚 = 𝑛𝑛, and it is written as
antilog 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑚𝑚.

Applications of Logarithms
• Economics:
− Economic Growth: Natural logarithms are used to model and analyse economic growth, as many
economic processes exhibit exponential behaviour.
− Financial Modelling: In finance, they are essential for calculating compound interest, analysing
investment returns, and modelling asset prices.
− Econometrics: Natural logarithms are often used in econometric models to transform variables and
stabilize variance, making statistical analysis more reliable.
• Accounting:
− Depreciation: Natural logarithms can be used in certain depreciation calculations.
− Financial analysis: When analysing trends in financial data, logarithmic scales can be very useful
for showing rates of change.

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• Humanities:
− Demography: Population growth models often involve exponential functions and natural
logarithms.
− Linguistics: Natural logarithms can appear in statistical analyses of language, such as when studying
word frequency distributions.
− Archaeology: Radiocarbon dating, used to determine the age of ancient artifacts, relies on
exponential decay and natural logarithms.
− Information theory: The concept of entropy, which is fundamental in information theory, is defined
using natural logarithms.
• General importance:
− Natural logarithms are extremely important in calculus because the derivative of the natural log
function is very simple. This fact makes them very useful in many scientific and mathematical
models.
In essence, natural logarithms provide a powerful tool for understanding and modelling phenomena that
exhibit exponential growth or decay, which are prevalent in many areas of study.

Logarithmic scale
In a logarithmic scale, equally spaced major tick marks correspond to integer powers of a base number. We
often call these orders of magnitude.
For example, in the logarithmic scale given below, each major tick mark represents a power of 10.
The minor tick marks correspond to integer multiples of each power of 10. So, the minor tick marks between
101 to 102 represent 20, 30, 40, …… and so on.

• The distance between these major ticks is visually equal because the logarithm of 10 is 1, the logarithm
of 100 is 2, and so on, resulting in equal increments in the logarithmic value.
• The physical position of these minor ticks is determined by the logarithm of their value. Since the distance
on a log scale represents the logarithm of the ratio, the visual spacing between these minor ticks
becomes progressively smaller as the numbers approach the next major power of 10.
Logarithmic scales are useful when we want to represent both very large and very small numbers on the same
number line. They allow us to compare real world quantities or events which are many orders of magnitude
apart.
Solved Examples
1. Find the number of digits in 2100, given that log10 2 = 0.301.
Solution:

log10 2100 = 100 × log10 2 = 100 × 0.301 = 30.1

Hence, 2100 has 31 digits.

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1
2. Express in the form of ln 𝑎𝑎 , 𝑎𝑎 ∈ R: ln 9 − 1
2

Solution:
1 1 1 3
ln 9 − 1 = ln 32 − 1= × 2 ln 3 − 1= ln 3 − ln 𝑒𝑒 = ln � �.
2 2 2 𝑒𝑒

5√3
3. Suppose 𝑝𝑝 = log 𝑏𝑏 2 , 𝑞𝑞 = log 𝑏𝑏 3 and 𝑟𝑟 = log 𝑏𝑏 25. Write log 𝑏𝑏 � 2
� in terms of 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞 and 𝑟𝑟.

Solution:
𝑟𝑟
Given, 𝑝𝑝 = log 𝑏𝑏 2 , 𝑞𝑞 = log 𝑏𝑏 3 , 𝑟𝑟 = log 𝑏𝑏 25=log 𝑏𝑏 52= 2log 𝑏𝑏 5 ⇒ log 𝑏𝑏 5 =
2

5√3
log 𝑏𝑏 � � = log 𝑏𝑏 5 + log 𝑏𝑏 √3 − log 𝑏𝑏 2
2
1
= log 𝑏𝑏 5 + log 𝑏𝑏 32 − log 𝑏𝑏 2
1
= log 𝑏𝑏 5 + log 𝑏𝑏 3 − log 𝑏𝑏 2
2
𝑟𝑟 𝑞𝑞
= + − 𝑝𝑝.
2 2

4. If 𝑎𝑎4 + 𝑏𝑏 4 = 23𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏 2 ,show that log 𝑒𝑒 (𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏 2 ) = log 𝑒𝑒 5 + log 𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎 + log 𝑒𝑒 𝑏𝑏, where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 > 0.
Solution:
𝑎𝑎4 + 𝑏𝑏 4 =23𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏 2
 𝑎𝑎4 + 𝑏𝑏 4 + 2𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏 2 =25𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏 2
 (𝑎𝑎2 +𝑏𝑏 2 )2 = (5𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)2
 log 𝑒𝑒 (𝑎𝑎2 +𝑏𝑏 2 )2 = log 𝑒𝑒 (5𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)2
 2 log 𝑒𝑒 (𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏 2 ) = 2 log 𝑒𝑒 (5𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)
 log 𝑒𝑒 (𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏 2 ) = log 𝑒𝑒 5 + log 𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎 + log 𝑒𝑒 𝑏𝑏. Hence proved.
2
5. If log10 𝑥𝑥 − log10 √𝑥𝑥 = , find the value 𝑥𝑥.
log10 𝑥𝑥

Solution:
2
log10 𝑥𝑥 − log10 √𝑥𝑥 =
log10 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥 2
 log10 =
√𝑥𝑥 log10 𝑥𝑥
1
2
 log10 𝑥𝑥 2 =
log10 𝑥𝑥
1 2
 log10 𝑥𝑥 =
2 log10 𝑥𝑥
 (log10 𝑥𝑥)2 = 4 ⇒ log10 𝑥𝑥 = ±2

If log10 𝑥𝑥 = 2 then 𝑥𝑥 = 102 = 100

If log10 𝑥𝑥 = −2 then 𝑥𝑥 = 10−2 = 0.01
Hence, 𝑥𝑥 = 100, 0.01

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6. Given that ln(𝑥𝑥 4 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑎𝑎 and ln(𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 2 ) = 𝑏𝑏 , find ln �𝑦𝑦 in terms of 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏.
Solution:

Given, ln(𝑥𝑥 4 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑎𝑎

 𝑥𝑥 4 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎 .
ln(𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 2 ) = 𝑏𝑏

 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 2 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑏𝑏
𝑥𝑥 4 𝑦𝑦 4 𝑒𝑒 2𝑏𝑏
Eliminating 𝑥𝑥 , we get =
𝑥𝑥 4 𝑦𝑦 𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎
2𝑏𝑏−𝑎𝑎 2𝑏𝑏−𝑎𝑎
 𝑦𝑦 3 = 𝑒𝑒 2𝑏𝑏−𝑎𝑎 ⇒ 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 3 ⇒ �𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 6

2𝑏𝑏−𝑎𝑎
 ln �𝑦𝑦 = .
6

7. A farmer monitoring an insect plague finds that the area affected by the insects is given by A (𝑛𝑛)=
1000 × 20.7𝑛𝑛 hectares, where n is the number of weeks after the initial observation. Estimate the time
taken for the affected area to reach 5000 hectares.
Solution:
When A(n) = 5000,

1000 × 20.7𝑛𝑛 = 5000

 20.7𝑛𝑛 = 5
 0.7𝑛𝑛 = log 2 5
log10 5
 0.7𝑛𝑛 =
log10 2
log10 5 0.699
 𝑛𝑛 = = ≈ 3.32
0.7 ×log10 2 0.7×0.301

Therefore, it will take approximate 3 weeks 2 days.

8. Earthquakes can range from microscopic tremors to huge natural disasters. The magnitude of earthquakes
is measured on the Richter scale which relates to the energy released by the earthquake. For this
𝐼𝐼
logarithmic scale, the logarithm is part of the formula. Magnitude is calculated as M= log � � , where I
𝐼𝐼0
is the earthquake intensity and 𝐼𝐼0 is a reference intensity level.
(i) What does it mean for a tremor to have magnitude 1?
(ii) Find the magnitude of an earthquake which has half the intensity of an earthquake of magnitude 4.
Solution:
𝐼𝐼
(i) 1= log � �
𝐼𝐼0
𝐼𝐼
⇒101 =
𝐼𝐼0

⇒𝐼𝐼 = 10𝐼𝐼0
Therefore, a tremor to have magnitude 1 means its intensity I is 10 times greater than the reference intensity
𝐼𝐼0 .

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(ii) Magnitude of the 1st earthquake (𝑀𝑀1 )= 4

1
Intensity of the 2nd earthquake is half of the first. i.e. 𝐼𝐼2 = 𝐼𝐼1
2
𝐼𝐼
4= log �𝐼𝐼1 �
0
𝐼𝐼
⇒104 = 𝐼𝐼1
0
2𝐼𝐼2 𝐼𝐼2
⇒104 = 𝐼𝐼0
⇒ 𝐼𝐼0
= 0.5× 104

𝑀𝑀2 = log10(0.5 × 104 ) = 3.699

The magnitude of the earthquake with the half the intensity is 3.699.

9. Problems related to Compound Interest

A person invests ₹10,000 in a bank at an annual interest rate of 5% compounded annually. How many years
will it take for the investment to double?
Solution:
The amount when interest is compounded is obtained as 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑃𝑃(1 + 𝑟𝑟)𝑡𝑡
Where:
• A = final amount
• P = principal (initial investment)
• r = interest rate (as a decimal)
• t = number of years
Since the amount needs to double:
 2𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃(1 + 0.05)𝑡𝑡
 2 = (1.05)𝑡𝑡
Taking logarithm on both sides:
 log 2 = t log(1.05)
log 2
 𝑡𝑡 =
log 1.05

Using log values:

0.3010
 𝑡𝑡 = ≈ 14.2
0.0212

It will take approximately 14 years for the investment to double.

10. Inflation and Purchasing Power

The inflation rate is 6% per year. If an item costs ₹1,000 today, how much will it cost after 10 years? (Use,
log 1.06 = 0.0253)

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Solution:
The formula for inflation growth is similar to finding amount at compound interest:
𝐴𝐴 = 𝑃𝑃(1 + 𝑟𝑟) 𝑡𝑡
 In the given situation, 𝐴𝐴 = 1000(1.06)10
Taking logarithm on both sides:
 log 𝐴𝐴 = log 1000 + 10 log(1.06)
 log 𝐴𝐴 = 3 + 10 × 0.0253
 log 𝐴𝐴 = 3.253
 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 3.253 ≈ 1791
 𝐴𝐴 = 103.253 ≈ 1791
Thus, the item will cost ₹1,791 in 10 years.

Exercises
1. Choose the correct option:
(i) If log 2 = 0.3010 , the number of digits in 3210 are
(a) 15 (c) 14
(b) 16 (d) Both (a) and (b)

(ii) ln�𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎 × 𝑒𝑒 𝑏𝑏 � = ?
(a) 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (c) 𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎+ 𝑏𝑏
(b) 𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (d) 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏

(iii) log10 25 + log10 4 =

(a) log 4 16 (c) log 2
(b) log 2 8 (d) log 25 5

(iv) Consider the following statements:

1
Statement 1: log 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 and log 𝑎𝑎 � � are additive inverses to each other.
𝑏𝑏
Statement 2: 1 is the only value of 𝑥𝑥 for which log 𝑥𝑥 = ln 𝑥𝑥 .
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are true?
(a) Only 1 (c) Both 1 and 2.
(b) Only 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2.

(v) Assertion: log 𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛 × log 𝑛𝑛 𝑚𝑚2 = 2

log𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎
Reason: log 𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎 = , for 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 > 0
log𝑐𝑐 𝑏𝑏

(a) Both A and R individually true and R is the correct explanation of A.

(b) Both A and R individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.

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2. Find the position of first significant digit in 2−37.

3. Suppose log 2 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑥𝑥 , log 2 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑦𝑦 and log 2 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑧𝑧. Write in terms of 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑦𝑦 and 𝑧𝑧:
(a) log 2 �𝑃𝑃2 �𝑄𝑄� 𝑅𝑅2 �𝑄𝑄
(b) log 2 � 𝑃𝑃3
�

4. If log 𝑡𝑡 𝑀𝑀 = 1.29 and log 𝑡𝑡 𝑁𝑁 2 = 1.72, find

(a) log 𝑡𝑡 (𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀) (b) log 𝑡𝑡 �
𝑁𝑁 2
�
√𝑀𝑀

5. Express in the form of ln 𝑎𝑎 , 𝑎𝑎 ∈ R:

(a) 3ln 2 − ln 8
(b) 4ln 2 + 2
1
(c) −3ln 2 +
2

6. Show that:
𝑒𝑒
(a) ln � � = 1 − ln 5
5
√3 1
(b) ln � 𝑒𝑒 4 � = ln 3 − 4
2
1 1
(c) ln � 3 � = −4 ln 2 −
16× √𝑒𝑒 3

𝑥𝑥
7. Find 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 given that ln � � = 6 and ln(𝑥𝑥 3 𝑦𝑦 4 ) = 4.
𝑦𝑦

𝑥𝑥−𝑦𝑦 1
8. Suppose 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 52𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 where 0 < 𝑦𝑦 < 𝑥𝑥. Show that log � � = (log 𝑥𝑥 + log 2𝑦𝑦)
5 2

9. Solve for 𝑥𝑥:

(a) log 20 𝑥𝑥 = 1 + log 20 10
(b) log 1 𝑥𝑥 = log 9 5
9

(c) log16(𝑥𝑥 5 ) = log 64 125 − log 4 √𝑥𝑥

10. Let 𝑥𝑥 = log 2 7

(a) Write the equation without logarithms.
(b) Take the logarithm in base 10 of both sides of your equation from (a).
log 7
Hence show that log 2 7 = , and calculate this number.
log 2

11. A population of seals is given by P(t) = 80× (1.15)𝑡𝑡 , where t is the time in years, t≥ 0. Find the time
required for the population to double the size.

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12. Earthquakes can range from microscopic tremors to

huge natural disasters. The magnitude of earthquakes is
measured on the Richter scale which relates to the
energy released by the earthquake. For this logarithmic
scale, the logarithm is part of the formula. Magnitude is
𝐼𝐼
calculated as M= log � � , where I is the earthquake
𝐼𝐼0
intensity and 𝐼𝐼0 is a reference intensity level.
(i) What does it mean for a tremor to have magnitude
0?
(ii) Explain why an earthquake of magnitude 6 is not twice as intense as magnitude 3.

13. A car costing ₹8,00,000 depreciates at a rate of 10% per year. What will be its value after 5 years? (Use,
log 0.9 = −0.046)

14. A person takes a home loan from the bank of ₹5,00,000 at an annual interest rate of 7%, to be repaid in
15 years. The formula for EMI calculation of the bank is given by
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃(1+𝑟𝑟)𝑛𝑛
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = (1+𝑟𝑟)𝑛𝑛 −1 . Find the monthly instalment (EMI). (Use, log 1.006 = 0.003)

Answers
1. (i) (𝑏𝑏) (ii) (𝑑𝑑) (iii)(𝑎𝑎) (iv) (𝑐𝑐) (v) (𝑎𝑎)
2. 12
1 1
3. (a) 2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 (b) 2𝑧𝑧 + 𝑦𝑦 − 3𝑥𝑥
2 2

4. (a) 2.15 (b) 1.075

√𝑒𝑒
5. (a) ln(1) (b) ln(16𝑒𝑒 2 ) (c) ln � �
8

7. 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 4 ; 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 −2 .
1 3
9. (a) 𝑥𝑥 = 200 (b) 𝑥𝑥 = (c) 𝑥𝑥 = √5
5

10. (a) 2𝑥𝑥 = 7 (b) 𝑥𝑥 = 2.807

1
11. 4.96 years ≈ 4 years 11 months.
2

12. (a) A tremor with magnitude 0 has an intensity equal to the reference intensity 𝐼𝐼0 .
(b) Magnitude of an earthquake twice as intense as magnitude 3 is 3.301 ≠ 6.
13. Rs 4,71,000
14. Rs 4216

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Project Work
1. Logarithmic scales are these weird scales where the distance between 0.1 and 1 is as big as the distance
between 1 and 10 and 100,000 and 1,000,000.

These marks – 0.1, 1, 10, 100, etc. show us order of magnitudes.

For the logarithmic scale given below,
(i) State the values of the points A, B and C.
(ii) Explain why the minor tick marks in a
logarithmic scale are not equally spaced.
(iii) Where is the value 0 on a logarithmic scale? Justify your answer.

2. The scale given below is logarithmic with base 10. The major
tick mark “2” represents the value 102 , the major tick mark
“3” represents the value 103 , and so on.
(i) How many times larger is the value C than the value
at B?
(ii) Estimate the position on the scale representing the value:
• 10 times smaller than A
• Twice as large as B

( c) Sound intensity
Sound is measured using a unit called decibel (dB). Decibels are measured on a log scale where the logarithm
involved compares the power level of a sound to the power level of the softest sound a human ear can hear.
The lowest audible sound, with intensity 10−12 watts/𝑚𝑚2 is assigned value of 0. A sound that is 10 times
louder than this is assigned a decibel value of 10. A sound 100(102 ) times louder is assigned decibel value of
20, and so on. In general, an increase of 10 decibels corresponds to an increase in magnitude of 10.
The sound intensity score is calculated using the
following formula:
𝑰𝑰
L = 10 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 , where the logarithm base is 10 and
𝑰𝑰𝟎𝟎
L is the sound intensity score measured in decibels.
I is the intensity of the sound in watts per square
meter.
I0 = 10−12 is the intensity of sound that is barely
audible to the human ear.
Refer the image of Inter State Bus Terminal
If the sound of a normal speaking voice is 50
decibels, and the sound in bus terminal is 80
decibels, then the bus terminal is 1000 times
louder to the specking voice. Can you verify?

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HISTORICAL NOTE

Acharya Virasena was an 8th century Indian Mathematician. Among other areas, he worked with the
concept of Ardhaccheda, which is how many times a number of the form 2𝑛𝑛 can be divided by 2. The
result is the integer n and is the logarithm of the number 2𝑛𝑛 in base 2.
In 1544, the German Michael Stifel published Arithmetica Integra which contains a table expressing
many other integers as powers of 2. In effect, he had created an early version of a logarithmic table.
Logarithms were first discovered by John Napier in the early 1600s and first published in a Latin book
which translates as Description of the Wonderful Canon of Logarithms. He introduced them as a way to
simplify calculations, especially for astronomers. Multiplying large numbers was tedious, and
logarithms turned these into addition problems. This revolutionary concept paved the way for advances
in mathematics, engineering, and science.
In the 17th century, Henry Briggs refined the logarithmic tables, introducing the common logarithms we
use today (base 10). From ancient navigation to modern computational algorithms, logarithms have had
a profound impact.
Kepler and Newton integrated logarithms into scientific discoveries, while Euler provided the modern
framework used today. Thus, the development of logarithms was a gradual process, shaped by centuries
of mathematical advancements from Indian, German, Scottish, and English scholars, culminating in
one of the most fundamental tools in mathematics.

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 ISC XI- Applied Mathematics

(ii) Complex Numbers

SCOPE

Introduction of complex numbers and their representation, Algebraic properties of complex

numbers. Argand plane and polar representation of complex numbers.
• Conjugate, modulus and argument of complex numbers and their properties.
• Sum, difference, product and quotient of two complex numbers additive and multiplicative
inverse of a complex number.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Students will be able to:

• define imaginary numbers and complex numbers.
• understand the algebra of complex numbers.
• represent complex number on argand plane.

PRE-REQUISITES

• Difference between two squares factorization.

Introduction
Consider the quadratic equation 𝑥𝑥 2 + 4 = 0.
Can you find real values that are solutions of the equation? Explain why, or why not.
Mathematicians define the imaginary number 𝑖𝑖 such that 𝑖𝑖 2 = −1, therefore you can write 𝑖𝑖 = √−1
Can you use this fact to solve the quadratic equation , expressing your answer in terms of 𝑖𝑖?

The letter 𝒊𝒊 is used to represent the imaginary number √−𝟏𝟏

Solutions of any equation 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0, 𝑐𝑐 > 0, can be written as 𝑥𝑥 = ±√−𝑐𝑐 = ±𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖, 𝑑𝑑 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 + . We call these
imaginary numbers.
By defining 𝑖𝑖 2 = −1, you hace developed a whole new avenue of algebra that you are going to use in this
chapter.
Complex numbers were first introduced when mathematicians were trying to solve certain cubic equations.
However, as you have seen in the above investigation, complex numbers also allow you to find solutions to
any quadratic equation, regardless of the value of its discriminant.
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Definition: Any number of the form 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ R and 𝑖𝑖 = √−1 , is called a complex number.
Notice that:
• All real numbers can be written as complex numbers by simply choosing 𝑏𝑏 = 0.
• In the special case 𝑎𝑎 = 0, we have a number of the form 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ R. We say this number is purely
imaginary.

Real and Imaginary Parts

If 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ R, then
• 𝑎𝑎 is the real part of 𝑧𝑧, written 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(𝑧𝑧) = 𝑎𝑎
• 𝑏𝑏 is the imaginary part of z, written 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼(𝑧𝑧) = 𝑏𝑏.

Complex Conjugates
Suppose 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ R.
The complex conjugate of 𝑧𝑧 is 𝑧𝑧̅ = 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
Note that: 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(𝑧𝑧̅) = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 (𝑧𝑧) 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼(𝑧𝑧̅) = −𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼(𝑧𝑧)
For example if 𝑧𝑧 = 3 + 2𝑖𝑖 then 𝑧𝑧̅ = 3 − 2𝑖𝑖. Also if 𝑧𝑧 = −5𝑖𝑖 then 𝑧𝑧̅ = 5𝑖𝑖.

Working with imaginary 𝒊𝒊

With 𝑖𝑖 = √−1 defined we can expand our rules for square roots to include negative numbers.
Also, with 𝑖𝑖 = √−1 ⇒ 𝑖𝑖 2 = −1 ⇒ 𝑖𝑖 3 = 𝑖𝑖 2 × 𝑖𝑖 = −𝑖𝑖 ⇒ 𝑖𝑖 4 = 𝑖𝑖 2 × 𝑖𝑖 2 = (−1)(−1) = 1
i , when n = 4k + 1
−1, when n = 4k + 2
Hence , 𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛 =�
−i, when n = 4k + 3
, 𝑘𝑘 = 0,1,2,3, ..
1, when n = 4k

Note:
• (1 + 𝑖𝑖)2 = 1 + 𝑖𝑖 2 + 2𝑖𝑖 = 1 − 1 + 2𝑖𝑖 = 2𝑖𝑖
• (1 − 𝑖𝑖)2 = 1 + 𝑖𝑖 2 + 2𝑖𝑖 = 1 − 1 − 2𝑖𝑖 = −2𝑖𝑖

Solved Examples

Example 1: Write in terms of 𝑖𝑖 ∶

(a) √−64 (b) −√−5
Solution :

(a) √−64 = √64 × −1 = 8√−1 = 8𝑖𝑖

(b) −√−5 = −√5 × −1 = −√5√−1 = −√5𝑖𝑖

Example 2: Simplify 𝑖𝑖 4𝑛𝑛+3 where n is an integer.

Solution :
𝑖𝑖 4𝑛𝑛+3 = 𝑖𝑖 4𝑛𝑛 × 𝑖𝑖 3 = (𝑖𝑖 4 )𝑛𝑛 × (−𝑖𝑖) = −𝑖𝑖

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 ISC XI- Applied Mathematics

1 2
Example 3: Evalaute: �𝑖𝑖 19 + �
𝑖𝑖

1 2 1×𝑖𝑖 2 1×𝑖𝑖 2
Solution : �𝑖𝑖19 + � = �−𝑖𝑖 + � = �−𝑖𝑖 + � = [−𝑖𝑖 − 𝑖𝑖]2 = [−2𝑖𝑖]2 = 4𝑖𝑖 2 = −4
𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖 2 𝑖𝑖 2

The sum of two squares factorisation

We have previously used the difference between two squares factorisation
𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑏𝑏 2 = (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)(𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏)
However, without = √−1 we have been unable to factorise the sum of two squares.
Now, 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏 2 = 𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑖𝑖 2 𝑏𝑏2 [ as 𝑖𝑖 2 = −1]
= (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)(𝑎𝑎 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) [ the difference between two squares]
Thus, the sum of two squares factorisation is (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)(𝑎𝑎 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖).

Solved Examples

Example 4: Write as a product of linear factors: 4𝑥𝑥 2 + 1

Solution : Given, 4𝑥𝑥 2 + 1

= (2𝑥𝑥)2 − 𝑖𝑖 2 = (2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖)(2𝑥𝑥 − 𝑖𝑖)

Example 5: Solve for x by factorisation: 9𝑥𝑥 2 + 16 = 0

Solution : Given, 9𝑥𝑥 2 + 16 = 0

⇒ (3𝑥𝑥)2 − (4𝑖𝑖)2
⇒ (3𝑥𝑥 + 4𝑖𝑖)(3𝑥𝑥 − 4𝑖𝑖) = 0
4𝑖𝑖
∴ 𝑥𝑥 = ±
3

Equality of complex numbers

Two complex numbers are equal when their real parts are equal, and their imaginary parts are equal.
𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ⇔ 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑑𝑑
For the complex number 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖, where 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏 are real ⇔ 𝑎𝑎 = 0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 = 0.

Solved Examples

Example 6 Find exact real numbers 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 such that (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)(2 − 𝑖𝑖) = 8 + 𝑖𝑖
Solution : Given, (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)(2 − 𝑖𝑖) = 8 + 𝑖𝑖
8+𝑖𝑖 2+𝑖𝑖 16+10𝑖𝑖−1
⇒ 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = × = = 3 + 2𝑖𝑖
2−𝑖𝑖 2+𝑖𝑖 4−𝑖𝑖 2

Equating Re and Im parts we get, 𝑥𝑥 = 3, 𝑦𝑦 = 2.

Additive Inverse of a complex number

Let 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖, 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 be a complex number.
Additive inverse of z is −𝑧𝑧 i.e. −(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)

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Multiplicative Inverse of a complex number

Let 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖, 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 be a complex number.
1 1 (𝑎𝑎−𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑎𝑎−𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 −𝑏𝑏
Multiplicative inverse of 𝑧𝑧 is i.e. = (𝑎𝑎+𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)(𝑎𝑎−𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) = = + 𝑖𝑖 � �.
𝑧𝑧 𝑎𝑎+𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 2 +𝑏𝑏2 𝑎𝑎 2 +𝑏𝑏2 𝑎𝑎 2 +𝑏𝑏2

Operations with complex numbers

Let 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖, 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 and 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖, 𝑐𝑐, 𝑑𝑑 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 be two complex numbers.
Additition:(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) + (𝑐𝑐 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) = (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑐𝑐) + 𝑖𝑖(𝑏𝑏 + 𝑑𝑑)
Subtraction:(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) − (𝑐𝑐 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) = (𝑎𝑎 − 𝑐𝑐) + 𝑖𝑖(𝑏𝑏 − 𝑑𝑑)
Multiplication:(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) × (𝑐𝑐 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) = (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏) + 𝑖𝑖(𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)
𝑎𝑎+𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎+𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐−𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏)+𝑖𝑖(𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏−𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)
Division: = × = 𝑐𝑐 2 +𝑑𝑑2
𝑐𝑐+𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐+𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐−𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

Solved Examples

Example 1: For 𝑧𝑧1 = 1 + 𝑖𝑖 and 𝑧𝑧2 = −2 + 3𝑖𝑖, find in simplest form:

(a) 𝑧𝑧1 3 (b) 𝑖𝑖𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2
Solution :

(a)𝑧𝑧1 3 = (1 + 𝑖𝑖)3 = (1 + 𝑖𝑖)2 (1 + 𝑖𝑖) = 2𝑖𝑖(1 + 𝑖𝑖) = −2 + 2𝑖𝑖

(b) 𝑖𝑖𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑖𝑖(1 + 𝑖𝑖)(−2 + 3𝑖𝑖) = (−1 + 𝑖𝑖)(−2 + 3𝑖𝑖) = −1 − 5𝑖𝑖

Example 2: For 𝑧𝑧1 = 2 + 𝑖𝑖 and 𝑧𝑧2 = −1 + 2𝑖𝑖, find

(a) Additive inverse of 4𝑧𝑧1 −3𝑧𝑧2.
(b) Multiplicaive inverse of 𝑖𝑖𝑧𝑧1 2 .
(c) Re(𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 )
𝑧𝑧
(d) Im� 1 �
𝑧𝑧2

Solution :
(a) 4𝑧𝑧1 −3𝑧𝑧2
= 4(2 + 𝑖𝑖) − 3(−1 + 2𝑖𝑖)
= 11 − 2𝑖𝑖
∴ Required additive inverse =−(11 − 2𝑖𝑖) = −11 + 2𝑖𝑖

(b) 𝑖𝑖𝑧𝑧1 2 = 𝑖𝑖(2 + 𝑖𝑖)2 = 𝑖𝑖(3 + 4𝑖𝑖) = −4 + 3𝑖𝑖

1 −(4+3𝑖𝑖) −(4+3𝑖𝑖) 4 3
∴ Required multiplicative inverse = = (−4+3𝑖𝑖)(−4−3𝑖𝑖) = =− + 𝑖𝑖 �− �
−4+3𝑖𝑖 25 25 25

(c) 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = (2 + 𝑖𝑖)(−1 + 2𝑖𝑖)

= −4 + 3𝑖𝑖
∴ Re(𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 )= −4.
𝑧𝑧1 2+𝑖𝑖
(d) =
𝑧𝑧2 −1+2𝑖𝑖

2+𝑖𝑖 −1−2𝑖𝑖
= ×
−1+2𝑖𝑖 −1−2𝑖𝑖
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0−5𝑖𝑖
= = −𝑖𝑖
5

𝑧𝑧
∴ Im�𝑧𝑧1 � = −1
2

Properties of complex conjugates

• ����
(𝑧𝑧̅) = 𝑧𝑧.
• ������
(𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 ) = (𝑧𝑧̅)𝑛𝑛
• 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑧𝑧̅ and 𝑧𝑧. 𝑧𝑧̅ are real
• ������������
(𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 ) = 𝑧𝑧�1 + 𝑧𝑧�2
• ������������
(𝑧𝑧1 − 𝑧𝑧2 ) = 𝑧𝑧�1 − 𝑧𝑧�2
• ���������
(𝑧𝑧1 . 𝑧𝑧2 ) = 𝑧𝑧�1 . 𝑧𝑧�2
�����
𝑧𝑧 ���
𝑧𝑧1
• � 1� = ���
,𝑧𝑧2 ≠ 0
𝑧𝑧2 𝑧𝑧2

Solved Examples

𝑎𝑎+𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 2 +𝑏𝑏2
Example 1: If = 𝑝𝑝 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 , prove that 𝑝𝑝2 + 𝑞𝑞 2 = .
𝑐𝑐+𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐 2 +𝑑𝑑 2
𝑎𝑎+𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
Solution : Given , = 𝑝𝑝 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ------------------------ (i)
𝑐𝑐+𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

��������
𝑎𝑎+𝚤𝚤𝚤𝚤
Applying conjugate we get, � ��������
� = 𝑝𝑝 + 𝚤𝚤𝚤𝚤
𝑐𝑐+𝚤𝚤𝚤𝚤
�������
𝑎𝑎+𝚤𝚤𝚤𝚤
⇒ �������
𝑐𝑐+𝚤𝚤𝚤𝚤
= 𝑝𝑝 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑎𝑎−𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
⇒ = 𝑝𝑝 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ---------------------- (ii)
𝑐𝑐−𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

(𝑎𝑎+𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)(𝑎𝑎−𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)
(i) × (ii) ⇒ (𝑐𝑐+𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)(𝑐𝑐−𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) = (𝑝𝑝 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)(𝑝𝑝 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)

𝑎𝑎 2 +𝑏𝑏2
⇒ 𝑐𝑐 2 +𝑑𝑑 2
= 𝑝𝑝2 + 𝑞𝑞 2 . Hence proved.

𝑧𝑧̅ +2
Example 2: If 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 and real part of is 4, show that 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 2 = 0.
𝑧𝑧̅ −1

Solution : Given 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖.

𝑧𝑧̅ +2 (𝑥𝑥+2)−𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (𝑥𝑥+2)−𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (𝑥𝑥−1)+𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
Now, = (𝑥𝑥−1)−𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = (𝑥𝑥−1)−𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 × (𝑥𝑥−1)+𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑧𝑧̅ −1

�𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑥𝑥−2+𝑦𝑦 2 �+𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖(𝑥𝑥+2−𝑥𝑥+1)

= (𝑥𝑥−1)2 +𝑦𝑦2

𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦2 +𝑥𝑥−2 3𝑦𝑦

= (𝑥𝑥−1)2 +𝑦𝑦2
+ 𝑖𝑖 (𝑥𝑥−1)2 +𝑦𝑦 2

𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦 2 +𝑥𝑥−2
As per question, (𝑥𝑥−1)2 +𝑦𝑦 2
=4

⇒ 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 2 = 4[𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 1 + 𝑦𝑦 2 ]

⇒ 3𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑦𝑦 2 − 9𝑥𝑥 + 6 = 0

⇒ 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 2 = 0. Hence proved.

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Exercises
1. Choose the correct option.
(i) 1 + 𝑖𝑖 2 + 𝑖𝑖 4 + 𝑖𝑖 8 =
(a) 0 (c) 𝑖𝑖
(b) 1 (d) 2

(ii) Imaginary part of multiplicative inverse of (𝑖𝑖 + 1)2 is

(a) 0 (c)
1
1 2
(b) − (d) −2
2

1−𝑖𝑖 100
(iii) Real part of � � is?
1+𝑖𝑖

(a) 0 (c) 100

(b) 1 (d) −𝑖𝑖

(iv) For any complex number 𝑧𝑧:

𝑧𝑧 + 𝑧𝑧̅
Statement 1: Re(z) = 2𝑖𝑖
𝑧𝑧−𝑧𝑧̅
Statement 2: Im(z) = 2

Which of the statement(s) given above is/are true?

(a) Only 1 (c) Both 1 and 2
(b) Only 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

(v) Assertion: If (1 + 𝑖𝑖)(2 + 2𝑖𝑖)(3 + 3𝑖𝑖)(4 + 4𝑖𝑖) = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖, 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑅𝑅, then 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑦 2 = 9216
Reason: For any complex number 𝑧𝑧, 𝑧𝑧. 𝑧𝑧̅ are real
(a) Both A and R individually true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.

2. Copy and complete:

𝑧𝑧 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(𝑧𝑧) 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼(𝑧𝑧) 𝑧𝑧̅
5 − 𝑖𝑖
0
−11𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖√2

3. Explain the fallacy: −1 = 𝑖𝑖. 𝑖𝑖 = √−1. √−1.= √−1 × −1 = √1 =1.

4. If 𝑧𝑧̅ = 𝑧𝑧, then show that z is purely imaginary.

1 1
5. Write (2+𝑖𝑖)2 − (2−𝑖𝑖)2 in the form of 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖.

2−3𝑖𝑖
6. Find rational numbers 𝑎𝑎 and b such that = 3 + 2𝑖𝑖.
2𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

5 3
7. If 𝑧𝑧 = � − 3 − 2𝑖𝑖� , express 𝑧𝑧 in the form 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖, 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑧𝑧.
2−𝑖𝑖

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8. Find real 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 such that (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)2 = 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖.

9. Write (1 + 𝑖𝑖)4 in simplest form. Hence find (1 + 𝑖𝑖)101 in simplest form.

10. Solve for 𝑥𝑥: 4𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑥𝑥 = 0.

11. Solve for 𝑧𝑧: 𝑧𝑧 2 − (2 + 𝑖𝑖)𝑧𝑧 + 3 + 𝑖𝑖 = 0.

𝑧𝑧+𝑢𝑢
12. Suppose 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑖𝑖 and 𝑢𝑢 = 3 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 where 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 ∈ R. Find the smallest positive value of 𝑥𝑥 for which
𝑧𝑧−𝑢𝑢
is purely imaginary.

Answers
1. (i) (d) (ii) (b) (iii) (b) (iv) (d) (v) (b)
2.

𝑧𝑧 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(𝑧𝑧) 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼(𝑧𝑧) 𝑧𝑧̅

5 − 𝑖𝑖 5 −1 5
+ 𝑖𝑖
0 0 0 0
−11𝑖𝑖 0 −11 11𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖√2 0 √2 − 𝑖𝑖√2
8
5. − 𝑖𝑖
25

6. 𝑎𝑎 = 0, 𝑏𝑏 = −1
7. 2 + (−2)𝑖𝑖.
1 √3
8. 𝑥𝑥 = − ; 𝑦𝑦 = ±
2 2

9. −4; −425 (1 + 𝑖𝑖)

𝑖𝑖
10. 0, ±
2

11. 𝑧𝑧 = 1 + 2𝑖𝑖 or 1 − 𝑖𝑖

12. 𝑥𝑥 = √5

Geometrical representation of complex numbers

Since a complex number 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ R and 𝑖𝑖 = √−1 , is the combination of two real numbers a
and 𝑏𝑏 in a speicfied order, and since the position of a point P on a plane is also speicfied by two co-ordinates
(𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏), it may be possible to establish a unique correspondence between the complex number 𝑧𝑧 and the position
of a point on the plane. Thus, if we represent the real part 𝑎𝑎 of 𝑧𝑧 on the 𝑥𝑥-axis and the imaginary part 𝑏𝑏 of 𝑧𝑧
on the 𝑦𝑦-axis, then a point P having coordinate (𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏) may be said to
have a complex co-ordinate 𝑧𝑧 corresponding to the complex number
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖.
The axis of 𝑥𝑥 is called the real axis and the axis of 𝑦𝑦, the imaginary
axis. The 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥-plane is called the 𝑧𝑧-plane or the complex plane. The
diagram by which the complex number is geometrically represented, is
called the Argand Diagram.

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Modulus
Now, if OP= 𝑟𝑟 then 𝑟𝑟 = √𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏 2
Here, the length OP represents the modulus of z. b

Thus modulus of the complex number 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 is the a

length OP, which is real number

|𝑧𝑧| = √𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏 2 i.e |𝑧𝑧| = �(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅)2 + (𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼)2

Properties of Modulus
• |𝑧𝑧̅| = |𝑧𝑧|
• |𝑧𝑧|2 = 𝑧𝑧. 𝑧𝑧̅
• |𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 | = |𝑧𝑧1 ||𝑧𝑧2 |
𝑧𝑧 |𝑧𝑧 |
• �𝑧𝑧1� = |𝑧𝑧1| provided |𝑧𝑧2 | ≠ 0
2 2

• |𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 𝑧𝑧3 … . 𝑧𝑧𝑛𝑛 | = |𝑧𝑧1 ||𝑧𝑧2 ||𝑧𝑧3 | … |𝑧𝑧𝑛𝑛 | and |𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 | = |𝑧𝑧|𝑛𝑛 for 𝑛𝑛 ∈ 𝑍𝑍 +

Argument
Also, if ∠XOP = 𝜃𝜃 then we have evidently 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑟𝑟 cos 𝜃𝜃, 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜃𝜃
𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦
∴ cos 𝜃𝜃 = , sin 𝜃𝜃 = ⇒ tan 𝜃𝜃 = .
�𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦 2 �𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦 2 𝑥𝑥

Hence, the angle 𝜃𝜃 represents its argument/amplitude.

For any non-zero complex number 𝑧𝑧, there corresponds only one value of 𝜃𝜃 in −𝜋𝜋 < 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝜋𝜋. The unique
value of 𝜃𝜃 such that −𝜋𝜋 < 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝜋𝜋 is called principal value of amplitude or argument.

Note: We specify the domain restriction −𝜋𝜋 < 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝜋𝜋 to avoid confusion with the infinitely many
possibilities for 𝜃𝜃 which are 2𝜋𝜋 apart. This guarantees that z → arg z =𝜃𝜃 is a function.

Method to find the principal value of amplitude of a complex number

Case-I When 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖, where 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0, 𝑏𝑏 ≠ 0, 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝑅𝑅
𝑏𝑏
First find an acute angle 𝛼𝛼 (in radian measure) such that tan 𝛼𝛼 = � �.
𝑎𝑎

(a) If 𝑎𝑎 > 0 , 𝑏𝑏 > 0, i.e. 𝑧𝑧 lies in the first quadrant (refer the diagram
below).
amp(z) = 𝜽𝜽 = 𝜶𝜶
Note: Here we are measuring the angle 𝜽𝜽 in anticlockwise direction.

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(b) If 𝑎𝑎 < 0 , 𝑏𝑏 > 0, i.e. 𝑧𝑧 lies in the second quadrant (refer the diagram below).
amp(z) = 𝜽𝜽 = 𝝅𝝅 − 𝜶𝜶 a<0
b>0
Note: Here we are measuring the angle 𝜽𝜽 in anticlockwise direction.

(c) If 𝑎𝑎 < 0 , 𝑏𝑏 < 0, i.e. 𝑧𝑧 lies in the third quadrant (refer the diagram below).
amp(z) = 𝜽𝜽 = −𝝅𝝅 + 𝜶𝜶
Note: Here we are measuring the angle 𝜽𝜽 in clockwise direction.

(d) If 𝑎𝑎 > 0 , 𝑏𝑏 < 0, i.e. 𝑧𝑧 lies in the fourth quadrant (refer the diagram
below).
amp(z) = 𝜽𝜽 = −𝜶𝜶
Note: Here we are measuring the angle 𝜽𝜽 in clockwise direction.

Case-II When 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖, where 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0, 𝑏𝑏 = 0, 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝑅𝑅

Here 𝑧𝑧 is lies on 𝑥𝑥-axis/real axis, i.e. 𝑧𝑧 is real number.
(a) If 𝑎𝑎 > 0, then 𝑧𝑧 lies on the positive 𝑥𝑥-axis. (refer the diagram below).

amp(z) = 𝜽𝜽 = 𝟎𝟎

(b) If 𝑎𝑎 < 0, then 𝑧𝑧 lies on the negative 𝑥𝑥-axis. (refer the diagram below).

amp(z) = 𝜽𝜽 = 𝝅𝝅

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Case-III When 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖, where 𝑎𝑎 = 0, 𝑏𝑏 ≠ 0, 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝑅𝑅

Here 𝑧𝑧 is lies on 𝑦𝑦-axis/imaginary, i.e. 𝑧𝑧 is purely imaginary number.
(a) If 𝑏𝑏 > 0, then 𝑧𝑧 lies on the positive 𝑦𝑦-axis. (refer the diagram below).
𝝅𝝅
amp(z) = 𝜽𝜽 =
𝟐𝟐

(b) If 𝑏𝑏 < 0, then 𝑧𝑧 lies on the negative 𝑦𝑦-axis. (refer the diagram below).
𝝅𝝅
amp(z) = 𝜽𝜽 = −
𝟐𝟐

Polar representation of complex numbers

Thus, every(non-zero) complex number 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 can be uniquely
expressed as
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟(cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃) where 𝑟𝑟 > 0 and −𝜋𝜋 < 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝜋𝜋 and
conversely, for every 𝑟𝑟 > 0 and 𝜃𝜃 such that −𝜋𝜋 < 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝜋𝜋, we get a
unique(non-zero) complex number 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟(cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃) = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖.
Polar form is also called modulus-argument form.
Note:

• Whenever we use the words amplitude of a complex number it will mean the principal value of
amplitude.
• The complex number 0 cannot be put into the form 𝑟𝑟(cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃) and so the argument of the
complex number does not exist.

Solved Examples

Example 1: Find |𝑧𝑧| and 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧 for 𝑧𝑧 equal to:

(a) 2 + 𝑖𝑖 (b) − 2 − 𝑖𝑖
Solution: (a) Given z = 2 + 𝑖𝑖

∴ |𝑧𝑧| = √22 + 12 = √5.

1 1
Let 𝛼𝛼 be the acute angle (in radian measure) such that tan 𝛼𝛼 = � � =
2 2

∵𝑎𝑎 = 2 > 0 and 𝑏𝑏 = 1 > 0, z lies in the first quadrant.

1 1
∴ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧 = 𝛼𝛼 , such that tan 𝛼𝛼 = , i.e. 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧 = tan−1 � �.
2 2

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 ISC XI- Applied Mathematics

(b) Given z = −2 − 𝑖𝑖

∴ |𝑧𝑧| = �(−2)2 + (−1)2 = √5.

1 1
Let 𝛼𝛼 be the acute angle (in radian measure) such that tan 𝛼𝛼 = � � =
2 2

∵𝑎𝑎 = −2 < 0 and 𝑏𝑏 = −1 < 0, z lies in the third quadrant.

1 1
∴ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧 = −𝜋𝜋 + 𝛼𝛼 , such that tan 𝛼𝛼 = i.e. 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧 = −𝜋𝜋 + tan−1 � �.
2 2

Example 2: Find |𝑧𝑧| and 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧 for 𝑧𝑧 equal to:

(a) −√3 + 𝑖𝑖 (b)1 − 𝑖𝑖

Solution: (a) Given z = −√3 + 𝑖𝑖

∴ |𝑧𝑧| = �(−√3)2 + 12 = 2.

1 1 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
Let 𝛼𝛼 be the acute angle (in radian measure) such that tan 𝛼𝛼 = � � = = tan ⇒ 𝛼𝛼 = .
−√3 √3 6 6
∵𝑎𝑎 = −√3 < 0 and 𝑏𝑏 = 1 > 0, 𝑧𝑧 lies in the second quadrant.
𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋
∴ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧 = 𝜋𝜋 − 𝛼𝛼 = 𝜋𝜋 − =
6 6
(b) Given z = 1 − 𝑖𝑖

∴ |𝑧𝑧| = �12 + (−1)2 = √2

−1 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
Let 𝛼𝛼 be the acute angle (in radian measure) such that tan 𝛼𝛼 = � � = 1 = tan ⇒ 𝛼𝛼 = .
1 4 4

∵𝑎𝑎 = 1 > 0 and 𝑏𝑏 = −1 < 0, 𝑧𝑧 lies in the fourth quadrant.

𝜋𝜋
∴ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧 = −𝛼𝛼 = −
4

2+3𝑖𝑖
Example 3: Find the modulus of
3+2𝑖𝑖
2+3𝑖𝑖 |2+3𝑖𝑖| √22 +32
Solution: � � = |3+2𝑖𝑖|= =1
3+2𝑖𝑖 √32 +22

Example 4: Find |𝑧𝑧|, given that 3|𝑧𝑧 + 1| = |𝑧𝑧 + 9|, where 𝑧𝑧 is a complex number.
Solution: Given 3|𝑧𝑧 + 1| = |𝑧𝑧 + 9|
∴ 9|𝑧𝑧 + 1|2 = |𝑧𝑧 + 9|2

⇒9(𝑧𝑧 + 1)(𝑧𝑧��������
+ 1) = (𝑧𝑧 + 9)(𝑧𝑧��������
+ 9)
⇒9(𝑧𝑧 + 1)(𝑧𝑧̅ + 1) = (𝑧𝑧 + 9)(𝑧𝑧̅ + 9)
⇒ 9𝑧𝑧. 𝑧𝑧̅ + 9𝑧𝑧 + 9𝑧𝑧̅ + 9 = 𝑧𝑧. 𝑧𝑧̅ + 9𝑧𝑧 + 9𝑧𝑧̅ + 81

⇒ 9|𝑧𝑧|2 + 9 = |𝑧𝑧|2 +81

⇒8|𝑧𝑧|2 =72
⇒|𝑧𝑧| = 3 [∵ |𝑧𝑧| > 0]

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𝑧𝑧+𝑖𝑖
Example 5: Suppose 𝑤𝑤 = , where 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖, 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝑅𝑅.
𝑧𝑧−𝑖𝑖

(a) Write 𝑤𝑤 in the form 𝑋𝑋 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 where 𝑋𝑋 and 𝑌𝑌 involve 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏.
(b) If |z|= 1 , find Re(𝑤𝑤).
𝑧𝑧+𝑖𝑖
Solution: (a) 𝑤𝑤 =
𝑧𝑧−𝑖𝑖
𝑎𝑎+𝑖𝑖(𝑏𝑏+1)
⇒𝑤𝑤 =
𝑎𝑎+𝑖𝑖(𝑏𝑏−1)

𝑎𝑎+𝑖𝑖(𝑏𝑏+1) 𝑎𝑎−𝑖𝑖(𝑏𝑏−1)
⇒𝑤𝑤 = ×
𝑎𝑎+𝑖𝑖(𝑏𝑏−1) 𝑎𝑎−𝑖𝑖(𝑏𝑏−1)

�𝑎𝑎 2 +𝑏𝑏2 −1�+𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖(𝑏𝑏+1−𝑏𝑏+1)

⇒𝑤𝑤 = 𝑎𝑎 2 +(𝑏𝑏−1)2

�𝑎𝑎 2 +𝑏𝑏2 −1� 2𝑎𝑎

⇒𝑤𝑤 = 𝑎𝑎2 +(𝑏𝑏−1)2 + 𝑖𝑖
𝑎𝑎 2 +(𝑏𝑏−1)2

(b) Given, |z|= 1 ⇒ √𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏 2 = 1 ⇒ 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏 2 = 1

�𝑎𝑎 2 +𝑏𝑏2 −1� 0
∴ Re(𝑤𝑤)= 𝑎𝑎2 +(𝑏𝑏−1)2 = =0
𝑎𝑎 2 +(𝑏𝑏−1)2

5𝜋𝜋
Example 6: Suppose 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑖𝑖 where 𝑎𝑎 is real and arg 𝑧𝑧 = − . Find the exact value of 𝑎𝑎.
6
5𝜋𝜋
Solution: Given 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑖𝑖 and arg 𝑧𝑧 = − .i.e z lies in the 3rd quadrant.
6
5𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
⇒arg 𝑧𝑧 = − = −𝜋𝜋 + 𝛼𝛼 ⇒𝛼𝛼 = , where 𝛼𝛼 be the acute angle (in radian measure) such that
6 6
−1 1 1 𝜋𝜋 1
tan 𝛼𝛼 = � � = � � ⇒ � �= tan = ⇒ |𝑎𝑎| = √3
𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 6 √3

Since, z lies in the 3rd quadrant, 𝑎𝑎 < 0.

∴ Exact value of 𝑎𝑎 = −√3.

Example 7 What is the polar form of the complex number 𝑖𝑖 75 ?

Solution: Given, z = 𝑖𝑖 75 = −1 = 0 + 𝑖𝑖(−1)

∴ |𝑧𝑧| = �02 + (−1)2= 1

∵𝑎𝑎 = 0 and 𝑏𝑏 = −1 < 0, 𝑧𝑧 is purely imaginary and it lies on the negative 𝑦𝑦-axis.
𝜋𝜋
∴ arg(𝑧𝑧) = − .
2

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
Hence, required polar form of 𝑖𝑖 75 = 1�cos �− � + 𝑖𝑖 sin �− ��
2 2

Example 8 Add the following using Cartesian form and convert your answer in polar form:
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 −3𝜋𝜋 −3𝜋𝜋
3�cos + sin � + �cos � �+ sin � ��
4 4 4 4

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𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 −3𝜋𝜋 −3𝜋𝜋
Solution: Given, 𝑧𝑧 =3�cos + 𝑖𝑖 sin � + �cos � � + 𝑖𝑖 sin � ��
4 4 4 4

1 1 1 1
= 3� + 𝑖𝑖 � + �− − 𝑖𝑖 �
√2 √2 √2 √2
= √2 +𝑖𝑖√2

∴ |𝑧𝑧| = √2 + 2= 2
√2 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
Let 𝛼𝛼 be the acute angle (in radian measure) such that tan 𝛼𝛼 = � 2� = 1 = tan ⇒ 𝛼𝛼 =
√ 4 4

∵𝑎𝑎 = √2 > 0 and 𝑏𝑏 = √2 > 0, z lies in the first quadrant.

𝜋𝜋
∴ arg(𝑧𝑧) = .
4

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
Hence required polar form = 2�cos � � + 𝑖𝑖 sin � ��
4 4

Exercises
1. Choose the correct option.
(i) If 𝑧𝑧 is a (non-zero) complex number, then amplitude of 𝑧𝑧. 𝑧𝑧�:
𝜋𝜋
(a) 0 (c) −
𝜋𝜋 2
(b) (d) 𝜋𝜋
2

(ii) Amplitude of −2 is :
𝜋𝜋
(a) 0 (c)
𝜋𝜋 2
(b) − (d) 𝜋𝜋
2
−(1−𝑖𝑖)
(iii) Modulus of 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 is:
cos +sin
3 3

(a) −√2 (c) 1

2 1
(b) (d)
√2 √2

(iv) For any complex number 𝑧𝑧,

𝜋𝜋
Statement 1: Argument of 𝑧𝑧 = − if and only if z is purely imaginary and lies on the negative
2
direction of 𝑦𝑦-axis.
Statement 2: Argument of 𝑧𝑧 is defined only if 𝑧𝑧 ≠ 0.
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are true?
(a) Only 1 (c) Both 1 and 2
(b) Only 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

(v) Assertion: If amp(z) = 𝜃𝜃 them amp(𝑧𝑧 −1 ) = −𝜃𝜃.

1 𝑧𝑧̅
Reason: For any complex number 𝑧𝑧, 𝑧𝑧 −1 = = |𝑧𝑧|2 , and 𝑧𝑧̅ is the mirror image of z in the 𝑥𝑥 −axis.
𝑧𝑧

(a) Both A and R individually true and R is the correct explanation of A.

(b) Both A and R individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.

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2. Find |𝑤𝑤| and arg(𝑤𝑤) for 𝑤𝑤 equal to:

(a) 2 − 3𝑖𝑖 (b) −3 + 2𝑖𝑖

3. Find |𝑧𝑧| and 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧 for 𝑧𝑧 equal to:

(a) √3 − 𝑖𝑖 (b) − 1 − 𝑖𝑖

5𝜋𝜋
4. If 𝑧𝑧. 𝑧𝑧�=16 and 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝑧𝑧) = , then write 𝑧𝑧 in the form of 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖, 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑅𝑅.
6

50 10
5. Find the complex number 𝑧𝑧 that satisfies the equation − = 2 + 9𝑖𝑖 , given |𝑧𝑧| = 2√10.
𝑧𝑧̅ 𝑧𝑧

6. Suppose 𝑧𝑧 is a complex number. Find |𝑧𝑧| if 3|𝑧𝑧 − 5| = |𝑧𝑧 − 45|.

𝑖𝑖
7. Find the modulus and amplitude of the complex number (1+𝑖𝑖)(1−𝑖𝑖) . Also write the polar form of the
complex number.

2+𝑖𝑖 2
8. Express in polar form : � � .
3−𝑖𝑖

9. Add the following using Cartesian form and convert your answer in polar form:
2𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋 −2𝜋𝜋 −2𝜋𝜋
2 �cos + i sin � + �cos � � − i sin � ��
3 3 3 3

10. The complex number 𝑧𝑧 is a root of the equation |𝑧𝑧| = |𝑧𝑧 + 4|.
(a) Show that the real part of 𝑧𝑧 is −2.
(b) Let 𝑣𝑣 and 𝑤𝑤 be two possible values of 𝑧𝑧 such that |𝑧𝑧| = 4 and 𝑣𝑣 is in the second quadrant.
(i) Sketch the points that represent 𝑣𝑣 and 𝑤𝑤 on an Argand diagram.
2𝜋𝜋
(ii) Show that arg(𝑣𝑣) =
3
(iii) Find 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (𝑤𝑤).

Answers
1. (i) (a) (ii) (d) (iii) (b) (iv) (c) (v) (a)
−3 3
2. (a) |𝑤𝑤| = √13 ; arg(𝑤𝑤) = tan−1 � � ≈ − tan−1 � �
2 2

2
(b) |𝑤𝑤| = √13 , arg(𝑤𝑤) = 𝜋𝜋 − tan−1 � �.
3
𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋
3. (a) |𝑧𝑧| = 2; − (b) |𝑧𝑧| = √2; −
6 4

4. −2√3+2𝑖𝑖
5. 2 + 6𝑖𝑖
6. 15.
1 𝜋𝜋 1 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
7. Modulus = ; Amplitude= ; �cos + 𝑖𝑖 sin �
2 2 2 2 2

1 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
8. �cos + 𝑖𝑖 sin �
2 2 2

2𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋
9. 3 �cos + isin �
3 3

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2𝜋𝜋
10 (b) (i) (iii) 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (𝑤𝑤) = −
3

Project Work
Let 𝑧𝑧 = 1 + 3𝑖𝑖 and 𝑤𝑤 = 3 + 2𝑖𝑖
(a) Find 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑤𝑤.
(b) Hence find |𝑧𝑧 + 𝑤𝑤| and 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝑧𝑧 + 𝑤𝑤)
(c) Use trigonometry to find 𝜃𝜃.
(d) Hence show that 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝑧𝑧 + 𝑤𝑤) + 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝑧𝑧)

HISTORICAL NOTE

Heron or Hero of Alexandria (10-70) was a mathematician and engineer in Roman Egypt. He is most
commonly known for Heron’s formula for finding the area of a triangle, but he also developed an
iterative process called Heron’s method or the Babylonian method for computing square roots.
Heron is the first known person to consider whether it might make sense to take the square root of a
negative number. In 50 A.D, while finding the height of a pyramid using a known formula, he obtained
the following result which was published in the book Stereometrica.

28 − 4 2
ℎ = �(15)2 − 2 � �
2

= �225 − 2(12)2
= √225 − 144 − 144
= √81 − 144
Since this result had no use in the context of a real pyramid, Heron did not consider the concept further.
Nearly 1500 years later, the square root of a negative number was considered again by Gerolamo
Cardano (1501-1576). In his book Ars Magna Published in 1545, Cardano gives the solutions to an
equation as 5 ± √−15. Rather than dismissing the result, he went to find the product of the two
solutions:
�5 + √−15� × �5 − √−15� = 25 − (−15) = 40

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In 1572, Rafael Bombelli defined the imaginary number 𝑖𝑖 = √−1. It is called “imaginary” because we
cannot place it on the real number line.
Having defined imaginary 𝑖𝑖, we can now write down solutions for quadratic equations ∆< 0. These
solutions are said to be the complex because they include a real and an imaginary part.
For example, consider the equation 𝑥𝑥 2 + 1 = 0. The solutions 𝑥𝑥 = ±√−1 cannot be placed on a number
line, and so are not real.
Using Bombelli’s idea, we can write the solutions conveniently as 𝑥𝑥 = ±𝑖𝑖.
For other quadratic equations with ∆<0, we obtain solutions of the form 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 where 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏 are
real and 𝑖𝑖 = √−1.

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(iii) Quadratic Equations

SCOPE

Statement of Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, solution of quadratic equations (with real coefficients).
• Use of the formula:

− b ± b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a
In solving quadratic equations.
• Equations reducible to quadratic form.
• Nature of roots
− Product and sum of roots.
− Roots are rational, irrational, equal, reciprocal, one square of the other.
− Complex roots.
− Framing quadratic equations with given roots.
NOTE: Questions on equations having common roots are to be covered.
• Quadratic Functions.
Given α, β as roots then find the equation whose roots are of the form α 3 , β 3 , etc.

Real roots
Case I: a > 0 Complex roots
Equal roots

Real roots
Case II: a < 0 Complex roots
Equal roots
Where ‘a’ is the coefficient of x2 in the equations of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
• Sign of quadratic
Sign when the roots are real and when they are complex.
• Graph of quadratic function. Maximum/minimum value of quadratic function and value of x for
which maximum/minimum occurs.
• Inequalities
− Linear Inequalities
Algebraic solutions of linear inequalities in one variable and their representation on the
number line.
Self-explanatory.

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− Quadratic Inequalities
Using method of intervals for solving problems of the type:
x2 + x − 6 ≥ 0

+ - +
-3 2
A perfect square e.g. x 2 − 6 x + 9 ≥ 0 .

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Students will be able to :

• find the nature of roots of a quadratic equation and solve them.
• draw graph of the quadratic functions.
• solve the problems on quadratics inequalities using intervals of real numbers.

PRE-REQUISITES

• Difference between two squares factorisation.

• Splitting the middle term factorisation of trinomial.
• Solving quadratic equation by factorizing, completing squares and by quadratic formula.

Introduction
We have already studied different types of polynomials. One type was the quadratic polynomial of the form
𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 are real numbers and 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0. When we equate this polynomial to zero, we get a
quadratic equation. In fact, any equation of the form f(x) = 0, where f(x) is a polynomial of degree of degress
two(2) is a quadratic equation. But when we write the terms of f(x) in descending order of their degrees, then
we get the standard form of the equation. In previous classes, we have already solved some quadratic
equations in the system of real numbers in the cases where discriminant (∆= 𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) ≥ 0. In this chapter,
we shall also solve the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0 where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 are real numbers and 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0in the
cases where discriminant (∆= 𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) < 0. From prevoius topic we learn that the square roots of negative
real numbers exists in the system of complex/imaginary numbers, therefore the solutions of the above equation
are available in the system of complex numbers.

Definition
The equation 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0 where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 are real numbers and 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0, is called the general (or standard)
form of quadratic equation in the variable 𝑥𝑥 with real coefficients. The equation of the form 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0,
𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0 is called a pure quadratic equation.
For example: 2𝑥𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 5 = 0, √3𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 7 = 0, 𝑥𝑥 − 1 − 𝑥𝑥 2 = 0 are general quadratic equations in
variable 𝑥𝑥 with real coefficients; the equations 3𝑥𝑥 2 + 1 = 0, −𝑥𝑥 2 + 2 = 0 are pure quadratic equations.

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The Null Factor Law

When the product of two(or more) numbers is zero, then at least one of them must be zero, i.e., if 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 0 then
𝑎𝑎 = 0 or 𝑏𝑏 = 0.

Fundamental theorem of algebra

“ A polynomial equation of degree n has exactly n roots.”
The fundamental theorem of algebra was articulated by Albert Girard in 1629 as “Every algebraic equation ....
admits of as many solutions as the denomination of the highest quantity indicates ...”. No proof was offered.

Solution of quadratic equation

In general, a real number 𝛼𝛼 is called a root of the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0, 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0 if 𝑎𝑎𝛼𝛼 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝛼𝛼 +
𝑐𝑐 = 0. We also say that x = 𝛼𝛼 is a solution of the quadratic equation, or that 𝛼𝛼 satisfies the quadratic equation.
Note that the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐and the roots of the quadratic equation
𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0 are the same.

Method of solution
Solving quadratic equations by factorisation
Step-1 Express the given equation in the general form i.e. 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0
Step-2 Factorise 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 by either splitting the middle term or by expressing in the form of (𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑞𝑞)2 −
𝑟𝑟 2 hence you will obtain 𝑎𝑎(𝑥𝑥 − 𝛼𝛼)(𝑥𝑥 − 𝛽𝛽).
Step-3 Put each factor = 0 [Since whenever the product of two expression is zero, at least one expression is
zero.]
Step-4 By solving each resulting equation equating to zero we obtain the two values of 𝑥𝑥 which are the required
solutions.
Solving quadratic equations by using formula
Step-1 Express the given equation in the general form i.e. 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0
Step-2 Fetch the values of 𝑎𝑎 i.e. coefficient of 𝑥𝑥 2 , 𝑏𝑏 i.e. coefficient of 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑐𝑐 i.e. constant term.
−𝑏𝑏±√𝑏𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
Step-3 Use the formula 𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑎𝑎
.
Step-4 Apply the values of 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 and 𝑐𝑐 from step 2 in the formula.
Step-5 Take the positive sign and simplify to get the 1st value of 𝑥𝑥 and take the negative sign and simplify to
get the 2nd value of 𝑥𝑥. Leave the answer correct to 2 decimal places or 2 significant figures etc. as mentioned
in the question.
Note:
• If the coefficients of a quadratic equation are rational, and one of the roots is irrational, then other root is
its irrational; conjugate i.e. if 𝑎𝑎 + √𝑏𝑏 is one root of the quadratic equation then the other root is 𝑎𝑎 − √𝑏𝑏
,where √𝑏𝑏 is irrational.
• If a quadratic equation has real coefficients and if its roots are complex/imaginary numbers, they occur in
conjugate pair i.e. if 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 is one root of the quadratic equation then the other root is 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ,where 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 is
imaginary.

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Solved Examples
Example 1: Solve:√7𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 − 13√7 = 0

Solution : √7𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 − 13√7 = 0

⇒√7𝑥𝑥 2 − 13𝑥𝑥 + √7. √7𝑥𝑥 − 13√7 = 0
⇒𝑥𝑥�√7𝑥𝑥 − 13� + √7�√7𝑥𝑥 − 13� = 0
⇒�√7𝑥𝑥 − 13��𝑥𝑥 + √7� = 0
Either √7𝑥𝑥 − 13 = 0 or 𝑥𝑥 + √7 = 0
13
⇒𝑥𝑥 = or 𝑥𝑥 = −√7
√7
13 13√7
∴ 𝑥𝑥 = ≈ and 𝑥𝑥 = −√7 are the solutions of the equation.
√7 7

13 13√7
In other words , ≈ and −√7 are the roots of the equation √7𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 − 13√7 = 0.
√7 7

1
Example 2: Solve:3𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 + = 0
3
1
Solution : 3𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 + = 0
3

⇒9𝑥𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝑥 + 1 = 0

⇒(3𝑥𝑥)2 + 2.3𝑥𝑥. 1 + 12 = 0

⇒(3𝑥𝑥 + 1)2 = 0
1 1
⇒𝑥𝑥 = − , −
3 3

Hence, the given quadratic equation has two equal roots.

Example 3: Solve for 𝑥𝑥 completing the square leaving answer in surd form:𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 − 2 = 0.
Solution : 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 − 2 = 0
⇒𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥. 1 + 12 = 2
2
⇒(𝑥𝑥 + 1)2 = �√2�

⇒𝑥𝑥 + 1 = ±√2

⇒𝑥𝑥 = −1 ± √2
Hence, the given quadratic equation has two irrational roots which are conjugate to each other.

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Example 4: Solve: 𝑥𝑥 2 − 5𝑥𝑥 − 7 = 0

Solution : 𝑥𝑥 2 − 5𝑥𝑥 − 7 = 0
⇒ 1. 𝑥𝑥 2 + (−5)𝑥𝑥 + (−7) = 0
Here, 𝑎𝑎 = 1, 𝑏𝑏 = −5, 𝑐𝑐 = −7
−𝑏𝑏±√𝑏𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
Using, 𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑎𝑎

5±√25+4.1.7
⇒𝑥𝑥 =
2
5±√53
= 2

5±√53
Hence, the given quadratic equation has two irrational roots 2
, which are conjugate to each other.

3
Example 5: Solve:𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 + = 0
2

Solution : 2𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 3 = 0

⇒ 2. 𝑥𝑥 2 + (−4)𝑥𝑥 + (3) = 0
Here, 𝑎𝑎 = 2, 𝑏𝑏 = −4, 𝑐𝑐 = 3
−𝑏𝑏±√𝑏𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
Using, 𝑥𝑥 =
2𝑎𝑎

4±√16−4.2.3
⇒ 𝑥𝑥 = 2.2

4±√−8
= 4

4±𝑖𝑖 2√2
= 4

2±𝑖𝑖 √2
= 2

2±𝑖𝑖 √2
Hence, the given quadratic equation has two complex/imaginary roots , which are conjugate to each
2
other.
1 2 3 4
Example 6: Solve: − = −
𝑥𝑥+1 𝑥𝑥+2 𝑥𝑥+3 𝑥𝑥+4
1 2 3 4
Solution : − = −
𝑥𝑥+1 𝑥𝑥+2 𝑥𝑥+3 𝑥𝑥+4

𝑥𝑥+2−2𝑥𝑥−2 3𝑥𝑥+12−4𝑥𝑥−12
⇒
(𝑥𝑥+1)(𝑥𝑥+2)
= (𝑥𝑥+3)(𝑥𝑥+4)

−𝑥𝑥 −𝑥𝑥
⇒
𝑥𝑥 2 +3𝑥𝑥+2
= 𝑥𝑥 2+7𝑥𝑥+12

⇒𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 + 2) − 𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥 2 + 7𝑥𝑥 + 12)=0

⇒𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 + 2 − 𝑥𝑥 2 − 7𝑥𝑥 − 12)= 0

⇒−2𝑥𝑥(2𝑥𝑥 + 5) = 0
5
∴ 𝑥𝑥 = 0 or 𝑥𝑥 = − .
2
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 ISC XI- Applied Mathematics

5
Hence, the roots of the given equation are 0, − .
2

Equations reducible to quadratic form

There are some equations which are not quadratic but can be reduced to quadratic equations by algebric
simplification, using substitution, simplifying and then substituting , squaring etc. and hence can be solved.

Solved Examples

Example 1: Solve: 9𝑥𝑥+2 − 6 × 3𝑥𝑥+1 + 1 = 0

Solution : 9𝑥𝑥+2 − 6 × 3𝑥𝑥+1 + 1 = 0

⇒ 81(3𝑥𝑥 )2 − 18. 3𝑥𝑥 + 1 = 0

Let 3𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎

⇒81𝑎𝑎2 − 18𝑎𝑎 + 1 = 0

⇒ (9𝑎𝑎)2 − 2. .9𝑎𝑎. 1 + 12 = 0
⇒(9𝑎𝑎 − 1)2 = 0
1 1
⇒ 𝑎𝑎 = ,
9 9

⇒3𝑥𝑥 = 3−2 , 3−2

⇒𝑥𝑥 = −2, −2
∴The equation has two equal roots – 2, – 2

3𝑥𝑥+1 𝑥𝑥+1 5 −1
Example 2: Solve:�
𝑥𝑥+1
+ �3𝑥𝑥+1 = 2 ,�𝑥𝑥 > −1, 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 3
�

3𝑥𝑥+1 𝑥𝑥+1 5 −1
Solution :�
𝑥𝑥+1
+ �3𝑥𝑥+1 = 2 ,�𝑥𝑥 > −1, 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 3
�

3𝑥𝑥+1 1 5
⇒�
𝑥𝑥+1
+ 3𝑥𝑥+1
=2
�
𝑥𝑥+1

3𝑥𝑥+1
Let � = 𝑎𝑎
𝑥𝑥+1

1 5
⇒𝑎𝑎 + =
𝑎𝑎 2

⇒2𝑎𝑎2 − 5𝑎𝑎 + 2 = 0

⇒2𝑎𝑎2 − 4𝑎𝑎 − 𝑎𝑎 + 2 = 0
⇒2𝑎𝑎(𝑎𝑎 − 2) −1(𝑎𝑎 − 2) = 0
⇒(2𝑎𝑎 − 1)(𝑎𝑎 − 2) = 0
1
⇒ 𝑎𝑎 = or 𝑎𝑎 = 2
2

3𝑥𝑥+1 1 3𝑥𝑥+1
∴� = or � =2
𝑥𝑥+1 2 𝑥𝑥+1

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 ISC XI- Applied Mathematics

3𝑥𝑥+1 1 3𝑥𝑥+1
⇒ = or =4
𝑥𝑥+1 4 𝑥𝑥+1

⇒ 12𝑥𝑥 + 4 = 𝑥𝑥 + 1 or 3𝑥𝑥 + 1 = 4𝑥𝑥 + 4

3
⇒𝑥𝑥 = − or 𝑥𝑥 = −3
11
3
Hence, the solutions of the given equation are = − ,−3
11

1 1
Example 3: Solve: 𝑥𝑥 2 + − �𝑥𝑥 − � − 14 = 0, (𝑥𝑥 ≠ 0)
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥
1 1
Solution :𝑥𝑥 2 + − �𝑥𝑥 − � − 14 = 0, (𝑥𝑥 ≠ 0)
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥

1 2 1
⇒�𝑥𝑥 − � + 2 − �𝑥𝑥 − � − 14 = 0
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
1
Let 𝑥𝑥 − = 𝑎𝑎
𝑥𝑥

⇒𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑎 − 12 = 0

⇒𝑎𝑎2 − 4𝑎𝑎 + 3𝑎𝑎 − 12 = 0

⇒𝑎𝑎(𝑎𝑎 − 4)+3(𝑎𝑎 − 4) = 0
⇒(𝑎𝑎 − 4)(𝑎𝑎 + 3) = 0
⇒ 𝑎𝑎 = 4or𝑎𝑎 = −3.
1 1
⇒𝑥𝑥 − = 4 or 𝑥𝑥 − = −3
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥

⇒𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 − 1 = 0 or 𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 − 1 = 0

4±√16+4.1.1 −3±√9+4.1.1
⇒𝑥𝑥 = 2
or 𝑥𝑥 = 2

4±√20 −3±√13
= or =
2 2

4± 2√5
= 2

= 2 ± √5
−3±√13
Hence, the solutions of the given equation are = 2 ± √5 , 2

1 2 1
Example 4: Solve: 2�𝑥𝑥 − � − 9 �𝑥𝑥 + � + 18 = 0, (𝑥𝑥 ≠ 0)
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥

1 2 1
Solution : 2�𝑥𝑥 − � − 9 �𝑥𝑥 + � + 18 = 0,(𝑥𝑥 ≠ 0)
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥

1 2 1
⇒ 2�𝑥𝑥 + � − 8 − 9 �𝑥𝑥 + � + 18 = 0
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥

1 2 1
⇒ 2�𝑥𝑥 + � − 9 �𝑥𝑥 + � + 10 = 0
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
1
Let 𝑥𝑥 + = 𝑎𝑎
𝑥𝑥

⇒ 2𝑎𝑎2 − 9𝑎𝑎 + 10 = 0

⇒ 2𝑎𝑎2 − 5𝑎𝑎 − 4𝑎𝑎 + 10 = 0

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⇒ 𝑎𝑎(2𝑎𝑎 − 5) −2(2𝑎𝑎 − 5) = 0
⇒ (𝑎𝑎 − 2)(2𝑎𝑎 − 5) = 0
5
⇒ 𝑎𝑎 = 2 or 𝑎𝑎 = .
2
1 1 5
⇒ 𝑥𝑥 + = 2 or 𝑥𝑥 + =
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 2

⇒ 𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 1 = 0 or 2𝑥𝑥 2 − 5𝑥𝑥 + 2 = 0

⇒ (𝑥𝑥 − 1)2 = 0 or 2𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 + 2 = 0

⇒ 𝑥𝑥 = 1,1 or (𝑥𝑥 − 2)(2𝑥𝑥 − 1) = 0
1
or, 𝑥𝑥 = 2,
2
1
Hence, the solutions of the given equation are = 1, 1, 2,
2

Example 5: Solve:(𝑥𝑥 + 1)(𝑥𝑥 + 2)(𝑥𝑥 + 3)(𝑥𝑥 + 4) + 1 = 0

Solution : (𝑥𝑥 + 1)(𝑥𝑥 + 2)(𝑥𝑥 + 3)(𝑥𝑥 + 4) + 1 = 0
⇒ {(𝑥𝑥 + 4)(𝑥𝑥 + 1)} {(𝑥𝑥 + 2)(𝑥𝑥 + 3)} + 1 =0

⇒ ��(𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥) + 4� ��(𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥) + 6��� + 1=0

Let 𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎
⇒ (𝑎𝑎 + 4)(𝑎𝑎 + 6) + 1 = 0

⇒ 𝑎𝑎2 + 10𝑎𝑎 + 25 = 0

⇒ 𝑎𝑎2 + 2. 𝑎𝑎. 5 + 52 = 0

⇒(𝑎𝑎 + 5)2 = 0
⇒𝑎𝑎 = −5, −5.

∴ 𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 = −5

⇒𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 + 5 = 0
−5±√25−4.1.5
⇒𝑥𝑥 = 2

−5±√5
=
2

−5±√5 −5±√5
Hence, the solutions of the given equation are 2
, 2

Example 6: Solve:√217 − 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 − 7
Solution : √217 − 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 − 7

Squaring both sides, we get

⇒ 217 − 𝑥𝑥 = (𝑥𝑥 − 7)2

⇒ 𝑥𝑥 2 − 13𝑥𝑥 − 168 = 0

⇒ 𝑥𝑥 2 − 21𝑥𝑥 + 8𝑥𝑥 − 168 = 0

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 ISC XI- Applied Mathematics

⇒ 𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥 − 21) + 8(𝑥𝑥 − 21) = 0

⇒ (𝑥𝑥 − 21) (𝑥𝑥 + 8) = 0
∴ Either 𝑥𝑥 = 21 or 𝑥𝑥 = −8
Putting 𝑥𝑥 = −8 in the given equation RHS = −15 < 0 i.e. 𝑥𝑥 = −8 is not satisfying the given equation,
hence extraneous.
Hence, the solution of the given equation is 21.

Note : For type √𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 = (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑) , we find those solutions(s) only for which 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 ≥ 0 and
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑 ≥ 0. Those values of 𝑥𝑥 which do not satisfy these two conditions are extraneous solutions, hence to
be rejected.

Similarly for type √𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑒𝑒) , we find those solutions for which 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 ≥ 0 and
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑒𝑒 ≥ 0. The other values of 𝑥𝑥 will be extraneous. We reject them.

Nature of roots of a Quadratic Equtaion

−𝑏𝑏±√𝑏𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
The roots of the equation 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0, 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0 are 2𝑎𝑎
, where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 ∈ R.

𝑏𝑏 √𝑏𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 √𝑏𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

Thus, 𝑥𝑥 = − + and 𝑥𝑥 = − −
2𝑎𝑎 2𝑎𝑎 2𝑎𝑎 2𝑎𝑎

Thus, the nature of roots depends on the expression under the square root i.e. 𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 , called discriminant.

Discriminant: For the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0; 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0, 𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐 − 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 is called discriminant and in
generally denoted by ‘D’ or ‘Δ’.
Case-I When 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 ∈ R and 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0
(i) If 𝐷𝐷 = 𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 0 then roots are real and equal.
(ii) If 𝐷𝐷 = 𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 > 0, then roots are real and unequal.
(iii) If 𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 < 0, then roots are not real. In this case roots are imaginary/ complex. Roots are complex
conjugates.
Case-II When 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 ∈ Q i.e. rational numbers and 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0
(i) If 𝐷𝐷 = 𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 0 then roots are real rational and equal.
(ii) If 𝐷𝐷 = 𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 > 0 and is a perfect square, the roots are real, rational, and unequal.
(iii) If 𝐷𝐷 = 𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 > 0 and is not a perfect square, the roots are real, irrational, and unequal. Roots
are irrational conjugates.
(iv) If 𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 < 0, then roots are not real. In this case roots are imaginary/complex. Roots are complex
conjugates.

Solved Examples

Example 1: Discuss the nature of roots of the following equations:

(a) 4𝑥𝑥 2 − 24𝑥𝑥 + 35 = 0 (b) 2𝑥𝑥 2 − 2√5𝑥𝑥 + 3 = 0
Solution : (a) 4𝑥𝑥 2 − 24𝑥𝑥 + 35 = 0
Here 𝑎𝑎 = 4, 𝑏𝑏 = −24, 𝑐𝑐 = 35 ∈ Q.
𝐷𝐷 = 𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = (−24)2 − 4.4.35 = 576 − 560 = 76 > 0, but not a perfect square.
∴ The roots are real, irrational, and unequal.

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(b) 2𝑥𝑥 2 − 2√5𝑥𝑥 + 3 = 0

Here 𝑎𝑎 = 2, 𝑏𝑏 = −2√5, 𝑐𝑐 = 3 ∈ R
2
𝐷𝐷 = 𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = �−2√5� − 4.2.3 = 20 − 24 = −4 < 0.
∴ The roots are not real, i.e., roots are complex / imaginary.

Example 2: If the roots of the equation 𝑥𝑥 2 − 8𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎2 − 6𝑎𝑎 = 0 are real and distinct, then find all possible
values of 𝑎𝑎.

Solution : Given, 𝑥𝑥 2 − 8𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎2 − 6𝑎𝑎 = 0

Since the roots of the given equation are real and distict.
∴ 𝐷𝐷 > 0

⇒ 64 − 4(𝑎𝑎2 − 6𝑎𝑎) > 0

⇒ 16−𝑎𝑎2 + 6𝑎𝑎 > 0

⇒ 𝑎𝑎2 − 6𝑎𝑎 − 16 < 0

⇒(𝑎𝑎 − 8)(𝑎𝑎 + 2) < 0
⇒ −2 < 𝑎𝑎 < 8
i.e. 𝑎𝑎 ∈ (−2, 8).

Example 3: If the roots of the equation 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 0 are real and distinct, then prove that the roots of
𝑥𝑥 2 − 2(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏 2 + 2𝑐𝑐 2 = 0 are non-real complex quantities.
Solution : Given, the roots of the equation 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 0 are real and distinct.

⇒ 𝐷𝐷1 = 4𝑐𝑐 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 > 0

⇒ 𝑐𝑐 2 − 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 > 0 --------------------------------------------------------(i)

𝐷𝐷2 be the discriminant of 𝑥𝑥 2 − 2(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏 2 + 2𝑐𝑐 2 = 0

⇒ 𝐷𝐷2 = 4(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)2 − 4(𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏 2 + 2𝑐𝑐 2 )

= 4[𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏 2 + 2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 − 𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑏𝑏 2 − 2𝑐𝑐 2 ]

= −8(𝑐𝑐 2 − 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)
<0 By (i)

∴ The roots of 𝑥𝑥 2 − 2(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏 2 + 2𝑐𝑐 2 = 0 are non-real complex quantities.

Exercises
1. Choose the correct option.
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥+3
(i) Number of solutions of 8� − � = 2 is/are
𝑥𝑥+3 𝑥𝑥
(a) Exactly one (c) At least one
(b) Two (d) No real solution
(ii) Nature of roots of the equation: 9𝑥𝑥 2 − 2 = 0 is
(a) Real and unequal (c) Not real
(b) Real irrational conjugate. (d) Real, rational and distinct.
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(iii) Two solutions of (𝑥𝑥 2 + 2)2 + 8𝑥𝑥 2 = 6𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥 2 + 2) are (1 − 𝑖𝑖) and �2 + √2�. Other roots are
(a) (1 + 𝑖𝑖) ,�2 − √2� (c) (1 − 𝑖𝑖) ,�−2 + √2�
(b) (−1 + 𝑖𝑖) ,�2 − √2� (d) Can′ t be determined

(iv) Statement 1: Roots of the equation 𝑥𝑥 2 − (1 + 𝑘𝑘)𝑥𝑥 + 𝑘𝑘 = 0 are rational and distinct when 𝑘𝑘 = 1.
Statement 2: Both roots of(𝑝𝑝 − 𝑥𝑥)(𝑞𝑞 − 𝑥𝑥) = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 are 0 when 𝑞𝑞 + 𝑝𝑝 = 0
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are true?
(a) Only 1 (c) Both 1 and 2
(b) Only 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

(v) Assertion: 𝑥𝑥 = 1 is not a solution of 𝑥𝑥 − 2 = √𝑥𝑥

Reason: 𝑥𝑥 = 1 is an extraneous solution.
(a) Both A and R individually true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.

2. Solve for 𝑥𝑥.

(a) 4𝑥𝑥 2 = 5𝑥𝑥 (c) 4𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥 + 1) = −1 (e)
3
=
𝑥𝑥−2

(b)10𝑥𝑥2 − 13𝑥𝑥 − 3 = 0 (d) 2𝑥𝑥2 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 3 = 0 𝑥𝑥+1 𝑥𝑥+2

3. Solve for 𝑥𝑥 completing the square leaving answer in surd form:

(a) 𝑥𝑥 2 + 8𝑥𝑥 + 14 = 0 (b) 5𝑥𝑥 2 − 10𝑥𝑥 + 3 = 0

4. Solve the following quadratic equations:

(a) 71+𝑥𝑥 + 71−𝑥𝑥 = 50 (e) 𝑥𝑥 2 +
1 1
− 3 �𝑥𝑥 − � − 2 = 0, (𝑥𝑥 ≠ 0)
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥
4𝑥𝑥−1 4𝑥𝑥+1 8 1 1 2
(b) � − �4𝑥𝑥−1 = 3 , 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 4 3
(f) �𝑥𝑥 + � = 4 + �𝑥𝑥 − �,(𝑥𝑥 ≠ 0)
1
4𝑥𝑥+1 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥

(c) (𝑥𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 3)2 − (𝑥𝑥 − 1)(𝑥𝑥 − 2) = 7 (g) √2𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 21 = 2𝑥𝑥 − 3
(d) (2𝑥𝑥 − 7)(𝑥𝑥 − 3)(𝑥𝑥 + 3)(2𝑥𝑥 + 5) = 91

5. Discuss the nature of roots of the following equations:

(a) 3𝑥𝑥 2 + 7𝑥𝑥 + 2 = 0 (b) 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2√3𝑥𝑥 − 1 = 0 (c) 2(𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏 2 )𝑥𝑥 2 + 2(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)𝑥𝑥 + 1 = 0

6. Prove that the roots of the following equations are rational:

(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐)𝑥𝑥 2 − 2(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)𝑥𝑥 + (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 − 𝑐𝑐) = 0

7. If 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞, 𝑟𝑟 are real and 𝑝𝑝 ≠ 𝑞𝑞 , then show that the roots of the given equation are real and unequal.
(𝑝𝑝 − 𝑞𝑞)𝑥𝑥 2 + 5(𝑝𝑝 + 𝑞𝑞)𝑥𝑥 − 2 (𝑝𝑝 − 𝑞𝑞) = 0

8. For what value of λ, (4 − λ)𝑥𝑥 2 + 2(2 + λ)𝑥𝑥 + 1 + 8λ = 0, is a perfect square.

5
9. Show that the roots of the equation 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2(3𝑘𝑘 + 5)𝑥𝑥 + 2( 9𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 2 + 25) = 0 are imaginary unless 𝑘𝑘 = .
3

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10. If the roots of the equation 𝑥𝑥 2 − 8𝑥𝑥 + 𝜆𝜆(𝜆𝜆 − 6) = 0 are real and distinct then find all possible values of
λ.

Answers
1. (i) (a) (ii) (b) (iii)(a) (iv) (b) (v) (a)
5 3 1 1 1 1
2. (a) 0, (b) , − (c) − , − (d) 1 ± 𝑖𝑖 (e) 2�1 ± √3�
4 2 5 2 2 √2

2
3. (a) −4 ± √2 (b) 1 ± �
5

5 3±𝑖𝑖 √11 7 1±√65 3±√13 1

4. (a) 1, −1 (b) − (c) 0,3, (d) 4, − , (e) ±1, (𝑓𝑓) ±1,2, − (g) 6
16 3 2 4 2 2

5. (a) Real and distinct (b) Real and distinct (c) Imaginary (unless a=b)
8. 0,3
10. λ∈ (−2,8)

Relation between roots and coefficients

−𝑏𝑏±√𝑏𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
The roots of the equation 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0, 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0 are , where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 ∈ R.
2𝑎𝑎

Let the roots of the equation be 𝛼𝛼 and 𝛽𝛽.

𝑏𝑏 √𝑏𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 √𝑏𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
Thus 𝛼𝛼 = − + and 𝛽𝛽 = − −
2𝑎𝑎 2𝑎𝑎 2𝑎𝑎 2𝑎𝑎

𝑏𝑏 √𝑏𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 √𝑏𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏

∴ 𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽 = − 2𝑎𝑎 + − 2𝑎𝑎 − = − 𝑎𝑎 ,
2𝑎𝑎 2𝑎𝑎
𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒙𝒙
i.e. Sum of the roots = −
𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐

𝑏𝑏 √𝑏𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 √𝑏𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 2 𝑏𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐

Also, 𝛼𝛼. 𝛽𝛽 = �− + � �− − �= − = 𝑎𝑎
2𝑎𝑎 2𝑎𝑎 2𝑎𝑎 2𝑎𝑎 4𝑎𝑎2 4𝑎𝑎2

𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕
i.e. Product of the roots =
𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐

Note: 𝒄𝒄 = constant term is the term(s) independent of the variable 𝒙𝒙.

Formation of a quadratic equation with given roots

Let 𝛼𝛼 and 𝛽𝛽 are the roots of a quadratic equation.
⇒(𝑥𝑥 − 𝛼𝛼) = 0 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (𝑥𝑥 − 𝛽𝛽) = 0
⇒(𝑥𝑥 − 𝛼𝛼)(𝑥𝑥 − 𝛽𝛽) = 0

⇒𝑥𝑥 2 − (𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽)𝑥𝑥 + 𝛼𝛼. 𝛽𝛽 = 0

⇒𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 − 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 + 𝑷𝑷 = 𝟎𝟎 , where S is the sum of the roots and P is the product of the roots.

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To find the conditions when roots are connected by given relations:

𝑏𝑏
We know that, the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0, 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0 has sum of roots, 𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽 = − and product
2𝑎𝑎
𝑐𝑐
of the roots 𝛼𝛼. 𝛽𝛽 = . Using these two results we can find the condition in terms of 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 and 𝑐𝑐 when the relation
𝑎𝑎
between the roots are given.

For the equation 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0, 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0

(i) One root is the reciprocal of the other ⇒𝒄𝒄 = 𝒂𝒂.
(ii) Roots are equal in magnitude but opposite sign ⇒𝒃𝒃 = 𝟎𝟎,𝒂𝒂 and 𝒄𝒄 are of the opposite sign.
(iii) Ratio between the roots is 𝑚𝑚: 𝑛𝑛⇒(𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎)𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐 = (𝒎𝒎 + 𝒏𝒏)𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂.
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
(iv) One root is nth. power of the other⇒(𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏 𝒄𝒄)𝒏𝒏+𝟏𝟏 + (𝒂𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒏𝒏 )𝒏𝒏+𝟏𝟏 + 𝒃𝒃 = 𝟎𝟎.
(v) One of the roots may be zero ⇒𝒄𝒄 = 𝟎𝟎.
(vi) Exactly one of the roots may be zero ⇒𝒄𝒄 = 𝟎𝟎,𝒃𝒃 ≠ 𝟎𝟎.
(vii) Both roots are zero ⇒𝒄𝒄 = 𝟎𝟎,𝒃𝒃 = 𝟎𝟎
(viii) Both roots are undefined ⇒𝒂𝒂 = 𝟎𝟎,𝒃𝒃 = 𝟎𝟎.
(ix) Both roots are positive ⇒𝒂𝒂 and 𝒄𝒄 are of the same sign and 𝒃𝒃 has a sign opposite to that of 𝒂𝒂 as well
as 𝒄𝒄.
(x) Both roots are negative ⇒𝒂𝒂, 𝒃𝒃, 𝒄𝒄 are of the same sign.
(xi) One root is positive and other root os negative⇒𝒂𝒂 and 𝒄𝒄 are of the opposite sign.
(xii) If 𝒂𝒂 + 𝒃𝒃 + 𝒄𝒄 = 𝟎𝟎 then roots are rational. However the converse may not be true always.

Condition for common root(s):

Let 𝑎𝑎1 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐1 = 0 and 𝑎𝑎2 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏2 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐2 = 0 be two quadratic equations.

One root is common ⇒(𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐 − 𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐 𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏 )(𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏 𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐 − 𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐 𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏 ) = (𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐 − 𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐 𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏 )𝟐𝟐
Note:
• The common root can be obtained by making the coefficients of 𝑥𝑥 2 common to two given equations and
then subtracting the two equations.
• The other roots of the given equations can be determined by using the relations between their roots and
coefficents.
𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒃𝒃 𝒄𝒄
Condition for both roots common: ⇒ 𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐
= 𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏 = 𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐

Symmetric functions of roots of a quadratic equation:

Symmetric function: Let 𝛼𝛼, 𝛽𝛽 be the roots of a quadratic equation. An expression in 𝛼𝛼 and 𝛽𝛽 which remains
same when 𝛼𝛼 and 𝛽𝛽are interchanged, is known as a symmetric function in 𝛼𝛼 and 𝛽𝛽.
To evalauate a symmeric fucntion of the roots of a
quadratic equation in terms of its coefficients; we always • 𝛼𝛼 2 + 𝛽𝛽 2 = (𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛼𝛽𝛽
express it in terms of 𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽 and 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼. The following (𝛼𝛼 − 𝛽𝛽)2 = (𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽)2 − 4𝛼𝛼𝛽𝛽
•
results are very helpful for the same.
• 𝛼𝛼 3 + 𝛽𝛽 3 = (𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽)3 − 3𝛼𝛼𝛽𝛽(𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽)
• 𝛼𝛼 4 + 𝛽𝛽 4 = [(𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛼𝛽𝛽]2 − 2(𝛼𝛼𝛽𝛽)2

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Solved Examples
Example 1: In solving a quadratic equation of the form 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑞𝑞 = 0, one student makes a mistake only
in the constant term and obtains 4 and 3 as the roots. Another student makes a mistake only in the coefficient
of 𝑥𝑥 and finds −5 and −2 as the roots. Determine the correct equation.
Solution: The first student makes a mistake only in the constant term and obtains 4 and 3 as the roots.

Since sum of roots is 7, the equation is of the form:𝑥𝑥 2 − 7𝑥𝑥 + 𝑞𝑞 = 0.

The other student makes a mistake only in the coefficient of 𝑥𝑥 and finds −5 and −2 as roots. Hence product
of the roots = 𝑞𝑞 = 10.

Hence, the correct equation is 𝑥𝑥 2 − 7𝑥𝑥 + 10 = 0.

√2−1
Example 2: Form an equation with rational coefficients one of whose roots is .
√2+1
2
√2−1 �√2−1�
Solution: Given, one of the roots is = = 3 − 2√2, i.e. irrational.
√2+1 1
∴ Another root is 3 + 2√2.

⇒𝑆𝑆 = 3 − 2√2 + 3 + 2√2=6 and 𝑃𝑃 = �3 + 2√2��3 − 2√2�=9 − 8 = 1.

∴ Required quadratic equation, 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 + 𝑃𝑃 = 0

⇒ 𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 1 = 0.
1
Example 3: Form an equation with real coefficients one of whose roots is .
1−2𝑖𝑖
1 1+2𝑖𝑖 1+2𝑖𝑖
Solution: Given, one of the roots is = (1−2𝑖𝑖)(1+2𝑖𝑖) = , i.e. imaginary.
1−2𝑖𝑖 5

1−2𝑖𝑖
∴ Another root is .
5

1+2𝑖𝑖 1−2𝑖𝑖 2 1+2𝑖𝑖 1−2𝑖𝑖 5 1

⇒ 𝑆𝑆 = + = and 𝑃𝑃 = � �� �= =
5 5 5 5 5 25 5

∴ Required quadratic equation, 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 + 𝑃𝑃 = 0

2 1
⇒ 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + = 0
5 5

⇒ 5𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 1 = 0

𝛼𝛼 3 𝛽𝛽 3
Example 4: If 𝛼𝛼, 𝛽𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0, find the value of − .
𝛽𝛽 𝛼𝛼

Solution: Given 𝛼𝛼, 𝛽𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0.
𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐
⇒𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽 = − ------- (i) and 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 = ------- (ii)
𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎

𝛼𝛼 3 𝛽𝛽 3 𝛼𝛼 4 −𝛽𝛽 4
Now, 𝛽𝛽
− 𝛼𝛼
= 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼

(𝛼𝛼 2 + 𝛽𝛽 2 )(𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽)(𝛼𝛼 − 𝛽𝛽)

=
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼

[(𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼](𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽)�(𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽)2 − 4𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼

=
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼

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 ISC XI- Applied Mathematics

𝑏𝑏�𝑏𝑏2 −2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎�√𝑏𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

= [ By (i) and (ii)]
𝑐𝑐𝑎𝑎 3

𝛼𝛼 2
Example 5: If 𝛼𝛼, 𝛽𝛽 are the roots of the equation 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 1 = 0, find the equation whose roots are 𝛽𝛽
and
𝛽𝛽 2
𝛼𝛼
.

Solution: Given 𝛼𝛼, 𝛽𝛽 are the roots of the equation 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 1 = 0
4 1
⇒ 𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽 = ------- (i) and 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 = ------- (ii)
3 3

𝛼𝛼 2 𝛽𝛽 2
New roots are 𝛽𝛽
and 𝛼𝛼

𝛼𝛼 2 𝛽𝛽 2 𝛼𝛼 3 +𝛽𝛽 3
∴ 𝑆𝑆 = 𝛽𝛽
+ 𝛼𝛼
= 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼

(𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽)3 − 3𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼(𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽)

=
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼
64 1 4
−3× × (64−36)3 28
= 27
1
3 3
= =
27 9
3

𝛼𝛼 2 𝛽𝛽 2 1
and 𝑃𝑃 = 𝛽𝛽
× 𝛼𝛼
= 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 =
3

Required quadratic equation, 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 + 𝑃𝑃 = 0

28 1
⇒𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + =0
9 3

⇒9𝑥𝑥 2 − 28𝑥𝑥 + 3 = 0.

Example 6: If 𝛼𝛼, 𝛽𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑞𝑞 = 0 and 𝛾𝛾, 𝛿𝛿 are the roots of the equation 𝑥𝑥 2 +
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 + 𝑝𝑝 = 0. If the ratio of the roots of the two equations is equal find the relation between 𝑝𝑝 and 𝑞𝑞.
Solution: Given 𝛼𝛼, 𝛽𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑞𝑞 = 0 .
⇒𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽 = 𝑝𝑝 ------- (i) and 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 = 𝑞𝑞 ------- (ii)
Given 𝛾𝛾, 𝛿𝛿 are the roots of the equation 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 + 𝑝𝑝 = 0 .
⇒ 𝛾𝛾 + 𝛿𝛿 = 𝑞𝑞 ------- (iii) and 𝛾𝛾. 𝛿𝛿 = 𝑝𝑝 ------- (iv)
𝛼𝛼 𝛾𝛾
As per question, =
𝛽𝛽 𝛿𝛿

Appllying componendo and dividendo we get,

𝛼𝛼+𝛽𝛽 𝛾𝛾+𝛿𝛿
⇒ =
𝛼𝛼−𝛽𝛽 𝛾𝛾−𝛿𝛿

⇒(𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽)2 (𝛾𝛾 − 𝛿𝛿)2 = (𝛾𝛾 + 𝛿𝛿)2 (𝛼𝛼 − 𝛽𝛽)2

⇒(𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽)2 [(𝛾𝛾 + 𝛿𝛿)2 − 4𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾] = (𝛾𝛾 + 𝛿𝛿)2 [(𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽)2 − 4𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼]
⇒𝑝𝑝2 (𝑞𝑞 2 − 4𝑝𝑝) = 𝑞𝑞 2 (𝑝𝑝2 − 4𝑞𝑞)
⇒ 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑞𝑞

Example 7: Find the values of λ and µ if both roots of the equation (2λ + 3µ)𝑥𝑥 2 = (3λ + 1)𝑥𝑥 − 3 are
infinite.
Solution: Given,quadratic equation:(2λ + 3µ)𝑥𝑥 2 − (3λ + 1)𝑥𝑥 + 3 = 0.

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 ISC XI- Applied Mathematics

1
Since, both roots are infinite, ⇒−(3λ + 1) = 0 ⇒ λ = −
3
1 2
Also, 2λ + 3µ = 0 ⇒2 �− � + 3µ = 0 ⇒ 𝜇𝜇 =
3 9
1 2
∴ λ = − and 𝜇𝜇 =
3 9

𝑥𝑥
Example 8: For what value of 𝑘𝑘, the equation 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑘𝑘 = 0 and 𝑥𝑥 2 + − 1 = 0 have 2 common roots.
2
𝑥𝑥
Solution: Given two quadratic equations are: 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑘𝑘 = 0 and 𝑥𝑥 2 + − 1 = 0
2
2 1 𝑘𝑘
Since both roots are common, ⇒ = 1 = ⇒𝑘𝑘 = −2
1 −1
2

Example 9: If 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 = 0 and 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑞𝑞 = 0 have a root in common and the second equation has
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
equal roots, show that 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑞𝑞 =
2

Solution: Let 𝛼𝛼, 𝛽𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 = 0

∴ 𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽 = 𝑎𝑎 ------ (i) and 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 = 𝑏𝑏 ------ (ii)
Let 𝛼𝛼 be the common root.
As per question 𝛼𝛼, 𝛼𝛼 are the roots of 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑞𝑞 = 0
∴ 𝛼𝛼 + 𝛼𝛼 = 𝑝𝑝 ------ (iii) and 𝛼𝛼. 𝛼𝛼 = 𝑞𝑞 ------ (iv)
LHS= 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑞𝑞 = 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 + 𝛼𝛼. 𝛼𝛼 [By (ii) and (iv)]
= 𝛼𝛼(𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽)
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
= [By (i) and (iii)]
2

= RHS.
Hence proved.
Example 10: Find the values of λ for which the quadratic equation 𝑥𝑥 2 − λ𝑥𝑥 + 3 + λ = 0 has
(i) Coincident roots.
(ii) Real and distinct roots.
(iii) One positive and one negative root.
Solution: Given, quadratic equation𝑥𝑥 2 − λ𝑥𝑥 + (3 + λ) = 0
Discriminant (D)= λ2 − 4(3 + λ)

= λ2 − 4λ − 12

= λ2 − 6λ + 2λ − 12
= (λ + 2)(λ − 6)
(i) The roots are coincident, i.e. roots are equal.
⇒ D= 0
⇒ (λ + 2)(λ − 6) = 0
⇒ λ = −2 or λ = 6.

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 ISC XI- Applied Mathematics

(ii) Roots are real and distinct

⇒ D> 0
⇒ (λ + 2)(λ − 6) > 0
⇒ λ < −2 or λ > 6
i.e. λ ∈ (−∞, −2) ∪ (6, ∞)
(iii) One root is positive and other root is negative.
⇒ product of the roots < 0
⇒3+λ<0
⇒ λ < −3.
i.e. λ ∈ (−∞, −3).

Exercises
1. Choose the correct option.
1 1
(i) If 𝛼𝛼 , 𝛽𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 2 = 0 the value of − is
𝛼𝛼 𝛽𝛽

(a) − √2 (c) √2
1
(b) (d) 20
√2

(ii) If one root of the equation 4𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 + 𝜆𝜆 = 0 be reciprocal of another root, then the value of λ is
(a) 9 (c) −4
(b) −5 (d) 4
(iii) Sum of the coefficient of 𝑥𝑥 2 and 𝑥𝑥 of the quadratic equation with rational coefficients one of whose
3 + √5
roots is
2 − √5

(a) 23 (c) 22
(b) 18 (d) 21
(iv) For any complex number 𝑧𝑧,
Statement 1: The roots of the equation 3𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑝𝑝(𝑝𝑝 − 1) = 0 are of opposite sign then 𝑝𝑝 ∈(0,1).
Statement 2: If roots of quadratic equation 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0 , where 𝑎𝑎 , 𝑏𝑏 and 𝑐𝑐 ∈ R and 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0, are
of opposite sign then product of the roots must be < 0.
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are true?
(a) Only 1 (c) Both 1 and 2
(b) Only 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(v) Assertion: The equations 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0 , (𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 ∈ 𝑅𝑅) and 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 + 4 = 0 have a common
root then 𝑎𝑎: 𝑏𝑏: 𝑐𝑐 = 2: 3: 4
Reason: Roots of 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 + 4 = 0 are imaginary.
(a) Both A and R individually true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
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 ISC XI- Applied Mathematics

2. The coefficient of 𝑥𝑥 in the equation 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑞𝑞 = 0 was taken as 17 in place of 13 and its
roots were found to be −2 and −15. Find the roots of the original equation.
1
3. Form an equation with rational coefficients one of whose roots is .
5−2√6

1
4. Form an equation with real coefficients one of whose roots is .
−4 + 4𝑖𝑖

5. If 𝛼𝛼, 𝛽𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0, find the value of:
𝛽𝛽 𝛼𝛼
(i) 𝛼𝛼 −1 + 𝛽𝛽 −1 (ii) 𝛼𝛼 −4 + 𝛽𝛽 −4 (iii) +
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏

6. If 𝛼𝛼, 𝛽𝛽 are the roots of the equation

(i) 2𝑥𝑥 2 − 5𝑥𝑥 − 7 = 0 , find the equation whose roots are 2𝛼𝛼 + 3𝛽𝛽 and 3𝛼𝛼 + 2𝛽𝛽.
1 1
(ii) 4𝑥𝑥 2 − 16𝑥𝑥 + 15 = 0 , find the equation whose roots are (𝛼𝛼+𝛽𝛽)2 and (𝛼𝛼−𝛽𝛽)2
.

1 1
(iii) 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0 , find the equation whose roots are 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 and 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏
.

7. If the roots of 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0, 𝑎𝑎 > 0, 𝑐𝑐 > 0, are in the ratio 𝑚𝑚: 𝑛𝑛, then show that

𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑐
� +� =�
𝑛𝑛 𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎

8. For what integral value of ‘𝑎𝑎’ are the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥2 + (2𝑎𝑎 − 1)𝑥𝑥 + (𝑎𝑎 − 2) = 0
rational?

9. Find the values of λ for which the quadratic equation𝑥𝑥 2 − λ(2𝑥𝑥 − 8) − 15 = 0 has

(i) equal roots.

(ii) both roots are positive.

10. Find the condition that one root of 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0 be the reciprocal of a root of
𝑝𝑝𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 + 𝑟𝑟 = 0.

11. If 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 0 and 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 0 have a common root, then show that their root
satisfies the equation 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 0.

12. If 𝛼𝛼, 𝛽𝛽 are the roots of the equation λ(𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥) + 𝑥𝑥 + 5 = 0 and if 𝜆𝜆1 , 𝜆𝜆2 are the two values of λ
𝛼𝛼 𝛽𝛽 4 𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆
obtained from the relation 𝛽𝛽 + 𝛼𝛼 = 5. Show that 12 + 12 = 4048.
𝜆𝜆2 𝜆𝜆1

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 ISC XI- Applied Mathematics

Answers
1. (i) (c) (ii) (d) (iii) (a) (iv) (c) (v) (b)

2. −3, −10
3. 𝑥𝑥2 − 10𝑥𝑥 + 1 = 0
4. 32𝑥𝑥2 + 8𝑥𝑥 + 1 = 0
−𝑏𝑏 1 2
5. (i) 𝑐𝑐
(ii) 𝑐𝑐 4 [𝑏𝑏 4 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 2 + 2𝑎𝑎2 𝑐𝑐 2 ] (iii) − 𝑎𝑎

6. (i) 2𝑥𝑥2 − 25𝑥𝑥 + 68 = 0 (ii) 16𝑥𝑥2 − 17𝑥𝑥 + 1 = 0 (iii) 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 1 = 0
8. 𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 + 1), 𝑛𝑛 ∈ 𝑁𝑁
7
9. (i) λ=3,5 (ii) 1 8 < 𝑚𝑚 ≤ 3, 𝑚𝑚 ≥ 5.

10. (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)2 = (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏)(𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐)

Quadratic functions
A quadratic function is a relationship between two variables which can be written in the form of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 +
𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 where 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 are the variables and 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 and 𝑐𝑐 represents constant with 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0.
Using function notations, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 can be written as 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐

Graphs of quadratic functions

The graphs of all quadratic functions are parabolas. The
parabola is one of the conic sections. Conic sections are
curves which can be obtained by cutting a cone with a
plane. Specifically, the graphs of all quadratic functions
are either upward or downward parabolas whose
equations are: (𝑥𝑥 − 𝛼𝛼)2 = ±4𝑎𝑎(𝑦𝑦 − 𝛽𝛽).
(𝛼𝛼, 𝛽𝛽) is the vertex of the parabola and + sign
indicates that the parabola is upward and – sign
indicates that the parabola is downward.
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐
𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐
= 𝑎𝑎 �𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 + �
𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎

𝑏𝑏 2 𝑏𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
= 𝑎𝑎 ��𝑥𝑥 + � − �
2𝑎𝑎 4𝑎𝑎 2

𝑏𝑏 2 𝐷𝐷
=𝑎𝑎 ��𝑥𝑥 + � − �
2𝑎𝑎 4𝑎𝑎2

𝑏𝑏 2 𝐷𝐷
i.e. 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎 ��𝑥𝑥 + � − �
2𝑎𝑎 4𝑎𝑎2

2
𝑏𝑏 1 −𝐷𝐷 𝑏𝑏 𝐷𝐷
⇒ �𝑥𝑥 − �− �� = �𝑦𝑦 − �, which represents a parabola with vertex at �− , − �, and face upwards
2𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 4𝑎𝑎 2𝑎𝑎 4𝑎𝑎
if 𝑎𝑎 >0 and face downward if 𝑎𝑎 < 0.

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𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
Case – I. When 𝐷𝐷 = 0, the equation 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0 has two equal roots 𝑥𝑥 = − ,− , and 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
2𝑎𝑎 2𝑎𝑎
𝑏𝑏 2
𝑎𝑎 �𝑥𝑥 + � , which represents a parabola
2𝑎𝑎
touching 𝑥𝑥 −axis.
Thus when 𝐷𝐷 = 0 , 𝑎𝑎 >0 we have a parabola
touching 𝑥𝑥 − axis and facing upwards.

• Minimum value of the expression 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 +

𝐷𝐷 𝑏𝑏
𝑐𝑐 = − and it occurs at 𝑥𝑥 = − .
4𝑎𝑎 2𝑎𝑎
• Sign of expression 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 is always
positive.

When 𝐷𝐷 = 0 , 𝑎𝑎 <0 we have a parabola touching 𝑥𝑥 − axis and face

downwards.
𝐷𝐷 𝑏𝑏
• Maximum value of the expression 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = − and it occurs at 𝑥𝑥 = −
4𝑎𝑎 2𝑎𝑎
• Sign of expression 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 is always negative.

Case – II. When 𝐷𝐷 < 0, the equation 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0 has two imaginary/complex roots and 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
𝑏𝑏 2 𝐷𝐷 𝑏𝑏 𝐷𝐷
𝑎𝑎 ��𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑎𝑎� − 4𝑎𝑎2 � , which represents a parabola with vertex at �− 2𝑎𝑎 , − 4𝑎𝑎�

Thus, when 𝐷𝐷 < 0 , 𝑎𝑎 >0 we have a parabola

fully lying above 𝑥𝑥 − axis and facing upwards.

• Since it doesn’t meet 𝑥𝑥-axis, there is no

real 𝑥𝑥 such that 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 0
𝑖𝑖. 𝑒𝑒. 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0 has no real roots.
• Minimum value of the expression 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 +
𝐷𝐷 𝑏𝑏
𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = − and it occurs at 𝑥𝑥 = − .
4𝑎𝑎 2𝑎𝑎 a>0, D<0
• Sign of expression 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 is always
positive.
When 𝐷𝐷 < 0 , 𝑎𝑎 <0 we have a parabola fully below 𝑥𝑥 − axis and facing downwards.

• Since it doesn’t meet 𝑥𝑥-axis, there is no real 𝑥𝑥 such that 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 0

𝑖𝑖. 𝑒𝑒. 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0 has no real roots.
𝐷𝐷 𝑏𝑏
• Maximum value of the expression 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = − and it occurs at 𝑥𝑥 = − .
4𝑎𝑎 2𝑎𝑎
• Sign of expression 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 is always negative.

Case – III. When 𝐷𝐷 > 0, the equation 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0 has two real distinct roots, say 𝛼𝛼, 𝛽𝛽 (𝛼𝛼 < 𝛽𝛽) . Then
𝑏𝑏 2 𝐷𝐷 𝑏𝑏 𝐷𝐷
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎 ��𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑎𝑎� − 4𝑎𝑎2 � ≈ 𝑎𝑎(𝑥𝑥 − 𝛼𝛼)(𝑥𝑥 − 𝛽𝛽) , which represents a parabola with vertex at �− 2𝑎𝑎 , − 4𝑎𝑎�

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 ISC XI- Applied Mathematics

Thus when 𝐷𝐷 > 0 , 𝑎𝑎 >0 we have a parabola

vertex lies below 𝒙𝒙 − axis but facing upwards.

• The graph meets 𝑥𝑥 − axis at two points,

which give two distinct real roots 𝛼𝛼, 𝛽𝛽 (𝛼𝛼 <
𝛽𝛽) of 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0
• Minimum value of the expression 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 +
𝐷𝐷 𝑏𝑏
𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = − and it occurs at 𝑥𝑥 = −
4𝑎𝑎 2𝑎𝑎
• For 𝑥𝑥 < 𝛼𝛼 or 𝑥𝑥 > 𝛽𝛽 sign of expression
𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 is always positive, for 𝛼𝛼 <
𝑥𝑥 < 𝛽𝛽 sign of expression 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 is
always negative.

Case – IV. When 𝐷𝐷 > 0 , 𝑎𝑎 <0 we have a parabola vertex lies above 𝒙𝒙 − axis but facing downwards.

• The graph meets 𝑥𝑥 − axis at two points, which give two distinct real roots 𝛼𝛼, 𝛽𝛽 (𝛼𝛼 < 𝛽𝛽) of 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 +
𝑐𝑐 = 0
𝐷𝐷 𝑏𝑏
• Maximum value of the expression 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = − and it occurs at 𝑥𝑥 = −
4𝑎𝑎 2𝑎𝑎
• For 𝑥𝑥 < 𝛼𝛼 or 𝑥𝑥 > 𝛽𝛽 sign of expression 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐
is always negative, for 𝛼𝛼 < 𝑥𝑥 < 𝛽𝛽 sign of expression
• In short, 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 has same sign as
𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 is always positive.
a except when 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0 has
two real distinct real roots say 𝛼𝛼, 𝛽𝛽 (𝛼𝛼 <
Solved Examples 𝛽𝛽) and 𝛼𝛼 < 𝑥𝑥 < 𝛽𝛽.
Example 1: Discuss the signs of the following quadratic • Maximum/ Minimum value occurs at 𝑥𝑥 =
functions: 𝑏𝑏 𝐷𝐷
− , and its value is − . When a >0,
2𝑎𝑎 4𝑎𝑎
(i) 2 − 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 2 (ii) 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 3 we have minimum; when a<0, we have
Solution: (i) Given, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = −𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 2 maximum.

Here, 𝑎𝑎 = −1, 𝑏𝑏 = −1 , 𝑐𝑐 = 2

∴ 𝐷𝐷 = 𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 1 + 8 = 9> 0, i.e. 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = −𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 2 = 0

⇒𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 2 = 0
⇒(𝑥𝑥 + 2)(𝑥𝑥 − 1) has two distinct real roots −2, 1
Also 𝑎𝑎 = −1< 0
> 0 when − 2 < 𝑥𝑥 < 1
∴ −𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 2 �
< 0 when 𝑥𝑥 < −2 or 𝑥𝑥 > 1
(ii) Given, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 3
Here, 𝑎𝑎 = 3, 𝑏𝑏 = −6 , 𝑐𝑐 = 3
∴ 𝐷𝐷 = 𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 36 − 36 = 0,
Also, 𝑎𝑎 = 3> 0

∴ 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 3 ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅

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 ISC XI- Applied Mathematics

Example 2: Find the greatest/least value of 3 + 5𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑥 2 . Also state the value of 𝑥𝑥 for which greatest/least
occurs.
Solution: 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = −2𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 + 3
Here 𝑎𝑎 = −2 < 0
⇒𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = −2𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 + 3 has greatest value.
𝐷𝐷 (25+24) 49
∴ Greatest value = − =− =
4𝑎𝑎 −8 8
𝑏𝑏 5
Also, greatest value occurs when 𝑥𝑥 = − =
2𝑎𝑎 4

Example 3: Graph the expression 4 − 5𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 2 .

(i) From graph find greatest/least value of 4 − 5𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 2 .
(ii) State the value of 𝑥𝑥 for which greatest/least occurs.
(iii) Sign of the quadratic expression.
Solution: 𝒚𝒚 = 4 − 5𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 2

⇒𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 = −𝑦𝑦 + 4

5 25 25
⇒𝑥𝑥 2 + 2. 𝑥𝑥 + = −𝑦𝑦 + 4 +
2 4 4

5 2 41 5 41
⇒ �𝑥𝑥 − �− �� = − �𝑦𝑦 − �, which is downward parabola having vertex �− , �
2 4 2 4

Also,4 − 5𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 2 = 0 5 41
�− , �
2 4
⇒𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 − 4 = 0
−5±√41
⇒𝑥𝑥 = 2

⇒𝑥𝑥 ≈ −5.7,1.8
Thus, the graph is cutting 𝑥𝑥-axis at two distinct points namely
(−5.7, 0) and (1.8,0)
Hence the graph of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 4 − 5𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 2 is:
41
(i) Greatest value of the expression =
4
5
(ii) Greatest value occurs at 𝑥𝑥 = −
2

> 0 when − 5.7 < 𝑥𝑥 < 1.8

(iii) −𝑥𝑥 2 − 5𝑥𝑥 + 4 �
< 0 when 𝑥𝑥 < −5.7 or 𝑥𝑥 > 1.8

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 ISC XI- Applied Mathematics

Exercises
1. Choose the correct option.
(i) Minimum value of the expression 2𝑥𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 1 is
4 3
(a) (c) −
3 4

(b)
−1 (d) Does not exist
8

(ii) Minimum value of the expression 7 + 5𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑥 2

5 −4
(a) (c)
4 5

(b)
4 (d) Does not exist
5

(iii) The range of values of x for which the expression 12𝑥𝑥 2 + 7𝑥𝑥 − 10 is negative is
5 2 2
(a) 𝑥𝑥 < − or 𝑥𝑥 > (c) 𝑥𝑥 <
4 3 3
5 2 5
(b) − < 𝑥𝑥 < (d) 𝑥𝑥 > −
4 3 4

(iv) For any complex number 𝑧𝑧:

Statement 1: For all real values of 𝑥𝑥, the maximum value of the quadratic expression
3
𝑥𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 3 occurs when 𝑥𝑥 =
2

Statement 2: For all real values of 𝑥𝑥, the minimum value of the quadratic expression
−5𝑥𝑥 2 + 10𝑥𝑥 + 7 occurs when 𝑥𝑥 = 1
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are true?
(a) Only 1 (c) Both 1 and 2
(b) Only 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(v) Assertion: The graph of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 + 1 always lies above the 𝑥𝑥-axis.
Reason: Roots of 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 + 1 = 0 are imaginary.
(a) Both A and R individually true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.

2. Discuss the sign of the following quadratic functions: 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 1

3. Find the greatest/least value of 3𝑥𝑥 + 7 − 2𝑥𝑥 2 . Also state the value of 𝑥𝑥 for which greatest/least occurs.

4. Graph the expression 𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 9

(i) From graph find greatest/least value of𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 9
(ii) State the value of 𝑥𝑥 for which greatest/least occurs.
(iii) Sign of the quadratic expression.
5. Trace the changes in sign and value of the expression −5𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 − 6 for real value of 𝑥𝑥. Illustrate by a
graph.

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Answers
1. (i) (b) (ii) (d) (iii) (b) (iv) (d) (v) (b)

2. 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 1 > 0 ∀ 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅
65 3
3. Greatest value = ; greatest value occurs at 𝑥𝑥 = .
8 4

4.

(i) Least value of the expression = 0.

(ii) Greatest value occurs at 𝑥𝑥 = 0

(iii) 𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 9 > 0 ∀ 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅

5. The graph illustrates that 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = −5𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 − 6 < 0∀ 𝑥𝑥 ∈ R. Hence there will be no change in sign of
the expression.

Linear Inequalities
• If 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 are two variables such that 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 𝑦𝑦; then one of the following four relations will be true:
(i) 𝑥𝑥 > 𝑦𝑦 (iii) 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑦𝑦 or
(ii) 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 𝑦𝑦 (iv) 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑦𝑦
Each of the above four relations, is an inequation.
The signs ‘>’, ‘≥’, ‘<’ and ‘≤” are signs of inequality.
• Inequality postulates:
(i) Adding both sides of an inequality by a positive or negative value produces an equivalent
inequality.
(ii) Multiplying or dividing both sides of an inequality by the same positive number produces an
equivalent inequality.
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 ISC XI- Applied Mathematics

(iii) Multiplying both sides of an inequality by the same negative number produces an inequality
with its direction reversed.
i.e. From > to < and vice versa;
and
From ≥ to ≤ and vice versa.
(iv) Reciprocating both sides of an inequality (both sides may be positive or negative) produces an
inequality with its direction reversed.
(v) Squaring
(a) If both sides of an inequality are positive, then squaring both sides produce an equivalent
inequality.
(b) If both sides of an inequality are negative, then squaring both sides produce an inequality with
its direction reversed.
• Replacement set: The set from which values of the variable (involved in the inequality) are chosen is
called the replacement set.
• Solution set: A solution to an inequality is a number (chosen from replacement set) which when
substituted for the variable, makes the inequality true. The set of all solutions of an inequality is called
solution set of the inequality.
• Solution of an inequation is always a set of values. Hence solution is always a set which may be finite or
infinite.
− When 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 , write the solution set in 𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒 𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁 form or by open/closed/semi open intervals.
− When 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑁𝑁 or 𝑊𝑊 or 𝑍𝑍 or 𝑍𝑍 + or 𝑍𝑍 − , write the solution set in Roster form.
• Some important results involving modulus:
If 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 ∈ 𝑅𝑅
− |𝑥𝑥| ≤ 𝑎𝑎⟹−𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑎𝑎
− |𝑥𝑥| < 𝑎𝑎⟹−𝑎𝑎 < 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑎𝑎
− |𝑥𝑥| ≥ 𝑎𝑎⟹𝑥𝑥 ≤ −𝑎𝑎 or 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 𝑎𝑎
− |𝑥𝑥| > 𝑎𝑎⟹𝑥𝑥 < −𝑎𝑎 or 𝑥𝑥 > 𝑎𝑎
− 𝑎𝑎 ≤ |𝑥𝑥| ≤ 𝑏𝑏⇒[−𝑏𝑏, −𝑎𝑎] ∪ [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏]
− 𝑎𝑎 ≤ |𝑥𝑥 − 𝑐𝑐| ≤ 𝑏𝑏 ⇒ [−𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐, −𝑎𝑎 + 𝑐𝑐] ∪ [𝑎𝑎 + 𝑐𝑐, 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐]
− |𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦| ≤ |𝑥𝑥| + |𝑦𝑦|
− |𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦| ≤ |𝑥𝑥| − |𝑦𝑦|
− |𝑥𝑥| < |𝑦𝑦| iff 𝑥𝑥 2 < 𝑦𝑦 2
− |𝑥𝑥| ≤ |𝑦𝑦| iff 𝑥𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑦𝑦 2
− |𝑥𝑥| > |𝑦𝑦| iff 𝑥𝑥 2 > 𝑦𝑦 2
− |𝑥𝑥| ≥ |𝑦𝑦| iff 𝑥𝑥 2 ≥ 𝑦𝑦 2

Linear in-equations in one variable:

• Classification:
I. Type-I - In-equation questions involving one inequality sign.
3𝑥𝑥 2𝑥𝑥−1
For example: Solve: − > 1 , 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅
5 3

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 ISC XI- Applied Mathematics

II. Type-II - In-equation questions involving two inequality signs in which expression in terms of x is
only in the middle.
2 1 1
For example: −2 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 + <3+ ; 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅
3 3 3

III. Type-III - In-equation questions involving two inequality signs in which expression in terms of x
is at least two places.
For example: 2𝑥𝑥 − 3 < 𝑥𝑥 + 1 ≤ 4 𝑥𝑥 + 7 , 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅
• If nothing is specified in the question about the variable 𝑥𝑥, then always take 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅.
• Representation of the solution on the number line when 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅:
It is always advisable to represent the solution on the number line when 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 using shading instead of
highlighting on the number line.

Solved Examples
1 2𝑥𝑥 1
Example 1: Solve : � + 1� ≥ (𝑥𝑥 − 2)
4 3 3
1 2𝑥𝑥 1
Solution : � + 1� ≥ (𝑥𝑥 − 2)
4 3 3

2𝑥𝑥
⇒ 3� + 1� ≥ 4(𝑥𝑥 − 2)
3

⇒2𝑥𝑥 + 3 ≥ 4𝑥𝑥 − 8
⇒−2𝑥𝑥 ≥ −11
11
⇒𝑥𝑥 ≤
2
1
∴ The solution set is (−∞, 5 ]
2

2−3𝑥𝑥
Example 2: Solve: −5 ≤ ≤9
4
2−3𝑥𝑥
Solution : −5 ≤ ≤9
4

⇒−20 ≤ 2 − 3𝑥𝑥 ≤ 36
⇒−22 ≤ −3𝑥𝑥 ≤ 34
22 34
⇒− ≥ 𝑥𝑥 ≥ −
3 3
1 1 1 1
⇒−11 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 7 ∴ The solution set is �−11 , 7 �
3 3 3 3

4−𝑥𝑥
Example 3: Solve: 3𝑥𝑥 − 2 > 𝑥𝑥 + >3
3
4−𝑥𝑥
Solution: 3𝑥𝑥 − 2 > 𝑥𝑥 + >3
3
3𝑥𝑥+4−𝑥𝑥
⇒3< < 3𝑥𝑥 − 2
3
2𝑥𝑥+4 2𝑥𝑥+4
⇒3< and < 3𝑥𝑥 − 2
3 3

⇒ 9 < 2𝑥𝑥 + 4 and 2𝑥𝑥 + 4 < 9𝑥𝑥 − 6

⇒−2𝑥𝑥 < 4 − 9 and 2𝑥𝑥 − 9𝑥𝑥 < −6 − 4
5 10
⇒ 𝑥𝑥 > and 𝑥𝑥 >
2 7

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 ISC XI- Applied Mathematics

5
⇒ 𝑥𝑥 >
2

∴ The solution set is (2.5, ∞)

Example 4: Solve the following system of inequailty:

4𝑥𝑥 + 3 ≥ 2𝑥𝑥 + 17 , 3𝑥𝑥 − 5 < −2
Solution : Given: 4𝑥𝑥 + 3 ≥ 2𝑥𝑥 + 17 and 3𝑥𝑥 − 5 < −2
⇒ 4𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑥 ≥ 17 − 3 and 3𝑥𝑥 < 5 − 2
⇒ 2𝑥𝑥 ≥ 14 and 3𝑥𝑥 < 3
⇒ 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 7 and 𝑥𝑥 < 1
∴ The solution set is 𝜑𝜑.
1
Example 5: Solve:|4𝑥𝑥 − 5| ≤
3
1
Solution :|4𝑥𝑥 − 5| ≤
3
1 1
⇒ − ≤ 4𝑥𝑥 − 5 ≤
3 3

⇒ −1 ≤ 12𝑥𝑥 − 15 ≤ 1
⇒ −1 + 15 ≤ 12𝑥𝑥 ≤ 1 + 15
7 4
⇒ ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤
6 3
1 1
∴ The solution set is �1 , 1 �
6 3

Example 6: Solve:3|3𝑥𝑥 − 5| + 1 > 7

Solution : 3|3𝑥𝑥 − 5| + 1 > 7
⇒ 3|3𝑥𝑥 − 5| > 6
⇒ |3𝑥𝑥 − 5| > 2
⇒ 3𝑥𝑥 − 5 < −2 or 3𝑥𝑥 − 5 > 2
⇒ 3𝑥𝑥 < 3 or 3𝑥𝑥 > 7
7
⇒ 𝑥𝑥 < 1 or 𝑥𝑥 >
3

1
∴ The solution set is (−∞, 1) ∪ �2 , ∞�
3

−1
Example 7: Solve: |𝑥𝑥|−2
≥1
−1
Solution: |𝑥𝑥|−2
≥1

|𝑥𝑥|−2
⇒ ≤1
−1

⇒ |𝑥𝑥| − 2 ≥ −1
⇒ |𝑥𝑥| ≥ 1
⇒ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ −1 or 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 1

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 ISC XI- Applied Mathematics

∴ The solution set is (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)

Example 8: Solve: 1 ≤ |𝑥𝑥 − 2| ≤ 3

Solution : 1 ≤ |𝑥𝑥 − 2| ≤ 3
⇒ −3 + 2 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ −1 + 2 or 1 + 2 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 3 + 2
⇒ −1 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 1 or 3 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 5
∴ The solution set is [−1,1] ∪ [3,5]

Example 9: Solve: |𝑥𝑥 + 1| + |𝑥𝑥| > 3

−2𝑥𝑥 − 1, 𝑥𝑥 < −1
Solution: |𝑥𝑥 + 1| + |𝑥𝑥| = � 1, −1 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 < 0
2𝑥𝑥 + 1, 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 0
Case I: When 𝑥𝑥 < −1
−2𝑥𝑥 − 1 > 3
⇒ −2𝑥𝑥 > 4
⇒ 𝑥𝑥 < −2
Case II: When −1 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 < 0
1>3, which is not possible.
Case III: When 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 0
2𝑥𝑥 + 1 > 3
⇒2𝑥𝑥 ≥ 2
⇒𝑥𝑥 ≥ 1
∴ The solution set is (−∞ − 2) ∪ [1, ∞).

Example 10: Solve:|𝑥𝑥 + 2| ≤ |𝑥𝑥 − 3|

Solution:|𝑥𝑥 + 2| ≤ |𝑥𝑥 − 3|

⇒(𝑥𝑥 + 2)2 ≤ (𝑥𝑥 − 3)2 [∵|𝑥𝑥| ≤ |𝑦𝑦| iff 𝑥𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑦𝑦 2 ]

⇒𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 + 4 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 9

⇒4𝑥𝑥 + 6𝑥𝑥 ≤ 9 − 4
1 1
⇒𝑥𝑥 ≤ ∴ The solution set is (−∞, ]
2 2

Example 11: Solve: 3𝑥𝑥 + 1 < |3𝑥𝑥 + 1|

Solution: 3𝑥𝑥 + 1 < |3𝑥𝑥 + 1|
⇒3𝑥𝑥 + 1 < 0
1
⇒𝑥𝑥 < −
3
1
∴ The solution set is (−∞, − )
3

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Example 12: A man has 640 litres of 8% solution Boric acid. How many litres of 2% solution Boric acid
should be added to it so that Boric acid in the resultant mixture will be greater than 4% but less than 6%?
Solution: Let 𝑥𝑥 litres of 2% solution Boric acid to be added.
Hence revised quantity = (640 + 𝑥𝑥) litres
8×640 2𝑥𝑥 2𝑥𝑥+5120
∴ Quantity of Boric acid = � + � litres = litres.
100 100 100

4 2𝑥𝑥+5120 6
As per question, × (640 + 𝑥𝑥) < < × (640 + 𝑥𝑥)
100 100 100

⇒2560 + 4𝑥𝑥 < 2𝑥𝑥 + 5120 < 3840 + 6𝑥𝑥

⇒ 2560 + 4𝑥𝑥 < 2𝑥𝑥 + 5120 and 2𝑥𝑥 + 5120 < 3840 + 6𝑥𝑥
⇒ 2𝑥𝑥 < 2560 and 1280 < 4𝑥𝑥
⇒ 𝑥𝑥 < 1280 and 320 < 𝑥𝑥
i.e. 320 < 𝑥𝑥 < 1280
Therefore, the quantity of 2% Boric acid should be more that 320 litres and less than 1280 litres.

Exercises
1. Choose the correct option.
(i) Consider the linear in-equation 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 ≥ 𝑐𝑐, where 𝑎𝑎< 0 and 𝑎𝑎 , 𝑏𝑏 , 𝑐𝑐 ∈ R, then the solution set of
real number is
𝑐𝑐−𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐−𝑏𝑏
(a) �𝑥𝑥 | 𝑥𝑥 ≥ , 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅� (c) �𝑥𝑥 | 𝑥𝑥 ≤ , 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅�
𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎
𝑐𝑐 + 𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐−𝑏𝑏
(b) �𝑥𝑥 | 𝑥𝑥 ≤ , 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅� (d) �𝑥𝑥 | 𝑥𝑥 ≤ , 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅�
𝑎𝑎 −𝑎𝑎

(ii) Solution of the inequality: |2𝑥𝑥 + 3| > 0|

−3 (c) 𝜑𝜑
(a) (−∞, ]
2 −3 3
3 (d) (−∞, ) ∪ (− , ∞)
(b) [− , ∞) 2 2
2

(iii) Solution of the given system of in-equations: |𝑥𝑥 − 1| ≤ 1 , |𝑥𝑥| ≥ 1 is

(a) [1,2] (c) [−1,2)
(b) (1,2) (d) (1,2]

(iv) Consider the following statements:

Statement 1: If 𝑎𝑎 < 𝑏𝑏 and 𝑐𝑐 > 0 then 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑐𝑐 > 𝑏𝑏 − 𝑐𝑐, where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 all are real numbers.
Statement 2: If 𝑎𝑎 < 𝑏𝑏 and 𝑐𝑐 > 0 then 𝑎𝑎. 𝑐𝑐 > 𝑏𝑏. 𝑐𝑐, where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 all are real numbers.
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
(a) Only 1 (c) Both 1 and 2
(b) Only 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
9
(v) Assertion: If |2𝑥𝑥+3| ≤ 1 , then 𝑥𝑥 ∈ (−∞, −6] ∪ [3, ∞)

Reason: |𝑥𝑥| > 𝑎𝑎 ⟹ 𝑥𝑥 < −𝑎𝑎 or 𝑥𝑥 > 𝑎𝑎

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 ISC XI- Applied Mathematics

(a) Both A and R individually true and R is the correct explanation of A.

(b) Both A and R individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.

2. Solve the following inequalities:

1 3(𝑥𝑥−2) 5(2−𝑥𝑥)
(i) <0 (ii) ≥
𝑥𝑥−3 5 3

3. Solve the following inequalities:

(i) 6 ≤ −3(2𝑥𝑥 − 4) < 12 (ii) −15 <
3(𝑥𝑥−2)
≤0 (iii) 7 ≤
3𝑥𝑥+11
≤ 11
5 2

4. Solve the following system of inequailties:

(i) 5𝑥𝑥 + 1 > −24 , 5𝑥𝑥 − 1 < 24
(ii) 3𝑥𝑥 − 7 > 2(𝑥𝑥 − 6), 6 − 𝑥𝑥 > 11 − 2𝑥𝑥

5. Solve the following inequalities:

(i) |3 − 4𝑥𝑥| ≥ 9 1 1
(iii) |𝑥𝑥|−1
≥
2
(ii) |5 − 2𝑥𝑥| ≤ 3
(iv) 2 ≤ |𝑥𝑥 − 3 ≤ 4|

6. Solve for 𝑥𝑥: |𝑥𝑥| + |𝑥𝑥 − 1| > 3

7. Find the interval of 𝑥𝑥 satisfying the inequalities |𝑥𝑥 − 1| ≤ 2 and 2|𝑥𝑥| ≥ 1.

8. Solve the following inequalities:

(i) |4 + 5𝑥𝑥| > 0 (ii) |𝑥𝑥 + 1| < |𝑥𝑥 + 3|

9. A solution of 9% acid is to be diluted by adding 3% acid solution to it. The resulting mixture is to be more
than 5% but less than 7% acid. If there is 460 litres of the 9% solution, how many litres of 3% solution
will have to be added?

10. A solution is to be kept between 40°C and 45°C. What is the range of temperature in degree Fahrenheit,
9
if the conversion formula is F = C +32.
5

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 ISC XI- Applied Mathematics

Answers
1. (i) (𝑐𝑐) (ii) (𝑑𝑑) (iii) (𝑎𝑎) (iv) (𝑑𝑑) (v) (𝑏𝑏)
2. (i) (−∞, 3) (ii) [2, ∞)
2
3. (i) (0,1] (ii) (−23,2] (iii) �1,3 �
3

4. (i) (−5,5) (ii) (5, ∞)

3
5. (i) �−∞, − � ∪ [3, ∞) (ii) [1,4] (iii) [−3,3] − {1} (iv) [−1,1] ∪ [5,7]
2

6. (−∞, −1) ∪ (2, ∞)

1 1
7. �−1, − � ∪ � , 3�
2 2
−4
8. (i) All real numbers except (ii) (−2, ∞)
5

9. (230,920)
10. 104 < F <113

Quadratic Inequalities in one variable

The quadratic inequality is a second-degree expression in 𝑥𝑥 and has a greater than (>) or lesser than (<) or
greater than equal to (≥) or less than equal to (≤) inequality. The quadratic inequality has been derived from
the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0.
If a quadratic polynomial in one variable is less than or greater than or less than equal to or greater than equal
to some number or any other polynomial (with a degree less than or equal to 2), then it is said to be
a quadratic inequality.

We are going to solve quadratic in-equalities 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 > 0, 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 < 0,
𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 ≥ 0, 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 ≤ 0 where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 are real numbers using the concept of method of interval.

Method of Intervals
Consider the expression:
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 )(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥2 )(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥3 ) … . (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−2 )(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1 )(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 ) ---------------- (i)
We will assume that 𝑥𝑥1 < 𝑥𝑥2 <. . . < 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−2 < 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1 < 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 and (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 )(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥2 )…(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 ) are all linear
factors having 𝑥𝑥 term positive in factors.
It is clear that for all 𝑥𝑥 > 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 all the parenthetic expressions in (i) are positive and hence for 𝑥𝑥 > 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 we have
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) > 0 i.e. positive. Since 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1 < 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 , the last parenthesis in the expression 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is negative, and all
other parentheses are positive, it follows that for
𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1 < 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 we have 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) < 0. Similarly, we obtain 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) > 0 for 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−2 < 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1, and so on,
alternately positive, and negative as in shown below.

This is the underlying idea of the method of intervals. On the number line, the numbers

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 ISC XI- Applied Mathematics

𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 , . . , 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−2 , 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1 , 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 must be arranged in order of increasing magnitude. Then place the plus (+) sign in
the interval to the right of the largest number. In the next interval (from right to left) place the minus (−) sign,
then plus (+) sign, then minus (−) sign and so on.
The solution of inequality 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) < 0 will then consists of the interval having minus (−) sign, and the solution
of inequality 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) > 0 will then consists of the interval having plus (+) sign.

Solving quadratic in-equalities

Step-1: Write the given quadratic inequality in the form 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐{>, ≥, <, ≤}0 with 𝒂𝒂 > 0.
Step-2: Assume 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐
Step-3: Compute D = 𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
Step-4: Verify whether D>0, D=0 or D <0.
Case-I If D > 0, then the roots 𝑥𝑥1 and 𝑥𝑥2 where (𝑥𝑥1 < 𝑥𝑥2 ) of the equation 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 0, obtained either by
formula or by method of factorisation.
Using method of interval, we conclude the following:
(a) 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) > 0∀𝑥𝑥 ∈ (−∞, 𝑥𝑥1 ) ∪ (𝑥𝑥2 , ∞)
(b) 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ≥ 0∀𝑥𝑥 ∈ (−∞, 𝑥𝑥1 ] ∪ [𝑥𝑥2 , ∞)
(c) 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) < 0∀𝑥𝑥 ∈ (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 )
(d) 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ≤ 0∀𝑥𝑥 ∈ [𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 ]

Case-II If D = 0, then we conclude the following:

𝑏𝑏
(a) 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) > 0∀𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 − �− �
2𝑎𝑎

(b) 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ≥ 0∀𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅

(c) 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) < 0 for no real value of 𝑥𝑥
𝑏𝑏
(d) 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ≤ 0∀𝑥𝑥 ∈ �− �
2𝑎𝑎

Case-III If D < 0, then we conclude the following:

(a) 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) > 0∀𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅
(b) 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ≥ 0∀𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅
(c) 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) < 0 for no real value of 𝑥𝑥
(d) 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ≤ 0 for no real value of 𝑥𝑥

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 ISC XI- Applied Mathematics

Solved Examples
Example 1: Solve:−𝑥𝑥 2 ≤ −𝑥𝑥 − 6
Solution:−𝑥𝑥 2 ≤ −𝑥𝑥 − 6
⇒𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 − 6 ≥ 0
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 − 6
D= 1 + 24 = 25 > 0
⇒𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =0 has two distinct real roots.
∴ 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 − 6 ≥ 0
⇒𝑥𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑥 − 6 ≥ 0
−∞ +∞
⇒(𝑥𝑥 + 2)(𝑥𝑥 − 3) ≥ 0
Using method of interval, we obtain:
𝑥𝑥 ∈ (−∞, −2] ∪ [3, ∞).
∴ The solution set is(−∞, −2] ∪ [3, ∞).

Example 2: Solve:3𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 − 2 ≤ 0.

Solution:3𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 − 2 ≤ 0
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 3𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 − 2
D= 25 + 24 = 49 > 0
⇒𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =0 has two distinct real roots.
∴ 3𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 − 2 ≤ 0 −∞ +∞
⇒3𝑥𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 − 2 ≤ 0
⇒(𝑥𝑥 + 2)(3𝑥𝑥 − 1) ≤ 0
Using method of interval, we obtain:
1
𝑥𝑥 ∈ �−2, �.
3
1
∴ The solution set is �−2, �.
3

Example 3: Solve:𝑥𝑥 2 − 2√3𝑥𝑥 + 3 ≤ 0.

Solution:𝑥𝑥 2 − 2√3𝑥𝑥 + 3 ≤ 0
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 2√3𝑥𝑥 + 3
D= 12 − 12 = 0
𝑏𝑏
⇒ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ≤ 0 for 𝑥𝑥 = − = √3
2𝑎𝑎
∴ The solution set is �√3�.

Example 4: Solve:𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 19 ≥ 0.

Solution:𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 19 ≥ 0
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 19
D= 36 − 76 = −30 < 0.
⇒ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ≥ 0 ∀𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅
∴ The solution set is 𝑅𝑅.

Example 5: Solve:𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 1 < 0.

Solution:𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 1 < 0
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 1
D= 1 − 4 = −3 < 0.
⇒ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) < 0 for no real value of 𝑥𝑥.
∴ The solution set is 𝜑𝜑.

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Example 6: Find all real 𝑥𝑥 which satisfies𝑥𝑥 2 +

𝑥𝑥 − 6 ≥ 0 and 𝑥𝑥 2 − 16 < 0.
Solution:𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 6 ≥ 0 and 𝑥𝑥 2 − 16 < 0
⇒𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑥 − 6 ≥ 0and 𝑥𝑥 2 − 42 < 0
⇒(𝑥𝑥 + 3)(𝑥𝑥 − 2) ≥ 0 and (𝑥𝑥 + 4)(𝑥𝑥 − 4) ≤ 0.
⇒𝑥𝑥 ∈ (−∞, −3] ∪ [2, ∞) and 𝑥𝑥 ∈ (−4,4) −∞
⇒𝑥𝑥 ∈ (−4, −3] ∪ [2,4)
∴ The solution set is (−4, −3] ∪ [2,4).

Exercises
1. Choose the correct option:
(i) Solution of 2𝑥𝑥 2 < 𝑥𝑥 is
1 1
(a) � , 0� (c) �0, �
2 2
1 1
(b) �0, � (d) �− , 0�
2 2

(ii) Solution of −𝑥𝑥 2 − 1 > 0

(a) R (c) 𝜑𝜑
(b) (1, ∞) (d) (−∞, −1 ]

(iii) Solution of 𝑥𝑥(1 − 2𝑥𝑥) ≥ 0

1 1
(a) (−∞, 0 ] ∪ � , ∞� (c) �− , 0�
2 2
1 1
(b) (−∞, 0) ∪ � , ∞� (d) �0, �
2 2

(iv) Consider the following statements:

1
Statement 1: Solution set of the inequation 4𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 1 ≤ 0 is � �
2
2
Statement 2: Solution set of the inequation 9𝑥𝑥 2 − 12𝑥𝑥 + 4 ≤ 0 is � �.
3
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
(a) Only 1 (c) Both 1 and 2
(b) Only 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

(v) Assertion: Solution set of the inequation 𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 10 ≤ 0 is 𝜑𝜑

𝑏𝑏
Reason: If D < 0, 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 ≤ 0∀ 𝑥𝑥 ∈ �− �.
2𝑎𝑎

(a) Both A and R individually true and R is the correct explanation of A.

(b) Both A and R individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.

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2. Solve the following inequalities:

(i) −𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 − 5 < 0 (iv) 5𝑥𝑥 < 2 − 3𝑥𝑥 2
(ii) 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 2 > 0 (v) 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 − 9 ≤ 0
(iii) 6 + 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 2𝑥𝑥 2

3. Find the range of values of 𝑥𝑥 which satisfies 𝑥𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝑥 − 27 > 0, −𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 + 4 > 0.

4. Solve for 𝑥𝑥: |3𝑥𝑥 + 1| ≥ |2𝑥𝑥 − 3|.

5. Find the values of λ for which the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 − 𝑥𝑥 + 9 always lies above 𝑥𝑥 −axis.

Answers
1. (i) (b) (ii) (c) (iii) (d) (iv) (c) (v) (c)
3 1 3
2. (i) 𝑅𝑅 (ii) (0,1) (iii) �−∞, − � ∪ [2, ∞) (iv) �−2, � (v) �−3, �
2 3 2

3. 3 < 𝑥𝑥 < 4
2
4. (−∞, −4] ∪ [ , ∞)
5
5. (−5,7)

Project Work
The hourly profit in ₹ obtained from operating a fleet of 𝑛𝑛 taxis is given by,
𝑷𝑷(𝒏𝒏) = 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝒏𝒏 − 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 − 𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐
Use quadratic modelling to find the following.
(a) What number of taxis gives the maximum
hourly profit?
(b) What is maximum hourly profit?
(c) How much money is lost per hour if no taxis
are on the road?

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HISTORICAL NOTE

• Ancient Babylonia and Egypt:

These civilizations had problems equivalent to solving quadratic equations, often using geometric
methods and numerical techniques. For example, the Egyptian Berlin Papyrus contains the solution
to a two-term quadratic equation.
• Ancient Greece:
Euclid developed a geometrical approach in the 3rd century BC that could be used to solve
quadratic equations.
• Ancient India:
Brahmagupta (7th century CE) presented solutions for various forms of quadratic equations in his
book "Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta", including cases with negative and irrational numbers. Later,
Sridharacharya (C.E. 1025) derived a formula, now known as the quadratic formula (as quoted
by Bhaskara II) for solving a quadratic equation by the method of completing the square.
• Muslim Empire (Islamic Golden Age):
Al-Khwarizmi (9th century CE) in Baghdad is credited with developing a general method for
solving quadratic equations, which greatly influenced the development of algebra. He and other
scholars in this period explored geometric and numerical solutions, laying the foundation for
modern algebraic notation and techniques.
• 12th Century Spain:
The Jewish mathematician Abraham bar Hiyya Ha-Nasi (12th century, Spain) wrote the first
European book to include a full solution to the general quadratic equation, largely based on Al-
Khwarizmi's work.

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(iv) Permutation and Combination

SCOPE

Fundamental principle of counting. Factorial n. (n!) Permutations and combinations, derivation of

formulae for n Pr , n Cr and their connections, simple application.
• Factorial notation n! , n! =n (n-1)!
• Fundamental principle of counting.
• Permutations
n
- Pr .
- Restricted permutation.
- Certain things always occur together.
- Certain things never occur.
- Formation of numbers with digits.
- Word building - repeated letters - No letters repeated.
- Permutation of alike things.
- Permutation of Repeated things.
- Circular permutation – clockwise counterclockwise – Distinguishable / not distinguishable.
• Combinations
n
- Cr ,nCn =1, nC0 = 1, nCr = nCn–r, n
Cx=nCy, then x + y = n or x = y, n+1Cr = nCr-1 + nCr .
- Total number of combinations of n dissimilar things taking any number of them at a time
 When all things are different.
 When all things are not different.
- Division, distribution into groups.
- Mixed problems on permutation and combinations.

LEARNING OUTCOME

Students will be able to :

• describe the fundamental principal of counting.
• use factorial notation n!
• apply the ideas of permutations and combinations to daily life situations of arranging and selecting
the objects.
• describe number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time as nPr and uses this in solving
related problems.
• describe number of Combinations of n different things taken r at a time as nCr and uses this in
solving related problems.

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PRE-REQUISITES

• Basic arithmetic operations.

• A set and its related concepts like subsets.
• Basic algebra

Fundamental Principle of Counting

Introduction
The term ‘counting’ is the fundamental concept of Mathematics. The whole world of Mathematics started with
the basic necessity of counting. Our ancestors first used fingers for counting and later started using beans,
sticks, buttons, and beads to count. However, they, later on, realized that these methods of counting cannot be
used in cases where we are forced to count large quantities of numbers. That is when our mathematicians came
out with a way of determining large counts efficiently and accurately with the help of the fundamental counting
principle. The fundamental counting principle is one of the most important rules in mathematics especially in
probability problems and is used to find the number of ways in which the combination of several events can
occur.
The fundamental counting principle or basic principle of counting is a method, or a rule used to calculate the
total number of outcomes when two or more events are occurring together. This principle states that the total
number of outcomes of two or more independent events is the product of the number of outcomes of each
individual event.
Fundamental Principle of Counting is very helpful in
finding all the possible combinations in a particular
situation.
To understand this principle let’s consider an example.
Say, a student has 3 water bottles and 2 tiffin boxes,
and a question pops up, how many different ways can
he carry these objects to his school choosing one each?
There are three different ways of choosing water
bottles as there are three types of water bottles
available. Similarly, there are two ways of choosing
tiffin boxes.
Considering B1, B2, and B3 as water bottles and T1,
T2 as tiffin boxes, the tree diagram given below lists
the range of possibilities. Tree Diagram depicting the number of
possibilities for the example.
As shown in the figure, with each type of bottle. There
are two possible tiffin boxes that can be taken. So, in total, there are 6 ways he can carry these objects to
his school choosing one each.
In the problem stated above, the fundamental principle of counting is used to get the result. Here we have
used the multiplication rule that states that if an event A can occur in 𝑚𝑚 different ways and another event B
can occur in 𝑛𝑛 different ways, then both events can occur simultaneously in 𝑚𝑚 × 𝑛𝑛 different ways.

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The fundamental principle of counting is studied under two headings that include,
1. Addition rule
2. Multiplication rule

Addition rule (‘OR’ rule)

The number of ways of choosing one option from list A or one option from list B, you add the number of
options in each list A, 𝑛𝑛(𝐴𝐴) with number of options in list B, 𝑛𝑛(𝐵𝐵). However, you need to make sure that the
lists are mutually exclusive, meaning there should not be any common option in both the list. In a question if
you see the word 'OR' you will most likely need to 'ADD'

The OR rule:
If A and B are mutually exclusive, then 𝑛𝑛(𝐴𝐴 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝐵𝐵) = 𝑛𝑛(𝐴𝐴) + 𝑛𝑛(𝐵𝐵)

For example,
If you are choosing a pen or a pencil from 4 pens and 5 pencils:
You can choose 1 item from 4 pens in 4 different ways.
OR
1 item from 5 pencils in 5 different ways.
You will have 4 + 5 = 9 different options to choose from.

Multiplication rule (‘AND’ rule)

If you want to choose one option from list A and one option from list B, then you can find the number of
possible ways of doing this by multiplying the number of options in list A, n(A), by the number of options in
list B, n(B)
The AND rule:
𝑛𝑛(𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵) = 𝑛𝑛(𝐴𝐴) × 𝑛𝑛(𝐵𝐵)

For example:
If you are choosing a pen and a pencil from 4 pens and 5 pencils:
You can choose 1 item from 4 pens in 4 different ways.
AND
1 item from 5 pencils in 5 different ways.
You will have 4 × 5 = 20 different options to choose from.

Solved Problems
1. Find the number of 4 letter words, with or without meaning, which can be formed out of the letters of
the word MAKE when
(i) the repetition of the letters is not allowed.
(ii) the repetition of the letters is allowed.
Solution:
(i) The total number of words is same as the number of ways of filling in 4 vacant places by the 4 letters.
The first place can be filled in 4 different ways by any one of the 4 letters M, A, K, E. Since the
repetition of letters is not allowed. Therefore, the second, third and fourth place can be filled in by any
one of the remaining 3, 2, 1 different ways respectively.
Thus, by the fundamental principle of counting the required number of ways is 4×3×2×1 = 24. Hence,
required number of words = 24.

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(ii) If the repetition of the letters is allowed, then each of the 4 vacant places can be filled in succession in
4 different ways. Hence, required number of words = 4×4×4×4 = 44= 256

2. How many 4-digit number can be formed from the digit 0,1,2……9 if
(i) repetition of digit is allowed.
(ii) repetition of digit is not allowed.
Solution:
(i) Repetition allowed.

9 ways 10 ways 10 ways 10 ways

Thousandth place can be filled by any number from 1 to 9 as 0 cannot occur at thousandth place, and each
of the remaining 3 places can be filled in 10 different ways. Hence by multiplication rule, total number of
4-digit number can be formed 9 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 9000 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤.
(ii) Repetition not allowed.

9 ways 9 ways 8 ways 7 ways

Thousandth place can be filled by any number from 1 to 9 as 0 cannot occur at thousandth place, and each
of the remaining 3 places can be filled by 9, 8 and 7 different ways. Hence, by multiplication rule, total
number of 4-digit number can be formed 9 × 9 × 8 × 7 = 4536 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤.

3. There are 20 IITs in India and each IIT has 15 branches, find in how many ways can a student select the
IIT and branches.
Solution:
The student can select 20 IITs in 20 different ways and 15 branches in 15 different ways, so total number
of ways selecting one IIT and one branch = 20 × 15 = 300 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤.

4. There are 15 IITs in India and 20 NIITs, find in how many ways can a student select an institute.
Solution:
The student can select one IITs from 15 IITs in 15 different ways or one NIITs in 20 different ways, so
total number of ways selecting one institute is 15+20 = 35 different ways.

5. Find the three-digit number, having different digits which are divisible by 5 can be formed from the digit
0 to 9.
Solution:
Any number of required types either end with 0 or 5.
Hence, total number of 3-digit numbers end with 0 are
9 ways 8 ways 1 way
Unit place can be filled by 0 in one way, hundreds place can be filled by 9 ways and tens place can be
filled by 8 ways, so total number of ways = 9 × 8 × 1 = 72 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤.
Now, total number of 3-digit numbers end with 5 are

8 ways 8 ways 1 way

Unit place can be filled by 5 in one way, hundreds place can be filled by 8 ways as cannot be used at this
place and tens place can be filled by 8 ways, so total number of ways =8 × 8 × 1 = 64 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤.
So, by addition principle total number of 3-digits number divisible by 5 are 72+64 = 136.

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6. Find the number of ways n distinct objects can be put in 2 different boxes.
Solution:
Let the two boxes B1 and B2, for each of n objects there are two choices either it can put in box B1 or B2.
Therefore, by fundamental principle of counting the total number of ways is 2 × 2 × 2 … … .×
2(𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡) = 2𝑛𝑛 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤.

7. Three dice are rolled. Find the number of possible outcomes in which at least one dice shows the number
2.
Solution:
When a dice is rolled there are six possible outcomes, so the total number of outcomes when three dices
are rolled is 6 × 6 × 6 = 63 .
Total number of outcomes in which 2 does not appears on any dice is 5 × 5 × 5 = 53 Now the number
of possible outcomes in which at least one dice shows 2 is 63 − 53 = 91 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤.

Factorial Notation
Factorial notation refers to a symbol '!' or ‘∟′ . Symbolically the factorial of a natural number n is written as
n! or ∟𝑛𝑛. In factorial notation, the factorial of a natural number is equal to the product of all the natural
numbers in sequence from 1 to n.
For example, the factorial of 5 is written as 5!
5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1.
So, n factorial is the product of the first n natural numbers and is represented as n!
Here we write 𝑛𝑛! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × . . . . . . 𝑛𝑛
or
𝑛𝑛! = 𝑛𝑛 × (𝑛𝑛 − 1) × (𝑛𝑛 − 2) × (𝑛𝑛 − 3) . . . .3 × 2 × 1

• 1! = 1
• 2! = 2 × 1 = 2
• 3! = 3 × 2 × 1 = 6
• 4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24
• 5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120
• 6! = 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 720

Now, 6! = 6 × ( 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 )
= 6 × 5! = 6(6 − 1)!

So, an alternative definition of factorial number is that : 𝑛𝑛! = 𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1)! , ∀ 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1

Under this rule we noticed that: 1! = 1 × (1 − 1)! = 1 × 0!

0! = 1

Some use of factorials

Factorials have a wide range of applications in various fields, including mathematics, statistics, computer
science, and engineering. Here are some notable uses of factorials:

Combinations
Factorials are used to calculate the number of possible combinations of items from a set. For instance, if you
have 5 different books and want to select 3 of them to read, the number of possible combinations is given by
5!
.
2!×3!

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Permutations
Factorials are also used to determine the number of possible permutations (arrangements) of items in a set.
Continuing with the previous example, the number of ways you can arrange the 3 selected books on a shelf is
given by 3!
Probability Distributions
Factorials are used in the study of probability distributions, such as the Poisson distribution and the binomial
distribution. These distributions are essential in modeling various random phenomena.
Sampling and Estimation
Factorials play a role in sampling techniques and statistical inference. They help determine the probability of
selecting a specific sample from a population and estimating population parameters.

Solved Examples
1. Express in factorial form:
(a) 9 × 8 × 7 (c)
13×12×11×10
4×3×2×1
(b) 2 × 4 × 6 × 8 × 10 × 12
(d) 1 × 3 × 5 × 7 × 9
Solution:
9×8×7×6×5×4×3×2×1 9!
(a) 9 × 8 × 7 = =
6×5×4×3×2×1 6!

(b) 2 × 4 × 6 × 8 × 10 × 12 = (2 × 1)(2 × 2)(2 × 3)(2 × 4)(2 × 5)(2 × 6)

= 26 (1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 × 6)
= 26 × 6!.
13×12×11×10 13×12×11×10 13×12×11×10×9! 13!
(c) = = =
4×3×2×1 4! 4!×9! 4!×9!
1×2×3×4×5×6×7×8×9 9!
(d) 1 × 3 × 5 × 7 × 9 = =
2×4×6×8 24 ×4!

2. Simplify the following:

8! 𝑛𝑛!
(a) (c)
4×5! (𝑛𝑛−2)!
4!×5! (𝑛𝑛+1)!
(b) (d)
3!×6! (𝑛𝑛−1)!

Solution:
8! 8×7×6×5!
(a) = = 84
4×5! 4×5!
4!×5! 4×3!×5! 2
(b) = =
3!×6! 3!×6×5! 3

𝑛𝑛! 𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛−1)(𝑛𝑛−2)!
(c) = = 𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1)
(𝑛𝑛−2)! (𝑛𝑛−2)!
(𝑛𝑛+1)! (𝑛𝑛+1)𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛−1)!
(d) = = (𝑛𝑛 + 1)𝑛𝑛.
(𝑛𝑛−1)! (𝑛𝑛−1)!

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3. Solve the equation: 16(𝑛𝑛 − 1)! = 5𝑛𝑛! + (𝑛𝑛 + 1)!

Solution:
16(𝑛𝑛 − 1)! = 5𝑛𝑛! + (𝑛𝑛 + 1)!
= 16(𝑛𝑛 − 1)! = 5𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1)! + (𝑛𝑛 + 1)𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1)!
⇒ 16(𝑛𝑛 − 1)! = (𝑛𝑛 − 1)! (5𝑛𝑛 + 𝑛𝑛 2 + 𝑛𝑛)
⇒ 𝑛𝑛2 + 6𝑛𝑛 − 16 = 0
⇒ (𝑛𝑛 + 8)(𝑛𝑛 − 2) = 0
Therefore 𝑛𝑛 = −8 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑛𝑛 = 2, since 𝑛𝑛 is a positive integer, therefore we have to reject −8 value for 𝑛𝑛 .
So, the final answer is 𝑛𝑛 = 2

Permutation
The different arrangement that can be made by taking some or all the number of given things or object at a
time is called a permutation. In permutation order of appearance of things is taken into account. When order
changes, a different permutation is obtained.
Let us understand this with the help of an example.
A student has a physics, a chemistry and a biology book. In how many ways he can arrange these books in a
shelf taking two or more books at a time?
Let us for arrangement, take Physics as P, Chemistry as C and Biology as B
(i) Arrangements of two books at a time: PC, PB, CB, CP, BP, BC
(ii) Arrangements of three books at a time: PCB, PBC, CPB, CBP, BPC, BCP.
Thus, the number of permutations of 3 different objects taking 2 at a time is 6
Here PC and CP are different arrangements as their order is different.
Now, the number of permutations of 3 different objects taking 3 at a time is 6.
The number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time where repetition is not allowed is denoted
by n 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 or 𝑃𝑃 (𝑛𝑛, 𝑟𝑟), where 𝑛𝑛 and 𝑟𝑟 are positive integer and 𝑟𝑟 ≤ 𝑛𝑛.
Permutation when all objects are different
Theorem 1. The number of permutations of n different objects taken r at a time, repetition of object not
allowed is given by,
𝒏𝒏!
𝑷𝑷 (𝒏𝒏, 𝒓𝒓) =n𝑷𝑷𝒓𝒓 = 𝒏𝒏(𝒏𝒏 − 𝟏𝟏)(𝒏𝒏 − 𝟐𝟐) … … . . (𝒏𝒏 − 𝒓𝒓 + 𝟏𝟏) = .
(𝒏𝒏−𝒓𝒓)!

𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷:
Let n different things 𝑎𝑎1, 𝑎𝑎2, 𝑎𝑎3, 𝑎𝑎4 … . . 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 be place in r vacant place (each place, exactly one object is put).
First place can be filled up by any one of the 𝑛𝑛 things 𝑎𝑎1, 𝑎𝑎2, 𝑎𝑎3, 𝑎𝑎4 … . . 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 in 𝑛𝑛 ways.
Number of things left after filling up the first place is 𝑛𝑛 − 1.
Second place can be filled up by any one of the remaining 𝑛𝑛 − 1 things in 𝑛𝑛 − 1 ways.
= 𝑛𝑛 − (2 − 1) 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
Number of things left after filling up the second place is 𝑛𝑛 − 2.
Third place can be filled up by any one of the remaining 𝑛𝑛 − 2 things in 𝑛𝑛 − 2 ways.
= 𝑛𝑛 − (3 − 1)𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
Number of things left after filling up the third place is 𝑛𝑛 − 3.
Fourth place can be filled up by any one of the remaining 𝑛𝑛 − 3 things in 𝑛𝑛 − 3 ways.

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= 𝑛𝑛 − (3 − 1)𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
Similarly, rth place can be filled by 𝑛𝑛 − (𝑟𝑟 − 1) = 𝑛𝑛 − 𝑟𝑟 + 1 ways.

By multiplication rule of counting, first, second, third…...rth places can together be filled up in
𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1)(𝑛𝑛 − 2)(𝑛𝑛 − 3) … … … . . (𝑛𝑛 − 𝑟𝑟 + 1)𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤.

𝑛𝑛 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑛𝑛 − 1 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑛𝑛 − 2𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑛𝑛 − 3 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 … … … … … 𝑛𝑛 − 𝑟𝑟 + 1 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤

n
𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 = 𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1)(𝑛𝑛 − 2)(𝑛𝑛 − 3) … … … . . (𝑛𝑛 − 𝑟𝑟 + 1)
[𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛−1)(𝑛𝑛−2)(𝑛𝑛−3)………..(𝑛𝑛−𝑟𝑟+1)]×(𝑛𝑛−𝑟𝑟)(𝑛𝑛−𝑟𝑟−1)………3×2×1
= (𝑛𝑛−𝑟𝑟)(𝑛𝑛−𝑟𝑟−1)………3×2×1

𝑛𝑛!
=
(𝑛𝑛 − 𝑟𝑟)!
𝒏𝒏!
Thus, n𝑷𝑷𝒓𝒓 =
(𝒏𝒏−𝒓𝒓)!

• The number of permutations of n different objects taken all at a time, repetition of object not allowed is
given by
n 𝒏𝒏! 𝒏𝒏!
𝑷𝑷𝒏𝒏 = = = 𝒏𝒏!
(𝒏𝒏−𝒏𝒏)! 𝟎𝟎!

Note: n𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛! also illustrates the number of ways n distinct object can arrange among themselves.

Solved Problems
1. 𝑃𝑃(𝑛𝑛, 5) = 42 𝑃𝑃(𝑛𝑛, 3) find the value 𝑛𝑛.
Solution:
𝑃𝑃(𝑛𝑛, 5) = 42 𝑃𝑃(𝑛𝑛, 3)
𝑛𝑛! 𝑛𝑛!
⇒ = 42
(𝑛𝑛 − 5)! (𝑛𝑛 − 3)!
(𝑛𝑛
⇒ − 3)(𝑛𝑛 − 4) = 42
⇒ (𝑛𝑛 − 3)(𝑛𝑛 − 2) = 7 × 6
⇒ (𝑛𝑛 − 3) = 7 ⇒ 𝑛𝑛 = 10.

2. 10
𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 = 5040, 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑟𝑟.
Solution:
10
𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 = 5040 = 10 × 9 × 8 × 7
10×9×8×7×6! 10! 10!
= = =
6! 6! (10−4)!

10
𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 = 10𝑃𝑃4
Hence 𝑟𝑟 = 4
3. How many 4 letters word with or without meaning can be formed out of the letter of the word
LOGARITHMS, if repetition of letters is not allowed?
Solution:
There are 10 different letters in the word LOGARITHMS, so the number of 4 letter word is equal to
number of arrangements of 10 letters, taken 4 at a time i.e.
10! 10!
10
𝑃𝑃4 = = = 5040 ways.
(10−4)! 6!

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4. In how many ways 6 persons can stand in a queue?

Solution:
The number of ways in which 6 persons can stand in a queue is same as filling six places with 6 persons.
The number of arrangements taking 6 persons at a time
6
𝑃𝑃6 = 6! = 720 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤..

5. How many 5 digits number can be formed by using the digits 1 to 9 if repetition of digit is not allowed?
Solution:
As there are 9 different digits and repetition of digit is not allowed, any five of them can be arranged in
9 9! 9!
𝑃𝑃5 = = = 15,120
(9−5)! 4!

6. How many different signals can be given using any number of flags from 4 flags of different colours?
Solution:
The signal can be made by using one or more flags at a time. The total number of signals when r flags are
used at a time from 4 flags is equal to number of arrangements of 4 taking r at a time 4𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 .
Since, r can be taken value 1,2,3 4 hence by fundamental principle of addition total number of signals is:
4
𝑃𝑃1 +4𝑃𝑃2 +4𝑃𝑃3 +4𝑃𝑃4
= 4 + 12 + 24 + 24 = 64 ways.

Theorem 2. The number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time, repetition is allowed is 𝒏𝒏𝒓𝒓 .
𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷:
The n different things can be place in r vacant place (each place, exactly one object is put).
First place can be filled up by any one of the 𝑛𝑛 things in 𝑛𝑛 ways.
Second place can also be filled in n ways since we are not prevented from repeating the same objects. When
first two places have been filled in 𝑛𝑛 × 𝑛𝑛 ways, the third place can also be filled up in 𝑛𝑛 ways and so on.
By fundamental principle of counting, r places can be filled up in
(𝑛𝑛 × 𝑛𝑛 × 𝑛𝑛 … … 𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡) 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 𝑛𝑛𝑟𝑟 ways.

Solved Examples
1. In how many ways 3 prizes can be distributed among 15 students, when a student may receive any number
of prizes?
Solution:
As repetition is allowed i.e. any student can receive all the three prizes so total number of arrangements =
153 = 3375 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤.

2. How many 4 digits number can be formed by using the digits 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 if repetition of digit is allowed?
Solution:
As repetition is allowed, all the four places of the four digits can be filled by any of the 7 digits in 7 ways.
So, the total number of 4-digit number is 74 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 2401 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤.

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Number of permutations of n things taken all together when things are not all different
To find the number of permutations of n things taken all at a time, when p of them are similar and are one
type, q of them are similar and are of second type, r of them are similar and are of third type and rest are all
different things.
Proof: Let required number of permutations be 𝑥𝑥. Since p different things can be arranged among themselves
in 𝑝𝑝! ways, therefore, if we replace 𝑝𝑝 identical things by 𝑝𝑝 different things, which are also different from the
rest of things, the number of permutations will become 𝑥𝑥 × 𝑝𝑝!
Again, if we replace 𝑞𝑞 identical things by 𝑞𝑞 different things, the number of permutations will
become 𝑥𝑥 × 𝑝𝑝! × 𝑞𝑞!
Again, if we replace 𝑟𝑟 identical things by 𝑟𝑟 different things, the number of permutations will become
𝑥𝑥 × 𝑝𝑝! × 𝑞𝑞! × 𝑟𝑟!
Now, all the n things are different and therefore, number of permutations should be 𝑛𝑛!. Thus,
𝑥𝑥 × 𝑝𝑝! × 𝑞𝑞! × 𝑟𝑟! = 𝑛𝑛!
𝑛𝑛!
𝑥𝑥 =
𝑝𝑝! × 𝑞𝑞! × 𝑟𝑟!

Solved Examples
1. Find the total number of 6-digit numbers that can be formed using the digits 2,4,4,6,6,6.
Solution:
6!
There are only 6 digits− one 2, two 2’s and three 6’s can be arranged in 6 places in
2!×3!
6!
∴ Required number of numbers = = 60
2!×3!

2. How many different words can be formed with the letter of the word ‘MATHEMATICS’?
Solution:
11!
There are only 11 letters out of which 2 M’s, 2 A’s and 2 T’s can be arranged in
2!×2!×2!
11!
∴ Required number of words = = 4,989,600 words
2!×2!×2!

3. How many different words can be formed with the letter of the word ‘MATHEMATICS’ which start with
consonants only?
Solution:
There are only 11 letters out of which 2 M’s, 2 A’s and 2 T’s out of which M and T are consonants.
10!
Words that can start with M or T = ×2
2!×2!
Other consonants are H, C, S
10!
Words that can start with H or C or S = ×3
2!×2!×2!

10! 10!
∴ Required number of words = ×2+ ×3
2!×2! 2!×2!×2!

4. If all the words (with or without meaning) having five letters, formed using the letters of the word
‘SMALL’ and arranged as in a dictionary, then find the position of the word SMALL.

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Solution:
4!
Clearly, number of words start with A = = 12
2!

Number of words start with L= 4! = 24

4!
Number of words start with M = = 12
2!
3!
Number of words start with SA = =3
2!

Number of words start with SL= 3! = 6

Note that, next word will be “SMALL”.
Hence, the position of word “SMALL” is 12+24+12+3+6 +1= 58th

Permutation under restrictions

• When particular objects are always together:
When items must be together, treat them as a single unit for the initial calculation.
If you have the letters A, B, C and D, and A and C must be always together, treat AC as one unit, along
with B and D. Calculate arrangements of the units AC, B and D and then multiply by the number of ways
to arrange the items within each unit e.g. AC can also be CA.
• When particular objects are never together:
When items are "not together," calculate the total arrangements and subtract the arrangements where they
are together.

Solved Examples
1. How many different words can be formed with the letters of the word ‘EQUATION’, so that
(i) all vowels are together?
(ii) vowels are never together?
(iii) vowels and consonants are together?
(iv) no two consonants are together?

Solution:
In the word EQUATION there are 8 different letters out of which 5 are vowels and 3 are consonants
(i) 5 vowels are together, so these vowels considered as one unit.
Hence 4 different units can be arranged in 4! ways. Now 5 vowels can be arranged among
themselves in 5! Ways.
∴ Required number of words = 4! × 5! = 24 × 120 = 2,880.
(ii) Total numbers of word that can be formed with the letters of the word EQUATION is 8! = 40320
Now, required number of ways that vowels never together.
= total number of arrangements − number of ways vowels are together
= 40320 – 2880
= 37440.
(iii) 5 vowels can be arranged among themselves in 5! ways and 3 consonants can be arranged among
themselves in 3! ways.
The two groups, vowels and consonants can be arranged in 2! ways.
∴ Required number of words = 5! × 3! × 2! = 1440.

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(iv) The 5 vowels can be arranged in 5! ways. Mark these vowels by V as shown in the following
diagram.
× 𝑉𝑉 × 𝑉𝑉 × 𝑉𝑉 × 𝑉𝑉 × 𝑉𝑉 ×
Now no consonants are together if these are arranged only at the crossed marked ′ × ′ places.
There are 6 cross marked places, and 3 consonants can be arranged in these places in 6𝑃𝑃3 ways.
∴ Required number of words = 6𝑃𝑃3 × 5! = 120× 120 = 14400.

2. How many different words can be formed with the letters of the word ‘HARYANA’ if
(i) the words begin with H and end with N?
(ii) H and N are together?
(iii) all the A’s are together?

Solution:
(i) After fixing H in the first place and N in the last place, we have 5 letters out of which 3 are alike.
5!
So, total number of words: 3! = 20.
6!
(ii) If H and N together we have 6 letters out of which 3 are alike. These 6 letters can be arranged in 3!
ways, But H and N can be arranged amongst themselves in 2! ways.
6!
Hence, the required number of words = × 2! = 240.
3!

(iii) If all three A’s are together, we have (4+1) =5 letters to arrange in 5! ways.
3!
The 3 A’s can arrange among themselves in = 1 ways.
3!

Hence, the required number of words = 5! × 1 = 120 ways.

3. Find the number of seven letters word that can be formed by using the letters of the word ‘SUCCESS’ so
that 2 C’s are together but no 2 S are together.
Solution:
Considering CC as single object, U, CC, E can be arranged in 3! ways.
× 𝑈𝑈 × 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 × 𝐸𝐸 ×
Now 3 S’s can be placed in 4 available spaces (×) in 4𝑃𝑃3 ways.
Hence, the required number of words = 3! ×4𝑃𝑃3 = 6× 24 = 144.

4. How many different numbers of seven digits divisible by 10 can be formed by using the digits
1,2,0,1,2,2,5?
Solution:
The digits to be used are 1,2,0,1,2,2,5. The number which is divisible by 10 must have 0 at unit’s place.
The remaining six digits (two 1’s, three 2’s and one 5) can be arranged at the remaining 6 places in
6! 720
2!×3!
= 2×6 = 60 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤.

5. During a party, Aman and Sweety have a disagreement and choose not to speak to each other for the
remainder of the event. A photographer is looking to take a group photo of all 10 attendees but faces a
constraint: Sweety refuses to stand next to Aman. How many different ways can the photographer arrange
the 10 guests for the photo under this condition?

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Solution:
We can calculate total number of arrangements without this constraint = 10!
Now we can calculate total number of arrangements with Aman and Sweety being together = 9! × 2!
Since Aman and Sweety cannot be next to each other, so no of arrangement = 10! − 9! × 2 = 9! × 8

6. There are 5 boys and 3 girls. In how many ways can they be seated in a row so that:
(i) All the three girls do not sit together.
(ii) No two girls are together.
Solution
(i) Total number of persons = 5 + 3= 8
When there is no restriction, they can be seated in a row in 8! ways.
But when all the three girls sit together, consider the three girls as one person, we have only 5+1=6
persons.
These 6 persons can be arranged in 6!ways.
But the three girls can be arranged among themselves in 3! ways.
∴ Number of ways when three girls are together = 6! × 3!
∴ Required number of ways in which all three girls do not sit together = 8! − 6! × 3! = 36000
ways.
(ii) There is no restriction on boys, so we first arranged 5 boys.
× 𝐵𝐵 × 𝐵𝐵 × 𝐵𝐵 × 𝐵𝐵 × 𝐵𝐵 ×
Here, B denotes the position of boy and × that of girls.
Hence, 5 boys can be seated in 5! ways.
Now there are 6 places for 3 girls.
Therefore, thy can be arranged in 6𝑃𝑃3 ways.
∴ Required number ways of such arrangements = 5! ×6𝑃𝑃3
= 120 × 6 × 5 × 4 = 14400 ways.

Circular Permutation
Circular permutation is the total number of ways in which n distinct objects can be arranged around a fixed
circle. In circular permutation, one element is always fixed and all other elements are arranged relative to the
fixed element. There is nothing like a start or an end. There is nothing like a beginning or end in circular
permutation.

Cases of Circular Permutation

There are 2 cases of circular permutations:
• If clockwise and anti-clockwise orders are different, then a total number of circular
permutations is given by:𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛 = (𝑛𝑛 − 1)!
• If clockwise and anti-clockwise orders are taken as not different, (e.g. arrangements of beads
in a necklace, arrangements of flowers in garlands etc.) the total number of circular
(𝑛𝑛−1)!
permutations is given by 𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛 = 2! .

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Consider arranging 5 objects (a, b, c, d, e) around a circular table.

abcde, bcdea, cdeab, deabc, eabcd are different in a line, but are
identical around a circle.
To calculate the number of ways in which n objects can be arranged in
a circle, we arbitrarily fix the position of one object, so the remaining
(n-1) objects can be arranged as if they were on a straight line in (n-1)!
ways.

Solved Examples
1. At a dinner party 6 men and 6 women sit at a round table. In how many ways can they sit if:
(i) there are no restrictions.
(ii) men and women alternate.
Solution:
(i) When there is no restriction: 6 men and 6 women can sit in a round table (12 − 1)! = 11! ways.
(ii) men and women alternate: 6 men can sit in a round table in (6 − 1)! = 5! 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤.
Now, 6 women can sit in 6 gaps formed between the men in 6𝑃𝑃6 ways = 6!
Hence total number of arrangements = 5! × 6! = 86400 ways.

2. 3 boys and 3 girls are to be seated around a table in a circle. Among them, the boy X does not want any
girl neighbour and the girl Y does not want any boy as neighbour. How many such arrangements are
possible?
Solution:
As shown in the figure 1,2 and X are three boys and 3, 4 and Y are three
girls.
Boy X will have neighbour boy 1 and 2 whereas girl Y will have
neighbour 3 and 4. Boys 1 and 2 can be arranged in 2! ways whereas
girls 3 and 4 can be arranged in 2! ways.
Hence required number of permutations is 2 × 2 = 4 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤.

3. Find the number of ways in which 6 persons can be seated at a round table, so that all shall not have same
neighbours for any two arrangements.
Solution:
In this case anticlockwise and clockwise arrangements are same. Hence, the number of ways of
5!
arrangements is = 60.
2!

4. There are 5 men and 5 ladies to dine at a round table. In how many ways can they seat themselves so that
no two ladies are together?
Solution:
The 5 men can be seated at the circular table such that there is vacant seat between every pair of men.

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The number of ways in which men can be seated at the round table =
4! = 24
Now, the 5 vacant seats may be occupied by 5 women in
5
𝑃𝑃5 = 5! = 120 ways
∴ the required number of ways = 120 × 24 = 2880.

REAL- LIFE APPLICATIONS

Permutations in real life are used when the order of arrangement matters, such as
• Arranging books in a shelf.
• Creating password.
• Arranging students in a line for photography.
• Designing a seating arrangement for a conference.

Exercises
1. Choose the correct answer:
(i) Number greater than 1000 but not greater than 4000 which can be formed with the digit 0,1,2,3,4
(repetition of digit allowed) is:
(a) 350
(c) 450
(b) 375
(d) 576

(ii) Total number of words that can be formed using all letters word ‘BRIJESH’ that neither begin with I nor
end with B is equal to

(a) 3720 (c) 3600

(b) 4920 (d) 4800

(iii) There are 10 lamps in a hall. Each one of them can be switched on independently. The number of ways
in which the hall can be illuminated is:
(c) 102
(a) 210
(d) 102 − 1
(b) 210 − 1

(iv) Consider the following statement:

Statement 1: Number of ways in which Indian team (11players) can bat if Shurya wants to bat before
11!
K.L Rahul and Jadeja wants to bat after K.L Rahul is
3!
Statement 2: Shurya, K.L Rahul and Jadeja can be arranged in batting order 3!
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are true?
(a) Only 1 (c) Both 1 and 2
(b) Only 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
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(v) Assertion (A): Number of ways 𝑛𝑛 persons can be seated at a round table, so that all shall not have the
(𝑛𝑛−1)!
same neighbours in any two arrangements is .
2

Reason (R): In circular permutations if clockwise and anti-clockwise orders are taken as not different,
(𝑛𝑛−1)!
the total number of circular permutations is 2! .
(a) Both A and R individually true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R individually true and R is not the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false bur R is true.
2. Convert into factorial: 3 × 6 × 9 × 12 × 15 × 18 × 21

3. Find the value of 𝑛𝑛 : (𝑛𝑛 + 1)! = 12(𝑛𝑛 − 1)!.

𝑛𝑛! 𝑛𝑛!
4. If 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 are in the ratio 1: 6, find the value of 𝑛𝑛.
2!(𝑛𝑛−2)! 4(𝑛𝑛−4)!

5. Sanjay is going to a formal event and is choosing what accessories to add to his outfit. He has seven
different ties, four different bow ties and five different pairs of cufflinks. How many different ways can
Sanjay get ready if he chooses:
(i) Either a tie, a bow tie or a pair of cufflinks?
(ii) A pair of cufflinks and either a tie or a bow tie?

6. Jason wants to set up a new username consisting of the five letters J, A, S, O, N followed by the three
digits 1, 2, 3 in any order. Find the number of different ways he can do this.

7. Find the number less than 1000 can be formed using the digits 0,1,2,3,4,5 when repetition is not allowed.

8. A variable name in certain computer language must be either an alphabet followed by a decimal digit.
Find the total number of different variable name that can exist in that language.

9. A person sends his servant to post 5 letters, the servant found there are 6 letter boxes. In how many ways
the servant can post this letter if
(i) Letters can be posted in any letter box.
(ii) Letters can be posted in any letter box, but the servant must not post all the letters in the same letter
box.
10. How many numbers between 99 and 1000 (both excluding) can be formed such that
(i) every digit either 4 or 8
(ii) the digit 8 does not appears in any place.
(iii) at least one of the digits is 8.

11. Find the value of 𝑛𝑛 if

(i) 3 n𝑃𝑃4 = 5n – 1 𝑃𝑃4
(ii) n – 1 𝑃𝑃3 : n + 1 𝑃𝑃3 = 5 ∶ 12

12. Find the value of 𝑟𝑟

(i) 11𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 = 12 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟−1
(ii) 15𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟−1 :16𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟−1 = 3: 4

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13. How many arrangements of the word ACHIEVE are there if

(i) there are no restrictions on the order the letters are to be in
(ii) the first letter is an A
(iii) the letters A and I are to be together.
(iv) the letters C and H are to be apart.

14. Six people go to the cinema. They sit in a row with ten seats. Find how many ways can this be done if
(i) they can sit anywhere.
(ii) all the empty seats are next to each other.

15. Find how many different arrangements there are of the nine letters in the words GOLD MEDAL
(i) if there are no restrictions on the order of the letters.
(ii) if the two letters D come first and the two letters L come last.

16. A staff car park at a school has 13 parking spaces in a row. There are 9 cars to be parked.
(i) How many different arrangements are there for parking the 9 cars and leaving 4 empty spaces?
(ii) How many different arrangements are there if the 4 empty spaces are next to each other?

17. Find how many numbers between 5000 and 6000 can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6
(i) if no digits are repeated,
(ii)if repeated digits are allowed.

18. How many different 8 letter words are possible using the letters of the word ‘SYLLABUS’ if
(i) there is no restriction.
(ii) contains the two S’ together.
(iii) begins and ends with L.

19. Ms. Aiba has twelve different mathematics textbooks on her classroom bookshelf. Five of them are
Applied Mathematics textbooks and the other seven are Pure Mathematics textbooks. Determine the
number of different ways that the books can be arranged on the shelf if,
(i) there are no restrictions.
(ii) the Applied Mathematics textbooks are all first and then the Pure Mathematics textbooks are all last.
(iii) the Applied Mathematics textbooks are all together and the Pure Mathematics textbooks are all
together.
(iv) only the Applied Mathematics textbooks are all together.

20. In how many ways can 3 ladies and 3 gentlemen be seated around a round table so that two and only two
ladies sit together?

21. Ten students are appearing for a retest, five of whom are taking Mathematics and the rest are taking
different subjects. In how many ways can they be seated so that no two Mathematics students sit together?
Case based Question.

22. Seema wants a mobile number having 10 digits. It is not just a group of
numbers strung out at random. All mobile numbers have 3 things in
common. a 2-digit Access code (AC), a 3-digit provider code (PC), and a
5-digit subscriber code (SC). AC code and PC code are fixed, then,
(i) How many mobile numbers are possible if start with 98073 and no
other digit can repeat?
(ii) How many AC code are possible if both digit in AC code are
different and must be greater than 6?
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(iii) How many mobile numbers are possible if AC and PC code are fixed, and digits can repeat?
(iv) How many mobile numbers are possible with AC code 98 and PC code 123 and digit used in AC
and PC code will not be used in SC code (digits can repeat)?

Answer
1. (i) (b), (ii) (a), (iii) (b), (iv) (c), (v) (a) 13. (i) 2520 (ii) 360 (iii) 720 (iv) 1800

2. 37 × 7! 14. (i) 151200 (ii) 5040

3. 𝑛𝑛 = 3 15. (i) 90720 (ii) 120

4 𝑛𝑛 = 6 16. (i) 259,459,200 (13𝑃𝑃9 ) (ii) 9𝑃𝑃9 = 362880

5. (i) 16 (ii) 55 17. (i) 60 (ii) 216

6. 720 18. (i) 10080 (ii) 2520 (iii) 360

7. 130 19. (i) 12! (ii) 5! × 7! (iii) 2! × 5! × 7!

(iv) 8! × 5!.
8. 260
20. 72
9. (i) 65 (ii) 65 − 6
21. 86400
10. (i) 8 (ii) 648 (iii) 252
Case Based Question:
11. (i) 10 (ii) 8 22. (i) 120 (ii) 6 (iii) 105 (iv)3125
12. (i) 9 (ii) 5

Combination
A combination is the number of possible arrangements of a set of objects when the order of the arrangements
does not matter.
A combination will be finding the number of ways to choose out of n items.
• The order in which the r items are chosen is not important.
• For example, if we are choosing two letters from the word CAB, AB and BA would be considered the
same combination but different permutations.

Definition: Let 𝑟𝑟 and 𝑛𝑛 two positive integers and 1 ≤ 𝑟𝑟 ≤ 𝑛𝑛, then the number of combinations of 𝑛𝑛 different
𝑛𝑛
objects taken 𝑟𝑟 at a time is denoted by: n𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 or 𝐶𝐶 (𝑛𝑛, 𝑟𝑟) or � �.
𝑟𝑟

• If we want to find the number of ways to choose 𝑟𝑟 items out of 𝑛𝑛 different objects, but we don’t mind the
order in which they are chosen, then we could find the number of permutations of 𝑟𝑟 items from 𝑛𝑛 and then
divide by the number of ways of arranging each combination.

For example
1. If we want to choose 2 letters from A, B and C
There are 6 permutations of 2 letters: AB, BA, AC, CA, BC, CB
For each combination of 2 letters there are 2 (2 × 1) ways of arranging them (for example, AB and BA)
So, divide the total number of permutations (6) by the number of ways of arranging each combination
(2) to get 3 combinations.

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2. If we want to find the number of ways to choose 3 out of 5 different objects, but we don’t mind the order
in which they are chosen, then we could find the number of permutations of 3 items from 5 and then
divide by the number of ways of arranging each combination.
For example, if we want to choose 3 letters from A, B, C, D and E
There are 60 permutations of 3 letters: ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB, CBA, ABD, ADB etc.
For each combination of 3 letters there are 6 (3 × 2 ×1) ways of arranging them (for example, ABC, ACB,
BAC, BCA, CAB and CBA)
So, divide the total number of permutations (60) by the number of ways of arranging each combination
(3! = 6) to get 10 combinations.
𝒏𝒏!
Number of combinations of 𝒏𝒏 different things taken 𝒓𝒓 at a time ( 𝒓𝒓 < 𝒏𝒏) is n𝑪𝑪𝒓𝒓 = 𝒓𝒓!(𝒏𝒏−𝒓𝒓)!

Proof: Let number of combinations of n different things taken r at a time is n𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟

Now each combination consists of 𝑟𝑟 different things and these 𝑟𝑟 things can be arranged among themselves in
𝑟𝑟! 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
Thus, for one combination of r different things, the number of arrangements is 𝑟𝑟!
Hence for n𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 combination, the number of arrangements is n𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 × 𝑟𝑟!
But the number of arrangements of n different things taken r at a time is n𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟
𝑛𝑛!
So, n𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 × 𝑟𝑟! =n𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 = (𝑛𝑛−𝑟𝑟)!

𝒏𝒏!
n
𝑪𝑪𝒓𝒓 = (𝒏𝒏−𝒓𝒓)!×𝒓𝒓!

Properties of n𝑪𝑪𝒓𝒓
n
1. 𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 =n𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛−𝑟𝑟

2. If n𝐶𝐶𝑥𝑥 = n𝐶𝐶𝑦𝑦 then either 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦 or 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦

n
3. 𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 + n𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟−1 = n+1
𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟
n𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 n
4. 𝑟𝑟 n𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 = n (n – 1 𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟−1 ) or =
(n−1)𝐶𝐶(𝑟𝑟−1) r
n𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 n−r+1
5. =
n𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟−1 r

n𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 r+1
6. =
n+1𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟+1 n+1

n
7. 𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 is always a natural number.
n
8. 𝐶𝐶0 = n𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛 = 1
n
9. 𝐶𝐶1 = 𝑛𝑛

𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛−1) 𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛−1)(𝑛𝑛−2)
10. n𝐶𝐶2 = 2!
, n
𝐶𝐶3 = 3!
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒.

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Combination with repetition

Let suppose there are p elements in a set A. We are asked to select q elements from this set, given that each
element can be selected multiple times. This is known as a combination with repetition. For instance, we
can make combinations of three elements of the set {p, q, r, s} in this way:
ppp, ppq, ppr, pps, pqq, pqr, pqs, prr, prs, pss, qqq, qqr, qqs, qrr, qrs, qss, rrr, rrs,rss, sss
You can see that most of the alphabets are repeated more than once.
The formula of selecting 𝑟𝑟objects out of 𝑛𝑛 different types of objects when any objects can be selected any
number of times is n + r – 1 𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 or n + r – 1 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛−1 .

Solved Examples
1. If 15𝐶𝐶3𝑟𝑟 =15 𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟+3 , find the value of 𝑟𝑟.
Solution:
15
𝐶𝐶3𝑟𝑟 =15 𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟+3
⇒ 3𝑟𝑟 = 𝑟𝑟 + 3 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 3𝑟𝑟 + 𝑟𝑟 + 3 = 15
⇒ 2𝑟𝑟 = 3 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 4𝑟𝑟 = 12
3
⇒ 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑟𝑟 = 3
2
Hence, 𝑟𝑟 = 3 (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑟𝑟 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)

2. If n𝐶𝐶8 = n𝐶𝐶6 find the value of n𝐶𝐶3 .

Solution:
n
𝐶𝐶8 = n𝐶𝐶6 so 𝑛𝑛 = 8 + 6 = 14
14! 14×13×12
Now, n𝐶𝐶3 = 14𝐶𝐶3 = = = 364
3!×11! 3×2×1

3. If n𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 = 84, n𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟−1 = 36 and n𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟+1 = 126, then find the value of 𝑛𝑛.
Solution:
𝐶𝐶(𝑛𝑛, 𝑟𝑟) 84 𝑛𝑛 − 𝑟𝑟 + 1 7
= ,⇒ =
𝐶𝐶(𝑛𝑛, 𝑟𝑟 − 1) 36 𝑟𝑟 3
⇒ 3𝑛𝑛 − 3𝑟𝑟 + 3 = 7𝑟𝑟
⇒ 10𝑟𝑟 − 3𝑛𝑛 = 3 -------(i)
𝐶𝐶(𝑛𝑛, 𝑟𝑟 + 1) 126 𝑛𝑛 − 𝑟𝑟 3
= ⇒ =
𝐶𝐶(𝑛𝑛, 𝑟𝑟) 84 𝑟𝑟 + 1 2
⇒ 2𝑛𝑛 − 2𝑟𝑟 = 3𝑟𝑟 + 3
⇒ 2𝑛𝑛 − 5𝑟𝑟 = 3 … … . . (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)
On solving equation we get 𝑟𝑟 = 3, 𝑛𝑛 = 9.

4. Out of 10 consonants and 4 vowels, how many words can be formed each containing 3 consonants and 2
vowels.
Solution:
The number of ways selecting 3 consonants from 10 is 10𝐶𝐶3 and 2 vowels from 4 is 4𝐶𝐶2 .
Arrangements of these 5 letters all distinct is 5!
Hence the number of words that can be formed is 10𝐶𝐶3 ×4𝐶𝐶2 × 5! = 120× 6× 120 = 86,400.

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5. In a badminton tournament each player played one game with all the other players. Find the number of
players participated in the tournament if they played 105 games.
Solution:
Let number of players = n
Number of games played = n𝐶𝐶2
∴ According to the question, n 𝐶𝐶2 = 105
⇒𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1) = 210
⇒𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1) = 14 × 15
∴ 𝑛𝑛 = 15.

6. A box contains 3 red, 4 white and 2 black balls. Find the number of ways in which 3 balls can be drawn
from the box, so that at least one ball is red, is (all balls are different).
Solution:
Number of ways of selecting 3 balls without any restriction = 9𝐶𝐶3
Number of ways when no red ball is selected = 6𝐶𝐶3
Required number of ways = 9𝐶𝐶3 − 6𝐶𝐶3 = 64

7. At an election, a voter may vote for any number of candidates not greater than the number to be elected.
There are 10 candidates and 4 are to be elected. If a voter votes for at least one candidate, then find the
number of ways in which he can vote.
Solution:
A voter can vote maximum 4 votes and minimum 1 vote. Required number of ways =
10
𝐶𝐶1 + 10𝐶𝐶2 +10𝐶𝐶3 +10𝐶𝐶4
∴ = 10 + 45 + 120 + 210 = 385
8. In a certain algebraical exercise book there are 4 examples on arithmetical progression, 5 examples on
permutation and combination and 6 examples on binomial theorem. Find the number of ways a teacher
can select for his student at least one but not more than 2 examples from each of these sets.
Solution:
Number of ways a teacher can select examples from arithmetical progression is 4𝐶𝐶1 +4𝐶𝐶2 .
Number of ways a teacher can select examples from permutation and combination is 5𝐶𝐶1 +5𝐶𝐶2 .
Number of ways a teacher can select examples from binomial theorem is 6𝐶𝐶1 +6𝐶𝐶2 .
Hence total number of ways is :(4𝐶𝐶1 +4𝐶𝐶2 )(5𝐶𝐶1 +5𝐶𝐶2 )(6𝐶𝐶1 +6𝐶𝐶2 )= 3150.

9. A delegation of 4 students is to be selected from a total of 12 students. In how many ways can the
delegation be selected if
(i) all the students are equally willing?
(ii) two particular students have to be included in the delegation.
(iii) Two particular students do not wish to be together in the delegation.
(iv) If two particular students refuse to be together and two other particular students wish to be together
only in the delegation.

Solution:
(i) Formation of delegation means selection of 4 out of 12 = 12𝐶𝐶4 = 495
(ii) Two particular students already included, so we have to select remaining 2 out of 10 10𝐶𝐶2 =
45 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
(iii) Hence if two particular students do not wish to be together = 495 – 45 = 450
(iv) We assume student M and N are together and student X and Y do not wish to be together.
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Case Number of selections

M and N always together 10
𝐶𝐶2 = 45
M and N always excluded 10
𝐶𝐶4 = 210
M, N, X and Y always selected 1 way
M, N excluded and X, Y included 8
𝐶𝐶2 = 28

Hence total number of selections is: 45 + 210 − 1 − 28 = 226 ways.

10. How many five-letter word can be formed from the letters of the word ‘INDEPENDENT’.
Solution:
Given letters are I, (N, N, N), (D, D), (E, E, E), P, T

Choice No of ways selecting letters

All the letters are distinct 6
𝐶𝐶5 = 6
3 distinct and 2 alike 5
𝐶𝐶3 × 6𝐶𝐶5 =30
2 distinct and 3 alike 5
𝐶𝐶2 ×2𝐶𝐶1 = 20
2 pairs of alike and 1 distinct 3
𝐶𝐶2 ×4𝐶𝐶1 = 12
3 alike and 2 alike 2
𝐶𝐶1 ×2𝐶𝐶1 = 4
Total no of selection 72

Now arranging these letters to form words:

5! 5! 5! 5!
6× 5! + 30× + 20 × + 12 × + 4×
2! 3! 2!×2! 3!×2!

= 4320+1800 +400+360+40 = 3320 words.

11. There are eight different ice-cream flavours in the ice-cream shop. In how many ways can we choose five
flavours out of these eight flavours (repetition allowed)?
Solution:
Total number of ice-cream flavors = n = 8
The number of ice-cream flavors to be selected = r = 5
Number of ways = 8+5-1𝐶𝐶5 = 12𝐶𝐶5 =792 ways.

All possible selections

• Total number of combinations of n different things taking any number of things at a time is 𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏 𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰.
Explanation: For each thing there are two possibilities, whether it is selected or not selected
Hence, the total number of ways is given by total possibilities of all the things is equal to
2 × 2 × 2 × 2 … … . 𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 2𝑛𝑛 .
• Total number of combinations of n different things taken one or more number of things at a time is
𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏 − 𝟏𝟏 𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘.
Explanation: For each thing there are two possibilities, whether it is selected or not selected
Total number of ways is given by total possibilities of all the things is equal to 2×2×2×
2 … … . 𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 2𝑛𝑛
But this includes one case in which nothing is selected.
Hence, total number of ways of selecting one or more of n different things is 2𝑛𝑛 − 1 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤.

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Example,
1. Find the number of groups that can be made from 6 different red balls, 5 different green balls and 4
different black balls if at least 1 red ball and 1 green ball is included.
Solution:
At least one red ball is selected out of 6 green ball is 26 − 1= 63 ways, at least one green ball can be
selected out of 5 balls is 25 − 1 = 31 ways. At least one or no black ball can be selected in 24 = 16 ways.
Hence required number of ways is = 63 × 31 × 16 = 31,248

2. There are 3 books of mathematics, 4 books of physics, and 5chemistry. How many different collections
can be made such that each collection consists of
(i) one book of each subject.
(ii) at least one book of each subject.
(iii) at least one book of chemistry.
Solution:
(i) one book of each subject: 3𝐶𝐶1 ×4𝐶𝐶1 ×5𝐶𝐶1 = 3 × 4 × 5 = 60.
(ii) at least one book of each subject.: (23 − 1)(24 − 1)(25 − 1)
= 7 × 15 × 31 = 3255.
(iii) at least one book of chemistry = (25 − 1) × 24 × 23 = 31 × 16 × 8 = 3968.

Selection of things which are not different ‘or’ identical things.

• Total number of selections of one or more things from 𝑝𝑝 identical things of one type, 𝑞𝑞 identical things of
another types, and 𝑟𝑟 identical things of third types is (𝑝𝑝 + 1)(𝑞𝑞 + 1)(𝑟𝑟 + 1) − 1 ways.

Explanation: Since, the number of ways of selecting r things out of n identical things is 1∀ 𝑟𝑟 ≤ 𝑛𝑛, hence
the number of ways selecting zero or more things out of p identical things is: 1+1+1+1……. (𝑝𝑝 + 1) times
= (𝑝𝑝 + 1) 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤.
Similarly, the number of ways selecting zero or more things out of 𝑞𝑞 and 𝑟𝑟 identical things is 𝑞𝑞 +
1 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑟𝑟 + 1 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 rspectively.
Therefore, the number of ways of selecting zero or more things out of given things is
(𝑝𝑝 + 1)(𝑞𝑞 + 1)(𝑟𝑟 + 1)𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤.
Thus, the total number of ways of selecting one or more things out of given things is
(𝑝𝑝 + 1)(𝑞𝑞 + 1)(𝑟𝑟 + 1) − 1 ways.

• Total number of selections of one or more things from 𝑝𝑝 identical things of one type, 𝑞𝑞 identical things of
another types, and 𝑟𝑟 identical things of third types and 𝑛𝑛 different things is
(𝑝𝑝 + 1)(𝑞𝑞 + 1)(𝑟𝑟 + 1)2𝑛𝑛 − 1 ways.

Division and Distribution

(𝒎𝒎+𝒏𝒏)!
• Division of 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑛𝑛 distinct objects into two groups of the size 𝑚𝑚 and 𝑛𝑛 (𝑚𝑚 ≠ 𝑛𝑛) is
𝒎𝒎!×𝒏𝒏!

Explanation: The number of ways 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑛𝑛 distinct objects is divided into 2 groups of size 𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛 is
equivalent to the number of selections of 𝑚𝑚 objects out of (𝑚𝑚 + 𝑛𝑛) objects so the number of ways are:
m+n (𝑚𝑚+𝑛𝑛)!.
𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚 =
𝑚𝑚!×𝑛𝑛!
(2𝑚𝑚)!
- In the above case, if 𝑚𝑚 = 𝑛𝑛 then number of ways the division can be made is
(𝑚𝑚!)2 ×2!

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- The number of ways of distributing 2𝑛𝑛 different things equally among 2 persons each contain 𝑛𝑛
(𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐)!
things is 𝟐𝟐
(𝒏𝒏!)

- The number of ways distributing 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑛𝑛 distinct objects into two persons in unequal group the size
(𝒎𝒎+𝒏𝒏)!
𝑚𝑚 and 𝑛𝑛 (𝑚𝑚 ≠ 𝑛𝑛) is : 𝒎𝒎!×𝒏𝒏! × 2!
(𝑚𝑚+𝑛𝑛+𝑝𝑝)!
• Similarly, division of 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑝𝑝 objects into three groups of the size 𝑚𝑚, 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑝𝑝 (𝑚𝑚 ≠ 𝑛𝑛 ≠ 𝑝𝑝) is .
𝑚𝑚!×𝑛𝑛!×𝑝𝑝!
(3𝑚𝑚)!
- In the above case if 𝑚𝑚 = 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝, then number of ways the division can be made .
(𝑚𝑚!)3 ×3!

- The number of ways of distributing 3𝑛𝑛 different things equally among 3 persons each contain 𝑛𝑛
(𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑)!
things is(𝒏𝒏!)𝟑𝟑

- The number of ways distributing 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑝𝑝 objects into three persons in unequal group of the size
(𝑚𝑚+𝑛𝑛+𝑝𝑝)!
𝑚𝑚, 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑝𝑝(𝑚𝑚 ≠ 𝑛𝑛 ≠ 𝑝𝑝) is × 3!
𝑚𝑚!×𝑛𝑛!×𝑝𝑝!

REAL- LIFE APPLICATIONS

Real life application of combination

• Forming a sports team: Choosing players from a pool of athletes without regard to the order they are
selected.
• Choosing nominees for student council: Selecting candidates for different positions without
specifying their order of election.
• Selecting items for a shopping list: Choosing groceries or other items from a list, where the order
doesn't affect the overall selection.
• Choosing a combination lock: Setting the code for a combination lock, where the order of the
numbers is crucial for unlocking.
• Lottery numbers: Picking numbers for a lottery, where the order of the selected numbers doesn't
matter to win.
• Choosing a menu: Selecting dishes from a restaurant menu.
• Selecting clothes: Choosing different outfits by selecting items like shirts, pants, and shoes.
• Travel Planning: Combinations can be used to determine the number of ways to visit different
destinations during a vacation.

Difference between Permutation and Combination

Permutation Combination
The combination means a total number of ways
The different ways of arranging a set of objects into a
in which we can select some elements from a
sequential order are termed as permutation
given set of elements.
The order in which the elements are placed is very The order in which the elements are selected is
important. not important.
Permutation can be made using repetition or without Combination is not concerned with repetition or
repetition of elements. without repetition of elements.
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Exercises
1. Choose the correct answer:
(i) 15
C9 +15C8–15C6–15C7 is equals to
(a) 15
C10 (c) 1
(b) 16
C9 (d) 0

(ii) Let A and B be two sets containing 2 elements and 4 elements, respectively. The number of subsets
of 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐵𝐵 having 3 or more elements is
(a) 256 (c) 219
(b) 220 (d) 211
(iii) If n𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 denotes the number of combinations of𝑛𝑛 things taken 𝑟𝑟 at a time, then expression
n
𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟+1 +n𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟−1 +2 n𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 equal to
n+2 n+1
(a) 𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 (c) 𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟
n+2 n+1
(b) 𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟+1 (d) 𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟+1

(iv) Fifteen identical balls have to be put in 5 different boxes. Each box can contain any number of balls.
The total number of ways of putting balls into the boxes so that each box contain at least two ball is
equal to
(a) 9
𝐶𝐶5 (c) 6 𝐶𝐶5

(b) 10
𝐶𝐶5 (d) 10
𝐶𝐶6

(v) Consider the following statement:

Statement 1: Number of diagonals of a 8-sided polygon is 20
Statement 2: Number of straight lines that can be drawn out of 𝑛𝑛 non-collinear points is n𝐶𝐶2 − 𝑛𝑛.
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are true?
(a) Only 1 (c) Both 1 and 2
(b) Only 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

(vi) Assertion (A): The range of the function f(x) = 7 – x C x – 3 is {1,3,4}

Reason (R): n𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 is defined only when 𝑟𝑟 ≤ 𝑛𝑛.
(a) Both A and R individually true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R individually true and R is not the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false bur R is true.

2. A cricket team consisting of 6 batsmen, 4 bowlers and 1 wicket-keeper is to be selected from a group of
18 cricketers comprising 9 batsmen, 7 bowlers and 2 wicket-keepers. How many different teams can be
selected?

3. A group of 5 computer programmers is to be chosen to form the night shift from a set of 14 programmers.
In how many ways can the programmers be chosen if the 5 chosen must include the shift-leader who is
one of the 14?

4. A football team consists of 3 players who play in a defensive position, 3 players who play in a midfield
position and 5 players who play in a forward position. Three players are chosen to collect a gold medal
for the team. Find in how many ways this can be done.

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(a) if the captain, who is a midfield player, must be included, together with one defensive and one forward
player.
(b) if exactly one forward player must be included, together with any two others.

5. A choir consists of 13 guitarists, 12 pianists, 6 drummers and 7 bassists. A group consisting of 10 guitarists,
9 pianists, 4 drummers and 4 bassists. is to be chosen from the choir.
(i) In how many different ways can the group be chosen?
(ii) In how many ways can the 10 chosen guitarists be arranged in a line if the 6 tallest stand next to each
other?
(iii) The 4 drummers and the 4 bassists in the group stand in a single line with all the drummers next to
each other and all the bassists next to each other. How many possible arrangements are there if three
of the drummers refuse to stand next to any of the bassists?

6. The diagram shows the seating plan for passengers in a

minibus, which has 17 seats arranged in 4 rows. The back
row has 5 seats and the other 3 rows have 2 seats on each
side. 11 passengers get on the minibus.
(i) How many possible seating arrangements are there for
the 11 passengers?
(ii) How many possible seating arrangements are there if 5
particular people sit in the back row? Of the 11
passengers, 5 are unmarried and the other 6 consist of 3 married couples.
(iii) In how many ways can 5 of the 11 passengers on the bus be chosen if there must be 2 married couples
and 1 other person, who may or may not be married?

7. Find the number of ways of choosing a school team of 5 pupils from 6 boys and 8 girls
(a) if there are more girls than boys in the team,
(b) if three of the boys are cousins and are either all in the team or all not in the team.

8. Twenty-eight games played in a football tournament with each team playing once against each other. How
many teams were there?

9. There are 10 points on a plane of which 5 pints are collinear. Also, no three of the remaining 5 points are
collinear. Then find :
(i) Number of straight lines joining these points.
(ii) Number of triangles formed joining these points.

10. Find the number of ways distributing 10 identical balls in 4 different boxes so that none of the boxes empty

11. In how many ways can 20 students be divided into 4 equal groups? In how many ways can these students
be sent to different schools?

12. How many four letters word can be formed from the letters of the word ‘EXAMINATION’?

13. Determine the number of ways of choosing4 cards from a pack of 52 playing cards if
(i) four cards are of the same suit?
(ii) four cards belong to four different suits?
(iii) are face cards?
(iv) two are red cards and two are black cards?
(v) cards are of the same colour?

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Answers
1. (i) (d), (ii) (c), (iii) (b), (iv) (a), (v) (a) (vi) d 8. 8
2. 5880 9. (i) 36 (ii) 110
3. 715 10. 84
4. (a) 15 (b) 75 11.
20! 20!
, (5!)4
4! (5!)4
5. (i) 33033000 (ii) 86400 (iii) 288
12. 2454
6. (i) 17𝑃𝑃11 (ii) 79833600 (iii) 21
13. (i) 2860 (ii) 134 (iii) 495 (iv) 105625
7. (a) 1316 (b) 517 (v) 29900

Classroom Discussion
• Is the definition 0! = 1 “arbitrary”?
• Is it logical to extend the definition of factorial to extend to 0! even though it is not meaningful in the
context of the original definition ‘the product of first n natural numbers? Can you think of the other areas
of mathematics in which the definition is similarly extend?

Project Work
1. Investigate the strength of different password systems using permutations and combinations. Analyse the
number of possible passwords based on character sets, lengths, and case sensitivity.
2. Explore how permutations and combinations can be used to optimize task scheduling in real-world
scenarios, such as assigning employees to shifts or planning a conference.
3. Explain the connection between permutations and combinations and how they relate to each other.
4. Analyse the number of possible team combinations based on player pool size and desired team
composition.

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HISTORICAL NOTE

Ancient Civilization:
In Greece, Plutarch wrote that Xenocrates of Chalcedon (396–314 BC) discovered the number of
different syllables possible in the Greek language. This would have been the first attempt on record to
solve a difficult problem in permutations and combinations.
AI- Khalil (717–786), an Arab mathematician and cryptographer wrote the Book of Cryptographic
Messages. It contains the first use of permutations and combinations, to list all possible Arabic words
with and without vowels.
Indian mathematicians like Bhaskara II and Mahavira made significant contributions to understanding
permutations and combinations, with their work influencing later mathematicians.
Formalization and Modern Development
17th Century Mathematicians:
Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat provided the impetus for the development of combinatorics by
analysing games of chance, leading to the formalization of these concepts.
Bernoulli and Euler:
Jacob Bernoulli and Leonhard Euler further expanded on these ideas, making significant contributions
to probability theory and combinatorics.
Conclusion:
Permutations and combinations are now essential tools in probability theory, statistics, computer
science, and various other fields, including operations research and game design.

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(v) Binomial Theorem

SCOPE

History, statement of the binomial theorem for positive integral indices. Pascal's triangle, General and
middle term(s) in binomial expansion, simple applications.
• Significance of Pascal’s triangle.
• Binomial theorem for positive integral powers,
i.e. (x + y )n = n
C0 x n + nC1 x n -1 y + ...... + nCn y n

• Binomial coefficients.
Questions based on the above.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Student will be able to :

• find the expansion for integral power of a binomial.
• derive the properties of binomial coefficients.
• solve problems based on binomial expansion.

PRE-REQUISITES

• Understand basic algebraic operations including polynomial multiplication.

• Use exponent rules for simplifying algebraic expressions.
• Compute combinations and understand factorial notation.
• Recognize and extend number patterns and sequences.
• Interpret mathematical terminology like “general term” and “independent term”.

Introduction
In earlier classes, we have already worked with algebraic identities like:
(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)2 = 𝑎𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 2

(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)3 = 𝑎𝑎3 + 3𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 2 + 𝑏𝑏 3

. We notice a pattern in the coefficients:
• For (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)2 , the coefficients are 1, 2, 1
• For (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)3 , the coefficients are 1, 3, 3, 1

These numbers are not random — they follow a regular arrangement called Pascal’s Triangle.

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Pascal Triangle
Pascal’s Triangle is a triangular arrangement of numbers where each
number is the sum of the two numbers directly above it. It starts with
1 at the top and grows outward symmetrically. This simple pattern
reveals many interesting mathematical relationships and number
sequences.

Binomial Theorem
The Binomial Theorem is a fundamental result in algebra that provides a way to expand expressions of the
form(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎)𝑛𝑛 , where 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑎𝑎 are real numbers or algebraic expressions, and n is a non-negative integer.
For smaller values of n, we can expand such expressions manually using repeated multiplication. However, as
n becomes larger, direct multiplication becomes tedious and impractical. The binomial theorem offers a
powerful and efficient method for expansion, using binomial coefficients.
Although the binomial theorem can be extended to include negative and fractional powers, in this context, we
limit our focus to positive integral powers only.

Expansion form of Binomial theorem

For any non-negative integer n, the expansion of (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎)𝑛𝑛 is given by:

(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎)𝑛𝑛 =nC0xn+ nC1 xn-1a+nC2 xn-2a2+nC3 xn-3a3+…….+nCn an

= xn+ nC1 xn-1a+nC2 xn-2a2+nC3 xn-3a3+…….+an

In summation form, (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎)𝑛𝑛 = ∑nCrxn-rar, r = 0 to n

Relation Between Pascal’s Triangle and Binomial Theorem

Pascal’s Triangle is directly connected to the Binomial
Theorem, which provides a formula for expanding
expressions of the form (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎)𝑛𝑛 .
Each row of Pascal’s Triangle corresponds to the coefficients
of the expanded form of (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎)𝑛𝑛 . Specifically, the numbers
in the nth row of Pascal’s Triangle represent the coefficients
of the terms in the expansion of (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎)𝑛𝑛 , starting from
𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 and decreasing the power of 𝑥𝑥 by 1 with each successive
term, while increasing the power of 𝑎𝑎 by 1. This connection
makes the triangle an essential visual and computational tool
for understanding binomial expansions and combinatorics.
For example, expand (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)3using Pascal’s Triangle.
Step 1: Use the 3rd row of Pascal’s Triangle. The 3rd row is:
1 3 3 1. These are the coefficients of the expansion.
Step 2: Apply the powers of a and b.

(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)3 = 𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏 0 + 3𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 2 + 𝑏𝑏 3 𝑎𝑎0 = 𝑎𝑎3 + 3𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 2 + 𝑏𝑏 3

So, the coefficients 1, 3, 3, 1 came directly from Pascal’s Triangle, and they help us build the expansion step
by step.

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Observation of Binomial expansion

(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎)𝑛𝑛 = xn+ nC1 xn-1a+ nC2 xn-2a2+ nC3 xn-3a3+….…+ nCr xn-rar….+an

1. Number of Terms:
The expansion of (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎)𝑛𝑛 contains (𝑛𝑛 + 1) terms.
2. Sum of Exponents:
In each term of the expansion, the sum of the exponents of 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑎𝑎 is equal to n.
3. General Term:
The general term 𝑇𝑇𝑟𝑟+1 in the expansion of (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎)𝑛𝑛 =nCrxn-rar
4. Middle Term(s):
𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡ℎ
If n is even, the middle term is the � + 1� term.
2

𝑛𝑛+1 𝑡𝑡ℎ 𝑛𝑛+3 𝑡𝑡ℎ

If n is odd, there are two middle terms, the � � 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 � � terms.
2 2

5. Term from the End:

In a binomial expansion, the 𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡ℎ term from the end is equivalent to the (𝑛𝑛 − 𝑟𝑟 + 2)𝑡𝑡ℎ term from the beginning.

Binomial Coefficients
Each term in the binomial expansion is associated with a numeric value nCr which is called binomial
𝑛𝑛!
coefficient. i.e. nCr = is the binomial coefficient.
𝑟𝑟!(𝑛𝑛−𝑟𝑟)!

Properties of Binomial coefficients:

1. The coefficients of terms equidistant from the beginning and end are equal. That is,
n
C0=nCn ,nC1= nCn-1, nC2 = nCn-2 , …… (∵ nCr= nCn-r)
2. The sum of the binomial coefficients equals 2𝑛𝑛 . That is,
n
C0 + nC1 + nC2 + nC3 + …..+ nCn= 2𝑛𝑛
3. The sum of the alternating binomial coefficients equals the sum of the other alternating binomial
coefficients which equals 2𝑛𝑛−1 . That is,

C0 + nC2 + nC4 + nC6 + …..= nC1 + nC3 + nC5 + …= 2𝑛𝑛−1

n

(2𝑛𝑛!)
4. The sum of the squares of the binomial coefficients equals 2nCn = . That is,
𝑛𝑛! 𝑛𝑛!

(2𝑛𝑛!)
(nC0)2 + (nC1)2 + (nC2)2+….+(nCn)2 = 2n
Cn = .
𝑛𝑛! 𝑛𝑛!

5. The coefficients are always positive integers.

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Binomial expansion in the form of (𝒙𝒙 − 𝒂𝒂)𝒏𝒏

In the binomial expansion,

(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎)𝑛𝑛 = xn+ nC1 xn-1a+ nC2 xn-2a2+ nC3 xn-3a3+….…+ nCr xn-rar….+an

𝑛𝑛
replace a by -a. Then, (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎)𝑛𝑛 = �𝑥𝑥 + (−𝑎𝑎)�

= xn+ nC1 xn-1(-a)+ nC2 xn-2(-a)2+ nC3 xn-3(-a)3+….…+ nCr xn-r(-a)r….+(-a)n

= xn− nC1 xn-1(a)+ nC2 xn-2(a)2- nC3 xn-3(a)3+….…+(-1)n(a)n

In summation form, (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎)𝑛𝑛 = ∑(−1)rnCr xn-rar, r = 0 to n

Results based on (𝒙𝒙 + 𝒂𝒂)𝒏𝒏 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 (𝒙𝒙 − 𝒂𝒂)𝒏𝒏

1. (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎)𝑛𝑛 + (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎)𝑛𝑛 = 2 (xn+ nC2 xn-2a2+ nC4 xn-4a4+ nC6 xn-6a6+….…)
2. (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎)𝑛𝑛 − (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎)𝑛𝑛 = 2 (nC1 xn-1a+ nC3 xn-3a3+ nC5 xn-5a5+….…)
𝑛𝑛+1
3. The number of terms in (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎)𝑛𝑛 + (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎)𝑛𝑛 = if ‘n’ is odd
2
𝑛𝑛
= + 1, if ‘n’ is even
2
𝑛𝑛+1
4. The number of terms in (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎)𝑛𝑛 − (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎)𝑛𝑛 = if ‘n’ is odd
2
𝑛𝑛
= if ‘n’ is even
2

Solved Examples
1. Find the number of terms in the following binomial expressions.
(a) (2𝑥𝑥 + 5𝑦𝑦)7
Solution : Number of terms = 7 + 1 = 8
(b) (𝑝𝑝 − 𝑞𝑞)8
Solution : Number of terms = 8 + 1 = 9
7 7
(c) �√𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦� + �√𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦�
7+1
Solution : Since 7 is odd, number of terms = =4
2

(d) (2𝑥𝑥 + 7𝑦𝑦)12 + (2𝑥𝑥 − 7𝑦𝑦)12

12
Solution : Since 12 is even, Number of terms = +1=7
2

(e) (9𝑎𝑎2 + 24𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 16𝑏𝑏 2 )21

Solution : (9𝑎𝑎2 + 24𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 16𝑏𝑏 2 )21 = ((3𝑎𝑎 + 4𝑏𝑏)2 )21 = (3𝑎𝑎 + 4𝑏𝑏)42
Number of terms = 42 + 1 = 43

2. Expand the following using binomial theorem.

𝑏𝑏 5
(a) �𝑎𝑎 + �
𝑥𝑥

𝑏𝑏 5 𝑏𝑏 1 𝑏𝑏 2 𝑏𝑏 3 𝑏𝑏 4 𝑏𝑏 5
Solution : �𝑎𝑎 + � = a5 + 5C1a4� � + 5C2 a3� � + 5C3a2� � + 5C4a1� � + 5C5� �
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥

𝑏𝑏 1 𝑏𝑏 2 𝑏𝑏 3 𝑏𝑏 4 𝑏𝑏 5
= a5 + 5a4� � + 10a3� � + 10a2� � + 5a1� � + � �
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥

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6
√𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦
(b) � + √𝑥𝑥 �
√𝑦𝑦 √
6 6 5 4 3
√𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 √𝑥𝑥 √𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 1 √𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 2 √𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 3
Solution : � + √𝑥𝑥� = � � + 6C1� � �√𝑥𝑥 � + 6C2� � �√𝑥𝑥� + 6C3� � �√𝑥𝑥 � +
√𝑦𝑦 √ √𝑦𝑦 √𝑦𝑦 √ √𝑦𝑦 √ √𝑦𝑦 √

2 1
√𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 4 √𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 5 𝑦𝑦 6
6
C4� � �√𝑥𝑥 � + 6C5� � �√𝑥𝑥 � + 6C6�√𝑥𝑥 �
√𝑦𝑦 √ √𝑦𝑦 √ √

𝑥𝑥 3 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦 2 𝑦𝑦 3
= 𝑦𝑦3 + 6 𝑦𝑦2 + 15 + 20 + 15 + 6 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 3
𝑦𝑦 𝑥𝑥

(c) (98)4
Solution : (98)4 = (100 − 2)4
= 1004 – 4C11003(2) + 4C21002(2)2 – 4C3100(2)3 + 24
= 100000000 – 8000000 + 240000 – 3200 + 16
= 9,22,36,816

(d) (101)5
Solution : (101)5 = (100 + 1)5
= 1005 + 5C11004 + 5C21003 + 5C31002 + 5C4100 + 1
= 10000000000 + 500000000 + 10000000 + 100000 + 500 + 1
= 10,51,01,00,501

3. Which is greater (1.1)100 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 100?

1 100
Solution : (1.1)100 = �1 + �
10

100 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4
= 1+ C1� � + 100C2� � +100C3� � +100C4� � +…..
10 10 10 10

99 99×98 99×98×97
1 + 10 + + + + ⋯
= � 2 6×10 2400 �

99
= 1 + 10 + + (33 × 4.6) + ⋯
2

> 100

⇒ (1.1)100 is greater than 100.

4. Evaluate the following:

6 6
(a) �√2 + 1� + �√2 + 1�
6 4 2
Solution : = 2[ √2 + 6C2�√2� +6C4�√2� +1]

= 2(8 + 60 + 30 + 1) = 198
5 5
(b) �√3 + 2� − �√3 − 2�
4 2
Solution : = 2 [ 5C1�√3� (2)1 +5C3�√3� (2)3 +5C5(2)5 ]

= 2(90 + 240 + 32) = 724

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4 4
5. Find (𝑝𝑝 + 𝑞𝑞)4 − (𝑝𝑝 − 𝑞𝑞)4 . Hence evaluate �√3 + √2� − �√3 − √2�
Solution : (𝑝𝑝 + 𝑞𝑞)4 − (𝑝𝑝 − 𝑞𝑞)4 = 2[ 4C1𝑝𝑝3 𝑞𝑞 + 4C3 𝑝𝑝1 𝑞𝑞 3] = 8(𝑝𝑝3 𝑞𝑞 + 𝑞𝑞 3 𝑝𝑝)
4 4 3 3
�√3 + √2� − �√3 − √2� = 8��√3� √2 + �√2� √3� = 40√6

1 12
6. Write the general term in the expansion of �2𝑥𝑥 2 + � . Hence find the
𝑥𝑥

(a) 9th term

(b) term containing, 𝑥𝑥 6
1 𝑟𝑟
Solution : The general term 𝑇𝑇𝑟𝑟+1 =12Cr(2𝑥𝑥 2 )12−𝑟𝑟 � �
𝑥𝑥

1 8
(a) 9th term = 𝑇𝑇9 = 𝑇𝑇8+1 = 12C8(2𝑥𝑥 2 )4 � � = 12𝐶𝐶4 (16)
𝑥𝑥
(b) Let 𝑇𝑇𝑟𝑟+1 be the term containing 𝑥𝑥 6 .
1 𝑟𝑟
𝑇𝑇𝑟𝑟+1 =12Cr(2𝑥𝑥 2 )12−𝑟𝑟 � � is the term containing 𝑥𝑥 6 .
𝑥𝑥

⟹ 24 − 3𝑟𝑟 = 6 ⟹ 𝑟𝑟 = 6

∴ 𝑇𝑇6+1 = 𝑇𝑇7 , is the term containing 𝑥𝑥 6 . 7th term is the term containing 𝑥𝑥 6

3 10
7. Find the term independent of 𝑥𝑥 (constant term) in �√𝑥𝑥 + � .
𝑥𝑥 2

Solution : Let 𝑇𝑇𝑟𝑟+1 be the term independent of 𝑥𝑥

10−𝑟𝑟 3 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟
𝑇𝑇𝑟𝑟+1 =10Cr�√𝑥𝑥� � 2 � = 10Cr(𝑥𝑥)5−2−2𝑟𝑟 (3)𝑟𝑟
𝑥𝑥
𝑟𝑟
Term independent of 𝑥𝑥 ⟹ 5 − − 2𝑟𝑟 = 0 ⟹ 10 − 5𝑟𝑟 = 0 ⟹ 𝑟𝑟 = 2
2

𝑇𝑇3 is the term independent of 𝑥𝑥

8. Find the middle term(s) of the expansion.

2𝑥𝑥 3 10
(a) � − �
3 2𝑥𝑥
1 13
(b) �𝑥𝑥 4 + 2 �
𝑥𝑥

Solution:
2𝑥𝑥 3 10
(a) Expansion of � − � containing 11 terms.
3 2𝑥𝑥
11+1
Middle term of this expansion is, = 6𝑡𝑡ℎ term.
2

2𝑥𝑥 5 3 5
𝑇𝑇6 = 𝑇𝑇5+1 = (−1)5 10C5� � � � = −252
3 2𝑥𝑥

1 13
(b) Expansion of �𝑥𝑥 4 + � containing 14 terms.
𝑥𝑥 2
14 14
The middle terms are 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 1 terms.
2 2

That is, the middle terms are 7th and 8th terms.
1 6
𝑇𝑇7 = 𝑇𝑇6+1 =13C6(𝑥𝑥 4 )7 � 2 � = 1716𝑥𝑥 16
𝑥𝑥

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1 7
𝑇𝑇8 = 𝑇𝑇7+1 =13C7(𝑥𝑥 4 )6 � 2 � = 1716𝑥𝑥 10
𝑥𝑥

4𝑥𝑥 5 9
9. Find the 4th term from the end in the expansion of � − �
5 2𝑥𝑥

Solution:
The 4th term from the end = 10 – 4 + 1 = 7th term from the beginning
4𝑥𝑥 3 −5 6
𝑇𝑇7 = 𝑇𝑇6+1 = 9C6� � � �
5 2𝑥𝑥

64𝑥𝑥 3 15625 10500

= 84 × =
125 64𝑥𝑥 6 𝑥𝑥 3

10. Find 𝑝𝑝, if the coefficients of 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 3 are equal in the expansion of (3 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝)9 .
Solution : Term containing 𝑥𝑥 2 is,9C2(3)7 (𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝)2. Coefficient of 𝑥𝑥 2 = 9C2(3)7 𝑝𝑝2

Term containing 𝑥𝑥 3 is,9C3(3)6 (𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝)3 . Coefficient of 𝑥𝑥 3 = 9C3(3)6 𝑝𝑝3

9×8 9×8×7
Given, 9C2(3)7 𝑝𝑝2 =9C3(3)6 (𝑝𝑝)3 ⟹ × 37 × 𝑝𝑝2 = × 36 × 𝑝𝑝3
1×2 1×2×3

9
⟹ 𝑝𝑝 =
7

11. Using the Pascal triangle expand (2𝑥𝑥 + 3)4

Solution : 1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
…………..
The binomial coefficients from Pascal triangle are 1,4,6,4,1
(2𝑥𝑥 + 3)4 = 1(2𝑥𝑥)4 + 4(2𝑥𝑥)3 (3) + 6(2𝑥𝑥)2 (3)2 + 4(2𝑥𝑥)33 + 1(3)4

= 16𝑥𝑥 4 + 96𝑥𝑥 3 + 216𝑥𝑥 2 + 216𝑥𝑥 3 + 81

12. Using binomial theorem, prove that 23n – 7n – 1 is divisible by 49, where n ∈ N.

Solution : 23n – 7n – 1 = 8n – 7n – 1
Now, 8n – 7n – 1 ⟹ 8n = 7n + 1
(1 + 7) n = nC0 + nC1 (7)1 + nC2 (7)2 + nC3 (7)3 + nC4 (7)2 + nC5 (7)1 + … + nCn (7) n
8n = 1 + 7n + 49 [nC2 + nC3 (71) + nC4 (72) + … + nCn (7) n-2]
8n – 1 – 7n = 49 (integer)
8n – 1 – 7n is divisible by 49 Or, 23n – 1 – 7n is divisible by 49.
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13. You invest ₹1000 in an account which pays a nominal annual interest of 4% compounded quarterly.

The amount of money in the account after complete year can be written
as 1000(1 + 𝑘𝑘)4 , where 𝑘𝑘 ∈ 𝑄𝑄.
(a) Write the value 𝑘𝑘.
(b) Expand and simplify (1 + 𝑘𝑘)4 .
(c) Hence or otherwise, find the amount of money in the account after
one complete year, giving your answer correct to nearest ₹.
Solution:
(a) Given, nominal annual interest of 4% compounded quarterly.
4
∴ 𝑘𝑘 = = 0.01
4×100

(b) (1 + 𝑘𝑘)4 = 4C0 + 4C1 𝑘𝑘 + 4C2 𝑘𝑘 2 + 4C3 𝑘𝑘 3 + 4C4 𝑘𝑘 4

= 1 + 4 𝑘𝑘 + 6 𝑘𝑘 2 + 4 𝑘𝑘 3 + 𝑘𝑘 4
(c) The amount of money in the account after one complete year
= 1000(1 + 𝑘𝑘)4
= 1000(1 + 0.01)4

= 1000[ 1 + 4 × 0.01 + 6 × (0.01)2 + 4 (0.01)3 + (0.01)4]

= 1000[ 1 + 0.04 + 0.0006 + …]
= 1000× 1.0406
= 1040.6
= ₹ 1041

Exercises
1. Find the number of terms in the following expressions:
(a) (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦)9 (d) (𝑥𝑥 + 2)3 (𝑥𝑥 − 2)3
(b) (3𝑝𝑝 − 2𝑞𝑞)6 + (3𝑝𝑝 + 2𝑞𝑞)6 (e) (25𝑥𝑥 2 + 30𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 9𝑦𝑦 2 )10
(c) (𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏 2 )5 + (𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑏𝑏 2 )5

2. Expand using Binomial Theorem:

1 4 (c) (103)3
(a) �𝑎𝑎 − �
𝑏𝑏
(d) (97)5
1 6
(b) �√𝑥𝑥 + �
√𝑥𝑥

3. Which is greater?
(a) (1.05)60 or 10 (b) (1.2)50 or 100

4. Evaluate the following:

4 4 4 4
(a) �√5 + 1� + �√5 − 1� (b) �√7 + 2� − �√7 − 2�

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5. Expand (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)6 − (𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏)6 . Hence evaluate (√2 + √3)6 − (√2 − √3)6 .

2 8
6. Find the General term 𝑇𝑇𝑟𝑟+1 in expansion of �3𝑥𝑥 2 + �
𝑥𝑥

(a) Find the 7𝑡𝑡ℎ term.

(b) Find the term containing 𝑥𝑥 4

2 9
7. Find the term independent of 𝑥𝑥 in �√𝑥𝑥 + �
𝑥𝑥

8. Find the Middle term(s) of

1 8 1 11
(a) �2𝑥𝑥 − � (b) �𝑥𝑥 3 + �
2𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 3

9. Find the 5th term from the end of (𝑥𝑥 − 3)7

10. Find 𝑝𝑝 if coefficients of 𝑥𝑥 3 and 𝑥𝑥 4 are equal in (2 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝)8

11. In the expansion of (2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏)7 the coefficient of 𝑥𝑥 3 is 560. Find the value of 𝑏𝑏.

12. Using Pascal Triangle expand (2𝑥𝑥 − 3)5

13. Using binomial theorem, prove that 32𝑛𝑛+2 − 8𝑛𝑛 − 9 is divisible by 64 , where 𝑛𝑛 ∈ 𝑁𝑁.

Answers
16128
1. (a) 10 (b) 4 (c) 3 (d) 4 (e) 21 (a) 𝑇𝑇7 =
𝑥𝑥 2
1 1 1 1
2. (a) 𝑎𝑎4 − 4𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏 + 6𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑎 + (b) 90720𝑥𝑥 4
𝑏𝑏3 𝑏𝑏4
15 6 1 7. 𝑇𝑇4 = 672
(b) 𝑥𝑥 3 + 6𝑥𝑥 2 + 15𝑥𝑥 + 20 + + +
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 3
462
8. (a) 70 (b) 462𝑥𝑥 3 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
(c) 1,092,727 𝑥𝑥 3

(d) 8,587,340,257 9. 𝑇𝑇4 = −945𝑥𝑥 4

8
3. (a) (1.05)60 b) (1.2)50 10. 𝑝𝑝 =
5

4. (a) 112 (b) 176√7 11. 𝑏𝑏 = 1

5. 2[6𝑎𝑎5 𝑏𝑏 + 20𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏3 + 6𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 5 ] 12. 32𝑥𝑥 5 − 240𝑥𝑥 4 + 720𝑥𝑥 3 − 1080𝑥𝑥 2 +

810𝑥𝑥 − 243
2 𝑟𝑟
6. 𝑇𝑇𝑟𝑟+1 =8Cr(3𝑥𝑥 2 )8−𝑟𝑟 � �
𝑥𝑥

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HISTORICAL NOTE

History of the Binomial Theorem

The Binomial Theorem has a long and rich history, evolving through the contributions of Indian, Persian,
Arab, Chinese, and European mathematicians. It has become a cornerstone of algebra, combinatorics,
and calculus.
1. Ancient Beginnings (c. 200 BCE – 500 CE)
Pingala (c. 200 BCE, India)
• An early reference to what we now recognize as binomial coefficients appears in the work of
the Indian scholar Pingala, who described Pascal’s Triangle in the context of Sanskrit prosody
(patterns in poetry).
• The triangle is called Meru-prastaara in Sanskrit.
Mathematics in India (c. 500 CE onwards)
• Indian mathematicians like Aryabhata and Bhaskaracharya expanded on combinatorics and
binomial coefficients.
• Bhaskara II (12th century) explicitly discussed combinations and mathematical patterns
resembling the binomial theorem.
2. Islamic Golden Age (8th – 14th Century)
Al-Karaji (953–1029, Persia)
• Developed algebraic expressions for powers of binomials using binomial coefficients.
• First known to use mathematical induction, which is crucial in proving the binomial theorem.
Omar Khayyam (1048–1131, Persia)
• Worked on the expansion of binomials, especially for positive integer exponents, and extended
algebraic concepts.
3. Chinese Mathematics
Yang Hui (c. 1238–1298)
• Developed a version of Pascal’s Triangle (known as Yang Hui’s Triangle in China), used to find
binomial coefficients.
• Understood the pattern of coefficients in binomial expansions.
4. European Development (16th – 17th Century)
Blaise Pascal (1623–1662, France)
• Systematized the use of what we now call Pascal’s Triangle in Europe in his book Traité du
triangle arithmétique (1654).
• Although the triangle existed earlier in other cultures, his work brought it to European
prominence.

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Isaac Newton (1642–1727, England)

• Generalized the binomial theorem for any rational exponent, not just positive integers.
• Introduced infinite series expansions:
𝑟𝑟(𝑟𝑟 − 1) 2 𝑟𝑟(𝑟𝑟 − 1)(𝑟𝑟 − 2) 3
(1 + 𝑥𝑥)𝑟𝑟 = 1 + 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 + 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 + ⋯
2! 3!
This was a major breakthrough, leading to developments in calculus and analysis.
5. Modern Era
• The binomial theorem is now a fundamental result in algebra and combinatorics.
• It's applied in probability theory (binomial distribution), calculus, algebraic identities, and
computer science.
Note:
Combinatorics is a branch of mathematics that focuses on studying the selection, arrangement, and
operation of countable discrete structures.

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(vi) Sequence and Series

SCOPE

Sequence and Series. Arithmetic Progression (A.P.). Arithmetic Mean (A.M.) Geometric Progression
(G.P.), general term of a G.P., sum of first n terms of a G.P., infinite G.P. and its sum, geometric mean
2 3
(G.M.), relation between A.M. and G.M. Formulae for the following special sums ∑ n, ∑ n , ∑ n .
• Arithmetic Progression (A.P.)
− Tn = a + (n - 1)d
n
− Sn = {2a + (n − 1)d }
2
− Arithmetic mean: 2b = a + c
− Inserting two or more arithmetic means between any two numbers.
− Three terms in A.P. : a - d, a, a + d
− Four terms in A.P.: a - 3d, a - d, a + d, a + 3d
• Geometric Progression (G.P.)
− Tn = arn-1,
a (r n − 1) 𝑎𝑎(1−𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 )
− Sn = , |r|>1, 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = , |𝑟𝑟| < 1
r −1 1−𝑟𝑟

a
−=S∞ ; r <1
1− r
− Geometric Mean, b = ac

− Inserting two or more Geometric Means between any two numbers.

− Three terms are in G.P. ar, a, ar-1
− Four terms are in G.P. ar3, ar, ar-1, ar-3
• Special sums ∑ n, ∑ n 2 , ∑ n 3
Using these summations to sum up other related expression.
Finding nth term of a sequence using Method of difference.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Students will be able to:

• define the sequence and series with the help of patterns.
• solve problems based on the nth term & Sum of n terms of AP & GP including sum of infinite terms
of GP.
• derive the relation between A.M & G.M.
• solve real life application-based questions based on AP and GP.

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PRE-REQUISITES

• Arithmetic progression and Geometric progression.

• Sigma notation for the sums of arithmetic and geometric sequences.

Introduction
In mathematics, the word, “sequence” is used in much the same way as it is in ordinary English. When we say
that a collection of numbers is listed in a sequence, we usually mean that the collection is ordered in such a
way that it has an identified first number, second number, third number and so on. For example, population of
human beings or bacteria at different times, the amount of money deposited in a bank, over a number of years
, depreciated values of certain commodity occur in a sequence.
Mathematically, a sequence is a special class of function whose domain is the set of consecutive positive
integers and the range is the set of the corresponding values of the function. The elements of the range set are
called the terms of the sequence. The sum of the terms of the sequence is called series.
Sequences have important applications in several spheres of human activities. Sequences and series find
practical applications in diverse fields like finance, construction, and even understanding natural
phenomena. They are used for predictive modeling, financial calculations, and analyzing growth patterns.
Sequences, following specific patterns are called progressions. In secondary, we have studied about arithmetic
progression (A.P) and geometric progression(G.P) In this Chapter, besides discussing more about A.P. and
G.P.; arithmetic mean, geometric mean, relationship between A.M. and G.M., special series in forms of sum
to n terms of consecutive natural numbers, sum to n terms of squares of natural numbers and sum to n terms
of cubes of natural numbers will also be studied.

Sequence
A sequence is a set of numbers specified in a definite order by some assigned rule or law. Sequence having
finite number of terms is called finite sequence and sequence having infinite number of terms is called infinite
sequence.
Each element of the sequence is called a term and is denoted as 𝑇𝑇1 , 𝑇𝑇2 , 𝑇𝑇3, …, 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 …. or by 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑎3, ….𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 …...
𝑻𝑻𝒏𝒏 or 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏 is called the general term of the sequence or nth term of the sequence.
I. One way to define the sequence is to give a formula for the nth. term of sequence. Then we can obtain the
terms of the sequence by substituting 𝑛𝑛 = 1, 2, … in the formula of the nth. term of the sequence.
1−𝑛𝑛
For Example, Obtain the first four terms of the sequence who’s nth. term is given by 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 = .
𝑛𝑛3

Solution:
1−𝑛𝑛
Given,𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 =
𝑛𝑛3
Substituting 𝑛𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, 4 in the given expression of 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 , we obtain the first four terms of the sequence as
1 2 3
follows: 𝑇𝑇1 = 0 , 𝑇𝑇2 = − , 𝑇𝑇3 = − , 𝑇𝑇3 = − .
8 27 64

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II. The second way of defining a sequence is by giving the first one or two terms of the sequence and giving
a formula to determine the subsequent terms. This definition of the sequence is also called a recursive
definition (term-to-term rule).
1
For Example, In a sequence, the first term is . The second number equals the first number divided by 1 more
3
than the first number. The third number equals the second number divided by 1 more than the second number,
and so on. What is the 100th number in the sequence?
Solution:
1 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛
As per question: 𝑇𝑇1 = and 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛+1 = for 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1.
3 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 +1
1 1
⇒𝑇𝑇 = 𝑇𝑇 + 1
𝑛𝑛+1 𝑛𝑛

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
∴ 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑇𝑇 + 1, 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑇𝑇 + 1 = �𝑇𝑇 + 1� + 1 = 𝑇𝑇 + 2,………., 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑎𝑎 + 99
2 1 3 2 1 1 100 1

1 1
⇒𝑇𝑇 = 1 + 99 = 102
100
3

1
⇒𝑇𝑇100 = 102

III. The third way of defining a sequence is by giving the first few terms of the sequence, till we get a rule or
a formula to write down the other terms of the sequence. For example, the sequence {3, 5, 7, ….} may be a
sequence of odd numbers.

For Example, Write a recursive formula for the sequence: {3𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦, 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦, 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥, … }. Also write the
general term.
Solution:

𝑇𝑇1 = 3𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 and 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛+1 = 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 − (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦), 𝑛𝑛 = 1,2,3, ….

⇒ 𝑇𝑇2 = 𝑇𝑇1 − (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦)
⇒𝑇𝑇3 = 𝑇𝑇2 − (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑇𝑇1 − 2(𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦)
⇒𝑇𝑇4 = 𝑇𝑇3 − (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑇𝑇1 − 3(𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦)
Hence, 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 = 𝑇𝑇1 − (𝑛𝑛 − 1)(𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦) = 3𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 + 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑛𝑛(𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦)
= 4𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑦𝑦 − 𝑛𝑛(𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦).

Remarks
1. An explicit formula uses the term’s position number, n, to calculate its value. A recursive formula gives
the relationship between consecutive terms. When you know one term, you can work out the next. A
general formula for a sequence is a rule that can be used to generate each term. Usually, the general
formula is an explicit formula.
2. Sequences where the terms increase or decrease by a constant number, are called linear sequences. For a
linear sequence, the difference between consecutive terms is constant and the explicit formula is of the
form 𝒖𝒖𝒏𝒏 = 𝒂𝒂 + 𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃.
3. For a quadratic sequence, the second difference is constant and the explicit formula is of the form 𝒖𝒖𝒏𝒏 =
𝒂𝒂 + 𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 + 𝒄𝒄𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐 .

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4. It may not be possible to define every sequence by some explicit formula for the general term. For
example, for the sequence of all prime numbers {2, 3, 5, 7, …}, there is no explicit formula to obtain the
general term 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 .
5. Enough information must be provided to determine the terms of the sequence 𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖 for any integer i. There
may be many sequences whose first three terms are 3,5, and 7. For example, the sequence whose 𝑛𝑛th. term
is given by 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 = (2𝑛𝑛 + 1) + 𝑐𝑐(𝑛𝑛 − 1)(𝑛𝑛 − 2)(𝑛𝑛 − 3) has its first three terms as 3,5 and 7 for any value
of 𝑐𝑐. For different values of 𝑐𝑐, we obtain different sequences.

Series
A series is defined as the sum of the terms of a sequence.
Thus, if 𝑇𝑇1 , 𝑇𝑇2 , 𝑇𝑇3, …, is a given sequence then the expression 𝑇𝑇1 + 𝑇𝑇2 + 𝑇𝑇3 +. .. is called the series associated
with the given sequence. The series is infinite or finite according as the given sequence is finite or infinite.
If 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 denotes the general term of the sequence, then 𝑇𝑇1 + 𝑇𝑇2 + 𝑇𝑇3 + ⋯ + 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛−1 + 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 is the sum of first n
terms denoted by 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 .
Thus, 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 𝑇𝑇1 + 𝑇𝑇2 + 𝑇𝑇3 + ⋯ + 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛−1 + 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 = ∑𝑛𝑛𝑘𝑘=1 𝑇𝑇𝑘𝑘 .
Also, 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 − 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛−1 = (𝑇𝑇1 + 𝑇𝑇2 + 𝑇𝑇3 + ⋯ + 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛−1 + 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 ) − (𝑇𝑇1 + 𝑇𝑇2 + 𝑇𝑇3 + ⋯ + 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛−1 ).

⇒ 𝑻𝑻𝒏𝒏 = 𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏 − 𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏

For Example, If for a sequence 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 3(2𝑛𝑛 − 1). Find its first four terms.
Solution:
Given,𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 3(2𝑛𝑛 − 1).
1
𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 = 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 − 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛−1= 3(2𝑛𝑛 − 1) − 3(2𝑛𝑛−1 − 1) = 3 �2𝑛𝑛 − 1 − 2𝑛𝑛 + 1� = 3 × 2𝑛𝑛−1 .
2

∴ 𝑇𝑇1 = 3, 𝑇𝑇2 = 6, 𝑇𝑇3 = 12, 𝑇𝑇4 = 24.

Progression
Sequence, in which terms follow a certain pattern is called progression. We shall consider the following
progressions:

Arithmetic Progression (A.P)

A sequence {𝑇𝑇1 , 𝑇𝑇2 , 𝑇𝑇3 , … . . , 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 } in which each term can be obtained by adding or subtracting a fixed value
to/from its preceding term is called an Arithmetic progression. i.e. difference between two successive terms
of an A.P is always constant (i.e. 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛+1 − 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 = 𝑑𝑑 , for all 𝑛𝑛}.
The fixed value/constant is called the common difference (𝒅𝒅) of the arithmetic progression. Therefore 𝑑𝑑 =
𝑇𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑇1 = 𝑇𝑇3 − 𝑇𝑇2 = …= 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 − 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛−1
The first term of an A.P is generally denoted by ‘𝑎𝑎’ and the common difference by ‘𝑑𝑑’.
General form of a finite A.P having n terms is as follows:
𝑎𝑎, (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑑𝑑), (𝑎𝑎 + 2𝑑𝑑), … , (𝑎𝑎 + �������
𝑛𝑛 − 1𝑑𝑑)

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General term of an A.P = 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 or 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = nth. term of an A.P(from beginning) is:

𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎 + �������
𝑛𝑛 − 1𝑑𝑑

For a finite A.P, General term of an A. P. (𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 or 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 ) is termed as last term and denoted by ‘l’. Thus,
��������
l = (𝒂𝒂 + 𝒏𝒏 − 𝟏𝟏𝒅𝒅)
An A.P having finite number of terms can also be represented as
𝑎𝑎, (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑑𝑑), (𝑎𝑎 + 2𝑑𝑑), … , (𝑙𝑙 − 2𝑑𝑑), (𝑙𝑙 − 𝑑𝑑), 𝑙𝑙
• �������
Hence,nth. term of an A.P (from end) = 𝑙𝑙 − 𝑛𝑛 − 1𝑑𝑑.
• Also, nth. term from end of an A.P = (𝑙𝑙 − 𝑛𝑛 + 1)th. from beginning.
• Sum of nth. term of an A.P(from beginning) and nth. term from end = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑙𝑙 i.e. 1st. term + last term.
• If 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 and 𝑐𝑐 are in A.P ⟹𝑏𝑏 − 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑐𝑐 − 𝑏𝑏 ⟹ 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 = 𝒂𝒂 + 𝒄𝒄 i.e. twice the middle is equals to sum of
extremes.

Remark
1. If to each term of an A.P., a fixed non-zero number k is added or subtracted, then the resulting
sequence is also an A.P. For example, if to each term of the A.P. 𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑑𝑑, 𝑎𝑎 + 2𝑑𝑑,…, we add 𝑘𝑘 we
obtain the sequence:
𝑎𝑎 + 𝑘𝑘, 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑑𝑑 + 𝑘𝑘, 𝑎𝑎 + 2𝑑𝑑 + 𝑘𝑘,…
Since the difference between any two consecutive terms of the new sequence is 𝑑𝑑, this sequence is also
an A.P. with first term 𝒂𝒂 + 𝒌𝒌 and common difference 𝒅𝒅.
2. If we multiply or divide each term of an A.P., by non-zero constant 𝒌𝒌, then the resulting sequence
is also an A.P. For example, if we multiply each term of the A.P. 𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑑𝑑, 𝑎𝑎 + 2𝑑𝑑,…, by a non-zero
1
constant 𝑘𝑘 �or 𝑘𝑘�we obtain the sequence:
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑑𝑑)𝑘𝑘, (𝑎𝑎 + 2𝑑𝑑)𝑘𝑘,…
Since the difference between any two consecutive terms of the new sequence is 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘, this sequence is also
an A.P. with first term 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 and common difference 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌.

REAL- LIFE APPLICATIONS

Real-life Applications of Arithmetic Progression:

Arithmetic Progressions are widely employed in a variety of real-world scenarios, including assessing
financial investments, analysing trends, and solving problems in engineering and economics. Some of
the applications of arithmetic progression in daily life is as follows:
• Finance: used to calculate interest rates, appropriations, and loan disbursements. It helps in fiscal
planning, budgeting, and assessing investment growth over time.
• Statistics and Data Analysis: used as tool for understanding trends in sets of data. It's used to
study things like how populations grow, how sales change over time, and even predicting future
trends based on past data.
• Social Studies: applied in demographic studies, assessing population growth, urbanization
patterns, and profitable trends.

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Solved Examples
Example-1
(i) If the 𝑛𝑛th. term of a sequence is an expression of first degree in n, show that it is an A.P.
(ii) In a sequence, the sum of first n terms is 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏, where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 are constants. Show that the sequence is
an A.P. and also find the common difference.
(iii) A sequence {𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 } is given by 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 3𝑛𝑛2 − 1, 𝑛𝑛ϵ N. Is the sequence an A.P?
Solution:

(i) Given,𝑛𝑛th. term of a sequence is an expression of first degree in 𝑛𝑛.

Let 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑞𝑞

⇒𝑇𝑇1 = 𝑝𝑝 + 𝑞𝑞 , 𝑇𝑇2 = 2𝑝𝑝 + 𝑞𝑞 , 𝑇𝑇3 = 3𝑝𝑝 + 𝑞𝑞 ,….
𝑇𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑇1 = 2𝑝𝑝 + 𝑞𝑞 − 𝑝𝑝 − 𝑞𝑞= 𝑝𝑝, 𝑇𝑇3 − 𝑇𝑇2 = 3𝑝𝑝 + 𝑞𝑞 − 2𝑝𝑝 − 𝑞𝑞 = 𝑝𝑝.
∵𝑇𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑇1 = 𝑇𝑇3 − 𝑇𝑇2 = 𝑝𝑝
∴ 𝑛𝑛th. term of a sequence is an expression of first degree in 𝑛𝑛 is an A.P.

(ii) Given, 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏.

Using, Tn = Sn − Sn−1we get,

= 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 − 𝑎𝑎(𝑛𝑛 − 1)2 − 𝑏𝑏(𝑛𝑛 − 1)

= 2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 − 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏
⇒𝑇𝑇1 =𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏, 𝑇𝑇2 = 3𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 , 𝑇𝑇3 = 5𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 ,….
⇒𝑇𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑇1 = 3𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 − 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏 = 2𝑎𝑎, 𝑇𝑇3 − 𝑇𝑇2 = 5𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 − 3𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏 = 2𝑎𝑎
∵𝑇𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑇1 = 𝑇𝑇3 − 𝑇𝑇2 = 2𝑎𝑎
∴ Sequence is an A.P, having common difference = 2𝑎𝑎.

(iii) Given by 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 3𝑛𝑛2 − 1

⇒ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1 − 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 3(𝑛𝑛 + 1)2 − 1 − 3𝑛𝑛2 + 1=3(2𝑛𝑛 + 1), which depends upon n and is not constant.
Hence the given sequence is not an A.P.

Example-2
3 14 19 63
(i) How many terms are there in the A.P.: , , ,…, ?
5 15 15 5
1 7
(ii) Find the 11 term from end of the A.P.: , 2, , 5, … . . ,44.
th
2 2
5 3
(iii) Which term of the progression , 2, , … … is the first negative term?
2 2

Solution:
3 14 19 63
(i) Given A.P.: , , ,…,
5 15 15 5
3 14 9 1
Here 𝑎𝑎 = , 𝑑𝑑 = − =
5 15 15 3
63
Let, Tn =
5
3 1 63
⇒ + (𝑛𝑛 − 1) =
5 3 5
1 60
⇒ (𝑛𝑛 − 1) = ⇒𝑛𝑛 = 37.
3 5
Hence, there are 37 terms in the given A.P.

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1 7
(ii) Given A.P.: , 2, , 5, … . . ,44.
2 2
1 1 3
Here, 𝑎𝑎 = , 𝑑𝑑 = 2 − = , 𝑙𝑙 = 44
2 2 2
3
11th term from end of the A.P = 44 − (11 − 1) = 29.
2

5 3
(iii) Given A.P.: , 2, , …
2 2
5 5 1
Here 𝑎𝑎 = , 𝑑𝑑 = 2 − = − .
2 2 2
5 1
(𝑛𝑛
Tn = + − 1) �− � < 0, 𝑛𝑛 ∈ N
2 2
5 1
⇒ < (𝑛𝑛 − 1) � �
2 2
⇒5 < 𝑛𝑛 − 1
⇒ 𝑛𝑛 > 6, i.e. {7,8, 9, 10, ….}
∴ 7th. term is the 1st negative term.

Example-3 If 7 times the 7th term of an A.P is equal to 11 times its 11th term, show that the 18th term of the
A.P. is zero.
Solution:
Let 𝑎𝑎 be the 1st term and 𝑑𝑑 be the common difference.

As per question, 7𝑇𝑇7 = 11𝑇𝑇11

⇒ 7[𝑎𝑎 + 6𝑑𝑑] = 11[𝑎𝑎 + 10𝑑𝑑]
⇒4𝑎𝑎 = −68𝑑𝑑
⇒𝑎𝑎 = −17𝑑𝑑
⇒𝑎𝑎 + (18 − 1)𝑑𝑑 = 0
⇒𝑇𝑇18 = 0

Example-4 For what value of 𝑛𝑛, the 𝑛𝑛th. term of the series 3 +10+17+… and 63+ 65+ 67 +… are equal.
Solution:

General term of 3 + 10 + 17 + ⋯ = 3 + (𝑛𝑛 − 1)7 = 7𝑛𝑛 − 4

General term of 63 + 65 + 67 + ⋯ = 63 + (𝑛𝑛 − 1)2 = 2𝑛𝑛 + 61
As per question,7𝑛𝑛 − 4 = 2𝑛𝑛 + 61
⇒ 5𝑛𝑛 = 65
⇒ 𝑛𝑛 = 13

Example-5 How many terms are identical in two arithmetic progressions 2,4, 6, 8, …, up to 100 terms and
3, 6, 9, …, up to 80 terms.
Solution:
Given APs are: 2,4, 6, 8, …, up to 100 terms.
𝑇𝑇100 = 2 + (100 − 1)2 = 200
and 3, 6, 9, …, up to 80 terms.
𝑇𝑇80 = 3 + (80 − 1)3 = 240

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Let 𝑟𝑟 terms be identical.

Now the sequence of identical terms is: 6,12, 18, …
Its 𝑟𝑟th term = 6 + (𝑟𝑟 − 1)6 = 6𝑟𝑟.
Since, last term, i.e. 𝑟𝑟th term of the sequence of identical terms cannot be greater than 200.
1
∴ 6𝑟𝑟 ≤ 200⇒𝑟𝑟 ≤ 33
3
∴ 𝑟𝑟 = 33. Hence 33 terms are identical.

Remark
1. The first term of the sequence of identical terms is the first common term of both sequences.
2. The common difference of the sequence of identical terms is the L.C.M of common differences of both
the given sequences.
3. If finally, we get 𝑟𝑟 ≤ 𝑘𝑘 , then 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑘𝑘 , if 𝑘𝑘 is an integer just less than k if 𝑘𝑘 is not an integer.
7
Example-6 If log 3 2 , log 3 (2𝑥𝑥 − 5) and log 3 �2𝑥𝑥 − � are in A.P. find 𝑥𝑥.
2
7
Solution: ∵log 3 2 , log 3(2𝑥𝑥 − 5) and log 3 �2𝑥𝑥 − �
2
7
⇒2 log 3 (2𝑥𝑥 − 5) = log 3 2 + log 3 �2𝑥𝑥 − �
2
7
⇒log 3 (2𝑥𝑥 − 5)2 =log 3 �2 �2𝑥𝑥 − ��
2
7
⇒(2𝑥𝑥 − 5)2 = 2 �2𝑥𝑥 − �
2

⇒(2𝑥𝑥 )2 −12(2𝑥𝑥 )+32=0

⇒(2𝑥𝑥 − 4)(2𝑥𝑥 − 8) = 0
Either, 2𝑥𝑥 − 4 = 0 , i.e. 2𝑥𝑥 = 22 ⇒𝑥𝑥 = 2, neglected, since log 3 (4 − 5) is not defined.
Or 2𝑥𝑥 − 8 = 0 , i.e. 2𝑥𝑥 = 23 ⇒𝑥𝑥 = 3.
∴ 𝑥𝑥 = 3 is the only solution.

Example-7 At a certain ski resort, some guests stay overnight, and all the other skiers arrive in full coaches
of equal size during the day. One coach arrives every 10 minutes, starting at 08:10, ten minutes after the resort
opens. After the 7th coach has arrived, there are 785 skiers at the resort. After the 10th coach has arrived, there
are 920 skiers at the resort.
(i) Find the number of skiers that will be at the resort once the 12th coach has arrived.
(ii) Find the number of skiers that stayed overnight.

Solution: An arithmetic sequence models this problem because each coach brings the same number of
people.
Let 𝑎𝑎 be the 1st term and 𝑑𝑑 be the common difference.
As per question, 𝑇𝑇7 = 785⇒𝑎𝑎 + 6𝑑𝑑 = 785 ------(I)
and 𝑇𝑇10 = 920⇒𝑎𝑎 + 9𝑑𝑑 = 920 ------(II)
Solving (I) and (II) we get, 𝑑𝑑 = 45 and 𝑎𝑎 = 515
(i) 𝑇𝑇12 = 𝑎𝑎 + 11𝑑𝑑 = 515 + 11 × 45 = 1010
(ii) Since the number of overnight guests is the number of guests when 0 coaches have arrived,
⇒The number of overnight guests = 515 − 45 = 470.

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Selection of Terms of an A.P.

No. of When sum of the terms is given When sum of the terms is not given
Terms
3 terms (𝑎𝑎 − 𝑑𝑑), 𝑎𝑎,(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑑𝑑) 𝑎𝑎, (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑑𝑑), (𝑎𝑎 + 2𝑑𝑑)

4 terms (𝑎𝑎 − 3𝑑𝑑), (𝑎𝑎 − 𝑑𝑑),(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑑𝑑)(𝑎𝑎 + 3𝑑𝑑) 𝑎𝑎, (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑑𝑑), (𝑎𝑎 + 2𝑑𝑑), (𝑎𝑎 + 3𝑑𝑑)

5 terms (𝑎𝑎 − 2𝑑𝑑), (𝑎𝑎 − 𝑑𝑑), 𝑎𝑎,(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑑𝑑), (𝑎𝑎 + 2𝑑𝑑) 𝑎𝑎, (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑑𝑑), (𝑎𝑎 + 2𝑑𝑑), (𝑎𝑎 + 3𝑑𝑑), (𝑎𝑎 + 4𝑑𝑑)

Example-8 The angles of a quadrilateral are in A.P., whose common difference is 15°. Find the angles.
Solution: Let the angles are:𝑎𝑎 − 3𝑑𝑑, 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑑𝑑, 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑑𝑑, 𝑎𝑎 + 3𝑑𝑑, where common difference = 2𝑑𝑑
We know sum of all angles of quadrilateral=360° ⇒ 4𝑎𝑎 = 360° ⇒ 𝑎𝑎 = 90°.
Given, common difference = 15°. ⇒ 2𝑑𝑑 = 15° ⇒ 𝑑𝑑 = 7.5°
Angles are: 67.5°, 82.5°, 97.5° and 112.5°

Example-9 There are two sets of numbers each consisting of 3 terms in A.P. and the sum of each set of
numbers is 12. The common difference of the first set is greater by 1 than the common difference of the second
set. The product of the first set of numbers and the product of the second set of numbers is in the ratio 5:4.
Find the numbers in both the sets.
Solution: Let the 1st set of numbers are: 𝑎𝑎1 − 𝑑𝑑1 , 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑑𝑑1 , where common difference = 𝑑𝑑1
As per question, 3𝑎𝑎1 = 12 ⇒ 𝑎𝑎1 = 4
Let the 2nd set of numbers are:𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑑𝑑2 , 𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑑𝑑2 , where common difference = 𝑑𝑑2
As per question, 3𝑎𝑎2 = 12 ⇒ 𝑎𝑎2 = 4
Given, 𝑑𝑑1 = 1 + 𝑑𝑑2
(𝑎𝑎 −𝑑𝑑1 )𝑎𝑎1 (𝑎𝑎1 +𝑑𝑑1 ) 5
Also, (𝑎𝑎1 =
2 −𝑑𝑑2 )𝑎𝑎2 (𝑎𝑎2 +𝑑𝑑2 ) 4

⇒4�16 − 𝑑𝑑1 2 � = 5�16 − 𝑑𝑑2 2 �

⇒5𝑑𝑑2 2 − 4𝑑𝑑1 2 = 16 ⇒ 5𝑑𝑑2 2 − 4(1 + 𝑑𝑑2 )2 ⇒𝑑𝑑2 2 − 8𝑑𝑑2 + 20 = 0 ⇒ 𝑑𝑑2 =10 or −2.
When 𝑑𝑑2 =10, 𝑑𝑑1 =11 and when 𝑑𝑑2 = −2, 𝑑𝑑1 =−1.
∴ 1st set of numbers are: 5,4,3 and 2nd. Set of numbers are: 6,4,2.

Sum of n terms of an A.P(𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏 )

𝒏𝒏
𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏 = [𝒂𝒂 + 𝒍𝒍] , to be used when the value of first term (𝑎𝑎) and last term (𝑙𝑙) is known.
𝟐𝟐

𝒏𝒏
𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏 = [𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + ��������
𝒏𝒏 − 𝟏𝟏𝒅𝒅], to be used when the value of first term (𝑎𝑎) and common difference (𝑑𝑑) is known.
𝟐𝟐

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Solved Examples
Example-1 Find the sum of all natural numbers between 100 and 1000 which are divisible by 5.
Solution: Natural numbers between 100 and 1000 which are divisible by 5 are:
105, 110, 115, …., 995.
The above is an A.P, having 𝑎𝑎 = 105, 𝑑𝑑 = 5 and 𝑙𝑙 = 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 = 995
⇒105 + (𝑛𝑛 − 1)5 = 995 ⇒ 𝑛𝑛 = 179.
179 179
∴ 𝑆𝑆179 = (105 + 995) = × 1100 = 179 × 550 = 98450
2 2

Example-2 How many terms of the A.P. −12, −6,0,6, … must be taken to give the sum 528.
Solution: Given A.P.:−12, −6,0,6, …
Here, 𝑎𝑎 = −12, 𝑑𝑑 = 6
𝑛𝑛
�������
Using, 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = [2𝑎𝑎 + 𝑛𝑛 − 1𝑑𝑑], we get
2
𝑛𝑛
⇒ 528 = [−24 + (𝑛𝑛 − 1) 6]
2

⇒ 𝑛𝑛2 − 5𝑛𝑛 − 176 = 0

⇒(𝑛𝑛 − 16)(𝑛𝑛 + 11) = 0
⇒𝑛𝑛 = 16 or − 11 (Neglected, since n can’t be negative).
The number of terms of A.P.= 16

Example-3 Solve for 𝑥𝑥: 5 + 11 + 17+. . . . +𝑥𝑥 = 2945

Solution: Given series: 5 + 11 + 17+. . .. , which is an A.S having 𝑎𝑎 = 5, 𝑑𝑑 = 6.
𝑛𝑛
�������
Using, 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = [2𝑎𝑎 + 𝑛𝑛 − 1𝑑𝑑], we get
2
𝑛𝑛
⇒2945= [10 + (𝑛𝑛 − 1) 6]
2

⇒ 3𝑛𝑛2 + 2𝑛𝑛 − 2945 = 0

⇒(𝑛𝑛 − 31)(3𝑛𝑛 + 95) = 0
95
⇒𝑛𝑛 = 31 or − (Neglected, since n can’t be negative).
3

∴ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑙𝑙 = 5 + (31 − 1)6 = 185

Example-4 How many terms of the A.P. 13, 11, 9, …... are needed to give the sum 40? Explain the double
answer.
Solution: Given A.P. 13, 11, 9, …...
Here, 𝑎𝑎 = 13, 𝑑𝑑 = −2.
𝑛𝑛
�������
Using, 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = [2𝑎𝑎 + 𝑛𝑛 − 1𝑑𝑑], we get
2
𝑛𝑛
⇒40= [26 + (𝑛𝑛 − 1) (−2)]
2

⇒ 𝑛𝑛2 − 14𝑛𝑛 + 14 = 0
⇒(𝑛𝑛 − 4)(𝑛𝑛 − 10) = 0
⇒𝑛𝑛 = 4 or 10
Both are positive integers, hence valid.
⇒𝑇𝑇1 + 𝑇𝑇2 + 𝑇𝑇3 + 𝑇𝑇4 = 40
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Also, 𝑇𝑇1 + 𝑇𝑇2 + 𝑇𝑇3 + 𝑇𝑇4 + (𝑇𝑇5 + 𝑇𝑇6 + 𝑇𝑇7 + 𝑇𝑇8 + 𝑇𝑇9 + 𝑇𝑇10 ) = 40
Here, 𝑇𝑇5 + 𝑇𝑇6 + 𝑇𝑇7 + 𝑇𝑇8 + 𝑇𝑇9 + 𝑇𝑇10 = 0 due to the reason 𝑇𝑇5 and 𝑇𝑇10 are equal in magnitude, but opposite
sign, similarly 𝑇𝑇6 and 𝑇𝑇9 ,also 𝑇𝑇7 and 𝑇𝑇8 .
Hence sum of 1st 4 terms as well as sum of 1st 10 terms = 40.

Example-5 The sums of n terms two arithmetic series are in the ratio (7𝑛𝑛 + 1) ∶ (4𝑛𝑛 + 27). Find the ratio of
their 11th terms.
Solution: Let 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 and 𝑑𝑑1 , 𝑑𝑑2 be the first terms and the common differences of the two series respectively.
𝑛𝑛
[2𝑎𝑎1 +(𝑛𝑛−1)𝑑𝑑1 ] 7𝑛𝑛+1
⇒ 𝑛𝑛2 [2𝑎𝑎 ]
=
2 2 +(𝑛𝑛−1)𝑑𝑑2 4𝑛𝑛+27

(𝑛𝑛−1)
𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑑𝑑1 7𝑛𝑛+1
⇒ 2
(𝑛𝑛−1) =
𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑑𝑑2 4𝑛𝑛+27
2

𝑎𝑎1 +10𝑑𝑑1 7(21)+1 148 4

Putting, 𝑛𝑛 = 21 on both sides we get, = = =
𝑎𝑎2 +10𝑑𝑑2 4(21)+27 111 3

∴ Ratio of their 11th terms = 4:3.

Example-6 A company launches a new music streaming service. Customers pay ₹4 per month to subscribe.
In the first month, 1200 customers sign up. For the rest of the year, another 500 customers join every month.
(i) Explain why the monthly income forms and arithmetic sequence.
(ii) Find the income in the first month.
(iii) Assuming no customers leave the service, and the total income from the service in the first year.

Solution:
(i) Each month the income increases by 500 × ₹4 = ₹2000, i.e. the monthly income grows by a constant
amount so this forms an arithmetic series.
(ii) Income in the first month = ₹4× 1200 = ₹4800
(iii) As per questions, incomes are: ₹4800 , ₹4800 + ₹ (4 × 500) = ₹6800, ₹8800, ….
Here, 𝑎𝑎 = 4800, 𝑑𝑑 = 2000 and 𝑛𝑛 = 12.
12
Using, 𝑆𝑆12 = [9600 + (12 − 1)2000], we get
2

= ₹189600
∴ Total income from service = ₹1,89,600

Example-7 Mr. S Kumar buys a car for ₹ 8,50,000. He pays ₹ 3,73,000 cash and agrees to pay the balance in
annual installments of ₹ 9000 plus 10% interest on the unpaid amount. Find the total amount, Mr. Kumar has
to pay.

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Solution:
Cost of the car = ₹8,50,000,
Down payment = ₹ 3,73,000
∴ Balance= ₹ 4,77,000.
4,77,000.
⇒ There will be = 53 annual installments of ₹ 9000 plus 10% interest on unpaid amount.
9000
4,77,000×1×10
⇒1st installment = 9000 + = ₹56,700
100
4,68,000×1×10
2nd installment = 9000 + = ₹55,800
100
4,59,000×1×10
3rd installment = 9000 + = ₹54,900
100
The installments: ₹56,700, ₹ 55,800,₹54,900, … ..upto 53 terms, form an A.P. having
𝑎𝑎 = 56700 and 𝑑𝑑 = −900.
53
Total amount paid for the car = 3,73,000+ [2 × 56700 + (53 − 1) (−900)]
2
= 3,73,000+17,64,000
= ₹ 21,37,900.

Arithmetic Mean (AM)

Given two (different) numbers 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏. If we insert a number A between them so that 𝑎𝑎, A, 𝑏𝑏 are in A.P, the
A is called the arithmetic mean (AM) between 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏.
∵𝑎𝑎, A, 𝑏𝑏 are in A.P
𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏
⇒𝐴𝐴 =
2
𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏
Hence, the arithmetic mean between 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏 is A = .
2

Now if we insert n numbers 𝐴𝐴1 , 𝐴𝐴2 , 𝐴𝐴3 , … , 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛 between 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏 such that the (n+2) numbers, are in A.P.
𝑎𝑎, 𝐴𝐴1 , 𝐴𝐴2 , 𝐴𝐴3 , … , 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛 , 𝑏𝑏
Are in A.P., then 𝐴𝐴1 , 𝐴𝐴2 , 𝐴𝐴3 , … , 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛 are called the n arithmetic means between 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏.
• 1st term = 𝑎𝑎.
• Total number of terms= 𝑛𝑛 + 2.
𝑏𝑏−𝑎𝑎
• Common difference(𝑑𝑑) = .
𝑛𝑛+1
• 𝐴𝐴1 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑑𝑑 , 𝐴𝐴2 = 𝑎𝑎 + 2𝑑𝑑 , 𝐴𝐴3 = 𝑎𝑎 + 3𝑑𝑑, .. .. ..,𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛,
𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏
• 𝐴𝐴1 + 𝐴𝐴2 + 𝐴𝐴3 + ⋯ + 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛 × ,
2
i.e. sum of 𝑛𝑛 number of arithmetic means = 𝑛𝑛 times the arithmetic mean between 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏.

Solved Examples

Example-1 Insert 5 arithmetic means between −3 and −1.

Solution: As per question −3, 𝐴𝐴1 , 𝐴𝐴2 , 𝐴𝐴3 , 𝐴𝐴4 , 𝐴𝐴5 , −1 are in A.P.
−1+3 1
⇒𝑑𝑑 = 61
= 3.
1 8
∴ 𝐴𝐴1 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑑𝑑 = −3 + =−
3 3
7
𝐴𝐴2 = 𝑎𝑎 + 2𝑑𝑑 = −
3
𝐴𝐴3 = 𝑎𝑎 + 3𝑑𝑑 = −2

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5
𝐴𝐴4 = 𝑎𝑎 + 4𝑑𝑑 = −
3
4
𝐴𝐴5 = 𝑎𝑎 + 5𝑑𝑑 = − 3.
40
Example-2 There are 𝑛𝑛 arithmetic means between 4 and such that the last mean is three times the first. Find
3
the value of 𝑛𝑛.
40
Solution: As per question 4, 𝐴𝐴1 , 𝐴𝐴2 , 𝐴𝐴3 , 𝐴𝐴4 , … . , 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛 , are in A.P.
3
40
−4 28
⇒ 𝑑𝑑 = 3
𝑛𝑛+1
= 3(𝑛𝑛+1).

As per question: 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛 = 3𝐴𝐴1

28 28
⇒ 4 + 𝑛𝑛 3(𝑛𝑛+1)
= 3 �4 + 3(𝑛𝑛+1)
�
28(𝑛𝑛−3)
⇒ 3(𝑛𝑛+1)
=8

⇒ 14(𝑛𝑛 − 3) = 12(𝑛𝑛 + 1)
⇒ 𝑛𝑛 =27.

Example-3 If 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 are in A.P. and 𝑝𝑝 is the arithmetic mean between 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏 and 𝑞𝑞 is the arithmetic mean
between 𝑏𝑏 and 𝑐𝑐, show that 𝑏𝑏 is the arithmetic mean between 𝑝𝑝 and 𝑞𝑞.
Solution: Since 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 ⇒ 2𝑏𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑐𝑐 -------------(i)
𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏
𝑝𝑝 is the arithmetic mean between 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏⇒ 𝑝𝑝 = 2
𝑏𝑏+𝑐𝑐
𝑞𝑞 is the arithmetic mean between 𝑏𝑏 and 𝑐𝑐 ⇒ 𝑞𝑞 = 2
𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏+𝑐𝑐
𝑝𝑝+𝑞𝑞 +
The arithmetic means between 𝑝𝑝 and 𝑞𝑞 = = 2 2
2 2

𝑎𝑎 + 𝑐𝑐 + 2𝑏𝑏
=
4
4𝑏𝑏
= 4
[ By (i)]
= 𝑏𝑏

Exercises
1. Choose the correct option:
(i) If 𝑎𝑎1 = 1,𝑎𝑎2 = 2 and 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+2 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1 then 𝑎𝑎3 + 𝑎𝑎4 =
(a) 3 (c) 4
(b) 6 (d) 8

(ii) In an A.P. mth term is 𝑛𝑛 and (𝑚𝑚 + 𝑛𝑛)th. term is zero., then 𝑛𝑛th. term is
(a) −𝑚𝑚 (c) 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
(b) 𝑚𝑚 (d) −𝑛𝑛

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1 1
(iii) In an A.P., the mth term is and 𝑛𝑛th. term is then its (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)th is
𝑛𝑛 𝑚𝑚

(a) 1 (c)
1
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
(b) 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
(d) (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)2

(iv) Consider the following statements:

Statement 1: In an A.P., the sum of two terms equidistant from the beginning and the end
is constant and is equal to the sum of first and the last terms.
Statement 2: The sum of infinite terms of an A.P. is ∞, if 𝑑𝑑 > 0 and −∞, if 𝑑𝑑 < 0.
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are true?
(a) Only 1 (c) Both 1 and 2
(b) Only 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

(v) Assertion: If 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 denotes the sum of 1st 𝑛𝑛 terms of an A.P. whose first term is 𝑎𝑎 and common
difference 𝑑𝑑, then 𝑑𝑑 = 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 − 2. 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛−1 + 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛−2
Reason: 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 = 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 − 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛−1
(a) Both A and R individually true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.

(On General term)

𝑛𝑛+(−𝑛𝑛)𝑛𝑛
2. Obtain the first four terms of the sequence whose general term is given by:
𝑛𝑛

3. Which term of the AP 53, 48, 43, …… is the first negative term?

4. Find the 12th term from end of the AP −2, −4, −6, … . , −100.

5. Find ‘𝑘𝑘’, so that 𝑘𝑘 2 + 4𝑘𝑘 + 8 , 2𝑘𝑘 2 + 3𝑘𝑘 + 6 and3𝑘𝑘 2 + 4𝑘𝑘 + 4 are three consecutive terms of an AP.

6. If the 9th term of an AP is zero, then prove that its 29th term is twice its 19th term.

7. If the sum of the 3rd and the 8th. terms of an AP is 7 and the sum of the 7th and 14th term is −3, then find
the 10th term.

8. The product of three numbers in A.P. is 224 and the largest number is 7times the smaller. Find the
numbers.

(On Sum of n terms (𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏 ))

1
9. Find the sum of : 7 + 9 + 12 +…...+ 67
2

10. If 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 3 − 4𝑛𝑛, then show that 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑎3 , ..form an AP. Also find 𝑆𝑆20.

11. In an AP, if 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛(4𝑛𝑛 + 1), then find the AP.

12. Find the sum of first 17 terms of an AP whose 4th term and 9th terms are −15 and −30 respctively.

13. Find the sum of the natural numbers between 101 and 999 which are divisible by both 2 and 5.

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(On Arithmetic Means)

14. 𝑚𝑚 arithmetic meaninserted between 𝑚𝑚2 and 1. Find the sum of all the arithmetic means.
17
15. Between two numbers, whose sum is , an even number of arithmetic means are inserted. The sum of
8
these means exceeds their number by 1. How many means are there?

(Application problems)

16. You saved ₹ 10 in the first week of the year and then increased weekly savings by ₹ 2.75. If in nth the week
your savings become ₹59.5, find n.

17. 200 logs are stacked in the following manner: 20 logs in the bottom row, 19 in the next, above it, 18 in the
next, above it and so on. In how many rows as are the 200m logs placed and how may logs are there in
the top row?

18. A man pays ₹ 975 in monthly instalments, each instalment being less than the former by ₹ 5. The amount
of first instalment is ₹ 100. In what time will the entire amount be paid?

19. A piece of equipment costs a certain factory ₹ 40,000. If it depreciates 15% in the first year, 13.5% in the
second year, 12% in the third year and so on, what will be its value at the end of 10 years with all
percentages applying to original cost.

20. A small business repairs mobile phones. The managers predict 10 phones will be repaired in the first week,
12 phones in the second week, 14 in the third week and so on, increasing capacity by two phones every
week as the business grows by word of mouth.
(i) Write down an expression for the number of phones repaired in the 𝑛𝑛th week. Explain why the number
of phones repaired each week forms an arithmetic sequence.
(ii) Find the number of phones repaired in the 10th week.
(iii) Find the total number of phones repaired in the first 10 weeks.

Answers
1. (i) (d) (ii) (b) (iii) (a) (iv) (c) (v) (a) 14.
𝑚𝑚3 + 𝑚𝑚
2
2. 0, 3, −8, 65
15. 16 means
3. 12th. term
16. 𝑛𝑛 = 19
4. −78
17. Number of rows =16 and there are 5 logs on
5. 𝑘𝑘 = 0 the top row.
7. −1 18. 15 installments
8. 2,8,14 19. ₹7000
9. 925 20. (i) 8 + 2𝑛𝑛 ; Since each week capacity
10. −780 increases by a constant amount (the common
difference).
11. 5,13,21,29, 37, …
(ii) 28
12. −510
(iii) 190
13. 48950

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Geometric Progression (G.P)

A sequence {𝑇𝑇1 , 𝑇𝑇2 , 𝑇𝑇3 , … . . , 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 , … } in which the ratio of any term to its predecessor is always same number
i.e. constant is called a Geometric progression. i.e. ratio of next term to its previous term of a G.P is always
constant. The ratio is called the common ratio (𝒓𝒓) of the geometric progression.
𝑇𝑇2 𝑇𝑇3 𝑇𝑇
Therefore 𝑟𝑟 = = = … = 𝑇𝑇 𝑛𝑛
𝑇𝑇1 𝑇𝑇2 𝑛𝑛−1

The first term of a G.P is generally denoted by ‘𝑎𝑎’ and the common ratio by ‘𝑟𝑟’.
General form of a finite G.P having 𝑛𝑛 terms is as follows:
𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 2 , … , 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛−2 , 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛−1
General term of a G.P = 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 or 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = nth. term of a G.P(from beginning) is:

𝑻𝑻𝒏𝒏 = 𝒂𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏

For a finite G.P, General term of a G.P( 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 or 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 ) is termed as last term and denoted by ‘l’.
Therefore, a G.P having finite number of terms can also be represented as:
𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙
𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 2 , … , , , 𝑙𝑙
𝑟𝑟 2 𝑟𝑟

𝑙𝑙
• Hence,nth term of a G.P (from end) =
𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛−1
• Product of nth term of a G.P(from beginning) and nth term from end = 𝒂𝒂 × 𝒍𝒍 i.e. first term × last term
𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐
• If 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 and 𝑐𝑐 are in G.P ⟹ = ⟹ 𝑏𝑏 2 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 i.e. square of the middle is equals to product of the extremes.
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏

Remark
1. If we multiply or divide each term of a G.P. by a non-zero constant, the resulting sequence is also a G.P.
with same common ratio. For example, if we multiply the G.P.
𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 2 , … , 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛−2 , 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛−1 , … ..
by a non-zero constant 𝑘𝑘, we obtain the sequence
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 2 𝑘𝑘, … , 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛−2 𝑘𝑘, 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛−1 𝑘𝑘, … ..
2. Reciprocals of terms of a G.P. form a G.P. For example, if the given G.P. is
𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 2 , … , 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛−2 , 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛−1 , … ..
then, taking the reciprocals of each term, we obtain the sequence
1 1 1 1
, , 2 , … . , 𝑛𝑛−1 , …
𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟
1 1
which is a G.P. with first term and common ratio .
𝑎𝑎 𝑟𝑟

3. If each term of a G.P. is raised to the same power, then the resulting sequence is also a G.P. For example,
if the given G.P. is
𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 2 , ….
and each term is raised to the 𝑘𝑘th power, we obtain the sequence
𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 , (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)𝑘𝑘 , (𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 2 )𝑘𝑘 , … ..
which is also a G.P. with first term 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 and common ratio 𝑟𝑟 𝑘𝑘 .
4. 𝑛𝑛th. term from the end, where 𝑚𝑚 is the total number of terms, is equal to the (𝑚𝑚 − 𝑛𝑛 + 1)th. term from
beginning.

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5. If 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑎3 , ……are in G.P., then

1
𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 𝑎𝑎1 𝑟𝑟 𝑘𝑘−1 𝑘𝑘−𝑝𝑝 𝑎𝑎 𝑘𝑘−𝑝𝑝
𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝
= 𝑎𝑎2 𝑟𝑟 𝑝𝑝−1
= 𝑟𝑟 ⇒𝑟𝑟 = �𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 �
𝑝𝑝

REAL- LIFE APPLICATIONS

Real-life Applications of Geometric Progression

Geometric progressions, where each term is found by multiplying the previous term by a constant ratio,
have numerous real-life applications. They're used in areas like compound interest calculations,
population growth models, radioactive decay, and interest component of monthly payments made to pay
off an automotive or home loan etc. Some of the applications of geometric progression in daily life is as
follows:
Finance: Geometric progression is fundamental to understanding compound interest. Each year, the
interest earned adds to the principal, and the new balance grows exponentially.
Sciences: Exponential growth of bacteria in a petri dish or the spread of a virus can be modelled using
geometric progressions. Radioactive decay, where an element decays at a constant rate, is another
example of geometric progression.
Other Applications: Geometric progressions also appear in areas like economics, and computer
science.

Solved Examples
3𝑛𝑛+1
Example-1. The general term of a G.P. is given by 2
. Find the common ratio and first four terms.
3𝑛𝑛+1
Solution: Given,𝑻𝑻𝒏𝒏 = 2
32 33
⇒𝑻𝑻𝟏𝟏 = 2 , 𝑻𝑻𝟐𝟐 = 2
𝑻𝑻 33 2
∴ 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑻𝑻𝟐𝟐= 2 × =3
𝟏𝟏 32
33 34
𝑻𝑻𝟑𝟑 = 2 , 𝑻𝑻𝟒𝟒 = 2
9 27 81 243
Thus 1st 4 terms are: , , , .
2 2 2 2

Example-2. Find the 20th term of the G.P. 1, −1,1, −1, … …

𝑻𝑻
Solution: We have 𝑎𝑎 = 1, 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑻𝑻𝟐𝟐 = −1.
𝟏𝟏
⇒𝑇𝑇20 = 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟19 = 1(−1)19 = −1.

Example-3. The third term of G.P. is 4. Find the product of its first five terms.
Solution: Let a be the first term and r be the common ratio of the G.P. Then
𝑻𝑻𝟑𝟑 = 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 2 = 4.
We have product of first five terms = 𝑎𝑎(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)( 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 2 )( 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 3 )( 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 4 )
= 𝑎𝑎5 𝑟𝑟10 = (𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 2 )5 = 45 =1024.

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Example-4 If the 𝑝𝑝th. term of a G.P. is 𝑞𝑞 and its 𝑞𝑞th. term is 𝑝𝑝, find (𝑝𝑝 + 𝑞𝑞)th term.
Solution: Given, 𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝 =𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝑝𝑝−1 = 𝑞𝑞, and 𝑇𝑇𝑞𝑞 =𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝑞𝑞−1 = 𝑝𝑝.
1
𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝑝𝑝−1 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞 𝑝𝑝−𝑞𝑞
Dividing these equations, we obtain: 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝑞𝑞−1
= ⇒𝑟𝑟 𝑝𝑝−𝑞𝑞 = ⇒ 𝑟𝑟 = � �
𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝
𝑞𝑞 𝑝𝑝 1
𝑝𝑝+𝑞𝑞−1 𝑝𝑝−1 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞 𝑝𝑝−𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞𝑝𝑝−𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝−𝑞𝑞
Now, 𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝+𝑞𝑞 =𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 =𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 × 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑞𝑞 ×� � = 𝑞𝑞 = �𝑝𝑝𝑞𝑞 �
𝑝𝑝
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝−𝑞𝑞

Example-5. If first, second and eight terms of a G.P. are respectively 𝑛𝑛−4 , 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 , 𝑛𝑛52 . Find 𝑛𝑛.
𝟏𝟏 1
𝑻𝑻 𝟐𝟐−𝟏𝟏 𝑇𝑇 8−2
Solution: Using,�𝑻𝑻𝟐𝟐� = �𝑇𝑇8 � , we get:
𝟏𝟏 2
𝟏𝟏
52−𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛52 𝟔𝟔 52−𝑛𝑛
⇒𝑛𝑛−4 = � 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 � ⇒𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛+4 = 𝑛𝑛 6 ⇒𝑛𝑛 + 4 = ⇒ 𝑛𝑛 = 4
6

Example-6. What will ₹30,000 amount to, in 8 years after it is deposited in a financial institution which pays
annual interest of 9% compounded annually?
Solution: Given principal = ₹30,000, rate of interest of 9% p.a. compounded annually.
9
Thus, ₹30000 becomes 30000�1 + �= 30000× (1.09) after one year.
100
9
Now, for 2nd. year, principal is 30000(1.09) which will become 30000(1.09) �1 + �
100
i.e. 30000(1.09)2 after 2nd year.
Hence, we get a G.P.: 30000, 30000(1.09), 30000(1.09)2 , ….
Here, 𝑎𝑎 = 30000 and 𝑟𝑟 = 1.09
As per question, deposit amount in 8 years after it is deposited in a financial institution is the 9th. term of the
G.P.
∴ 𝑇𝑇9 =30000(1.09)9 .
Hence, ₹30,000 amount to ₹30000(1.09)9 after 8 years.

Example-7. The pollution in a normal atmosphere is less than 0.01%. Due to leakage of gas from a factory
the population is increased to 20%. If every day 80% of the pollution is neutralised, in how many days the
atmosphere will be normal. You may use log10 2= 0.3010.
80
Solution: Let 𝑎𝑎 = 20 and 𝑟𝑟 = . The pollution on the 1st, 2nd., 3rd., …days are given by the respective
100
terms of the geometric series: 𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 2 , ….
The pollution will be neutralised only when the pollution reduces to the normal level of 0.01%.
Let the pollution be cleared on the (𝑛𝑛 + 1)th day.
80 𝑛𝑛 1
⇒𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛+1= 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 = 20 � � =
100 100
8 𝑛𝑛 1
⇒� � =
10 2000

Taking logarithm to the base 10 on both sides we get,

⇒ 𝑛𝑛[3 log 2 − 1] = −[log 2 + 3]
[log 2+3] 0.3010+3 3.3010
⇒ 𝑛𝑛 = [1−3 = = 34.05 ≈ 34 days.
log 2] 1−0.9030 0.0970

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Selection of Terms of a G.P.

No. of When product of the terms is given When product of the terms is not given
Terms
𝑎𝑎
3 terms , 𝑎𝑎,𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 2
𝑟𝑟
4 terms 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 2 , 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 3
, , 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 3
𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 3
5 terms 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 2 , 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 3 , 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 4
, , 𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 2
𝑟𝑟 2 𝑟𝑟
39
Example-8. Find three numbers in G.P. such that their sum is and their product is 1.
10
𝑎𝑎
Solution: Let the three numbers be , 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎.
𝑟𝑟
Given, their product =1
𝑎𝑎
⇒ × 𝑎𝑎 × 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 =1
𝑟𝑟
⇒𝑎𝑎3 = 1 ⇒ 𝑎𝑎 = 1
39
Also, their sum =
10
1 39
⇒ + 1 + 𝑟𝑟 = ⇒10𝑟𝑟 2 − 29𝑟𝑟 + 10 = 0⇒(2𝑟𝑟 − 5)(5𝑟𝑟 − 2) = 0
𝑟𝑟 10
2 5
Hence, 𝑟𝑟 = or .
5 2
5 2 2 5
Therefore, the numbers are: ,1, or , 1, .
2 5 5 2

Example-9. Product of first three terms of a G.P. is 1000. If 6 is added to its second term and 7 is added to
the third term, the terms become an A.P. Find the G.P.
𝑎𝑎
Solution: Let the three numbers be , 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎.
𝑟𝑟
Given, their product =1000
𝑎𝑎
⇒ × 𝑎𝑎 × 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 =1000
𝑟𝑟
⇒𝑎𝑎3 = 1000 ⇒ 𝑎𝑎 = 10
10
As per question, , 16 and 10𝑟𝑟 + 7 are in A.P.
𝑟𝑟
10
⇒32= + 10𝑟𝑟 + 7
𝑟𝑟
2
⇒ 10𝑟𝑟 − 25𝑟𝑟 + 10 = 0⇒(2𝑟𝑟 − 1)(𝑟𝑟 − 2) = 0
1
Hence, 𝑟𝑟 = 2 or
2
Therefor the numbers are: 5,10,20 or 20,10, 5

Sum of n terms of a G.P(𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏 )

𝑎𝑎(1−𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 )
𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 1−𝑟𝑟
, 𝑟𝑟 ≠ 1 and to be used when |𝑟𝑟| < 1.
Or
𝑎𝑎(𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 −1)
𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 𝑟𝑟−1
, 𝑟𝑟 ≠ 1 and to be used when |𝑟𝑟| > 1.

Note: If 𝑟𝑟 = 1, we obtain
𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑎𝑎 + . . . . . + 𝑎𝑎 (i. e. sum of 𝑛𝑛 numbers of 𝑎𝑎′𝑠𝑠 )
i.e., 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

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Solved Examples
Example-1. Find the sum of the series:
2 2 2
(i) 2 + + + + ⋯ to 𝑛𝑛 terms
3 9 27
1 2 1 2 1
(ii) − + − + − ⋯ to 2𝑛𝑛 terms
3 32 33 34 35

Solution:
22 2
(i) 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 2 + + + + ⋯ to 𝑛𝑛 terms
39 27
1 1 1
⇒𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 2 �1 + + 2 + + ⋯ to 𝑛𝑛 terms �
3 3 33
1
Given series is a G.P., 𝑎𝑎 = 1, 𝑟𝑟 = < 1
3
1 𝑛𝑛
1�1−� � � 1
3
⇒ 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 2 × 1 = 3 �1 − �
1− 3𝑛𝑛
3
1 2 1 2 1 2
(ii) 𝑆𝑆2𝑛𝑛 = − + − + − + ⋯ to 2𝑛𝑛 terms.
3 32 33 34 35 36
1 1 1 1 1 1
=� + + + ⋯ to 𝑛𝑛 terms� − 2 � + + + ⋯ to 𝑛𝑛 terms�
3 33 35 32 34 36
1 1 𝑛𝑛 1 1 𝑛𝑛
�1 − � 2 � � �1 − � 2 � � 1 𝑛𝑛 1 9 1 32
3 3 32 3
= −2× = �1 − � 2 � � � × − 2 × 2 × �
1 1 3 3 8 3 8
1− 2 1− 2
3 3
1 1 𝑛𝑛
= = �1 − � 2 � �
8 3

Example-2. Find the number of terms in the geometric series: 2 − 4 + 8 + ⋯ such that 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 =−42
Solution: Let n be number of terms in the geometric series:
−4
Here, 𝑎𝑎 = 2 and 𝑟𝑟 = = −2, i.e. |−2| = 2 > 1
2
𝑎𝑎(𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 −1)
Using, 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 𝑟𝑟−1
we get,
2((−2)𝑛𝑛 −1)
⇒−42 = −2−1
⇒(−2)𝑛𝑛 = 64
⇒(−2)𝑛𝑛 = (−2)6
⇒𝑛𝑛 = 6

Example-3. Find the sum of n terms of the following series:

2.3 + 2.33 + 2.333 + ⋯
Solution: 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 =2.3 + 2.33 + 2.333 + ⋯
= [(2 + 0.3) + (2 + 0.33) + (2 + 0.333 + ⋯ ]
= [(2 + 2 + 2 + ⋯ 𝑢𝑢pto n terms) + (0.3 + 0.33 + 0.333+ . . 𝑢𝑢pto n terms)]
3
= 2𝑛𝑛 + × (0.9 + 0.99 + 0.999+ . . 𝑢𝑢pto n terms)
9
1
= 2𝑛𝑛 + × [(1 − 0.1) + (1 − 0.01) + (1 − 0.001) + ⋯ 𝑢𝑢pto n terms]
3
1
= 2𝑛𝑛 + × [(1 + 1 + 1+. . 𝑢𝑢pto n terms) − (0.1 + 0.01 + 0.001+. . 𝑢𝑢pto n terms)]
3
1 1 𝑛𝑛
1 �1−� � �
10 10
= 2𝑛𝑛 + × �𝑛𝑛 − 1 �
3 1−
10

1
= 2𝑛𝑛 + [9𝑛𝑛 − 1 + 10−𝑛𝑛 ]
27
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Example-4. Mr. S Roy borrows ₹32,760 without interest and agrees to pay back in 12 monthly instalments,
each instalment being twice the preceding one. Find the second and last instalment.
Solution: Since each instalment being twice the preceding one, instalments are in G.P., with common ratio 2.
Let 𝑎𝑎 be the 1st instalment.
𝑎𝑎(𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 −1)
Now, 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 𝑟𝑟−1
[∵𝑟𝑟 = 2 ⇒ |𝑟𝑟| > 1]
𝑎𝑎�212 −1�
∴ 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 2−1
⇒ 32,760 = 𝑎𝑎(4096 − 1)
⇒𝑎𝑎 = 8
∴ Second instalment= 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 8 × 2 = ₹16
and the last instalment = 8 × 212−1 = ₹16384

Example-5. A social networking site gains new members very quickly. Each month, the number of new
members is 1.5 times the number in the previous month. In the first month of 2025 the site gains 15000 new
members.
(i) Explain why the number of new members per month forms a geometric sequence.
(ii) Find the number of new members in the 2nd and 3rd months of 2025.
(iii) Find the total number of new members that will be gained in 2025 if this growth continues.
Solution:
(i) The number of new members forms a geometric sequence because it is increasing by a constant scale
factor. Here, the common ratio is 1.5
(ii) 𝑟𝑟 = 1.5, 𝑎𝑎 = 15000
Number of new members in 2nd month = 15000 × 1.5 = 22500
Number of new members in 3rd month = 22500 × 1.5 = 33750
(iii) 𝑟𝑟 = 1.5 i.e. |𝑟𝑟|>1
𝑎𝑎(𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 −1)
Using, 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 𝑟𝑟−1
we get,
15000�(1.5)12 −1� 15000×128.75
⇒ 𝑆𝑆12 = 1.5−1
= ≈ 3862500
0.5

Example-6. An insect starts from a point and travels in a straight path 1mm, in the first second and half of the
distance covered in the previous. Would it reach a point 3 mm away from its starting point?
Solution: As per question, sum of the distances covered by the insects in 1st, 2nd, 3rd. …. seconds should be
equal to 3.
1 1
i.e. 3 = 1 + + + ⋯ upto n terms
2 22
1 𝑛𝑛
1�1−� � � 1 𝑛𝑛 3 1 𝑛𝑛 1
2
⇒3 = 1 ⇒1 − � � = ⇒� � = − ⇒2𝑛𝑛 = −2.
1− 2 2 2 2
2
This is impossible, since 2𝑛𝑛 > 0, ∀𝑛𝑛 ∈ N
∴ An insect can never be able to cover 3 mm.

Example-7. A single bacteria divides into 2 bacteria every 20 minutes. Assuming that the rate of reproduction
continues, what will be the number of bacteria at the end of 24 hrs.
Solution: As per question, number of bacteria at the end of 24hrs is the sum of the G.P series:
𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 1 + 2 + 22 + 23 + ⋯ + 272
1�(2)73 −1�
= 2−1
= 273 − 1

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Infinite Geometric Progression

If the number of terms in a G.P. is infinite, we get an infinite geometric series. Let 𝑆𝑆∞ denote the sum of the
infinite number of terms and 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 denote the sum upto n terms. Then
𝑆𝑆∞ = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 3 +. . . upto ∞
We consider the following cases,
Case-1: 𝑟𝑟 = 1
In this case, 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
Thus as 𝑛𝑛 → ∞ , 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 → ∞ and is not defined.
Case-2:|𝑟𝑟| > 1
𝑎𝑎(𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 −1)
In this case, 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 𝑟𝑟−1
Now, as 𝑛𝑛 becomes larger and larger, the term 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 − 1 in the numerator gets larger and larger (in magnitude),
where as 𝑟𝑟 − 1 in the denominator remains finite. Hence, as 𝑛𝑛 → ∞ , 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 → ∞ and is not defined.
Case-3:|𝑟𝑟| < 1
𝑎𝑎(1−𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 )
In this case, 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 1−𝑟𝑟
Now as n becomes larger and larger, the term 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 in the numerator gets smaller and smaller and tends to 0 as
𝑛𝑛 → ∞. Therefore, the term 1 − 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 → 1 as 𝑛𝑛 → ∞. The term 1 − 𝑟𝑟 in the denominator is always finite. We
obtain in this case:
𝑎𝑎
𝑆𝑆∞ = .
1−𝑟𝑟
Thus, the sum of an infinite number of terms of a G.P. is defined only when the common ratio, 𝑟𝑟 satisfies
|𝑟𝑟| < 1, or −1 < 𝑟𝑟 < 1.

Solved Examples
1 1 1
Example-1. Find the sum to infinity of the G.P.: + 2 + 2√2 + ⋯
√2
1 1 1 1 1
Solution: + + + ⋯ is a G.P., with 𝑎𝑎 = and 𝑟𝑟 =
√2 2 2√2 √2 √2
1
√2 1
∴ 𝑆𝑆∞ = = = √2 + 1
1 √2 − 1
1−
√2
1 1 1
Example-2. Evaluate:8. �83 � �89 � �827 � … …upto ∞
1 1 1
Solution: 8 �83 � �89 � �827 � … …upto ∞
1 1 1
= 81+3 + 9 + 27 + …upto ∞
1 1 1 1
Now, 1+ + + + … upto ∞ is a geometric series with 𝑎𝑎 = 1 and 𝑟𝑟 = .
3 9 27 3
1 3
∴ 𝑆𝑆∞ = 1 = .
1− 2
3
1 1 1 3
Hence, 8 �83 � �89 � �827 � … …upto ∞ = 82 = 8√8 = 16√2

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�����
Example-3. Represent the following as rational number: 0.181
�����
Solution: 0.181
= 0.181181181181…∞
= 0.181+ 0.000181 + 0.000000181 +…...∞
181 181 181
= + + + ⋯∞
103 106 109
181 1 1
= 3 �1 + 3 + + ⋯ ∞�
10 10 (103 )2
181 1 181
= × =
10 3 1 999
1−
103

Example-4. A ball is dropped from height of 2 feet from the ground and it rebounds 0.6 of its former distance
on each bounce. What is the total distance, ball bounces till it comes to rest?
3th
Solution: First the ball falls 2 feet. Then the ball rebounds 0.6 i.e. of its former distance
5
3 3
= 2× 5feet and falls 2× 5 feet to hit the ground for the second time.
On next rebound
3 2 3 2
the ball rises 2× �5� feet and falls back 2× �5� feet to hit the ground for 3rd time and so on.
Total distance travelled before coming to rest:
3 3 2 3 3
2 + 2 �2 × + 2 × � � + 2 × � � + ⋯ ∞�
5 5 5
12 3 3 2
=2+ �1 + 5 + � � + ⋯ ∞�
5 5
12 1
=2 + × 3
5 1−
5
=2+6
= 8 feet

Example-5. Due to reduced taxes, a man has extra ₹ 20000 is spendable income. If we assume that an
individual spends 80% of this on consumer goods and the producers of these goods in turn spends 80% on
consumer goods and this process continues indefinitely. What is the total amount spent in consumer goods?
Solution: As per question, we get an infinite G.P. series:
20000 × 0.8 + 20000 × (0.8)2 + 20000 × (0.8)3 + ⋯ ∞
= 20000 × 0.8[1 + 0.8 + (0.8)2 + ⋯ ∞]
1
= 20000 × 0.8 ×
1−0.8
1
=20000 × 0.8 ×
0.2
= 80000
Thus, total amount spent in consumer goods = ₹ 80000

Example-6. One side of an equilateral triangle is 24 cm. The mid-points of its sides are joined to form another
triangle whose mid-points are joined to form yet another triangle and so on. This process continues
indefinitely. Find the sum of the areas of all the triangles.

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Solution: Refer the figure.

√3
Area of ∆ ABC = (24)2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2
4
We know that the line joining the mid-points of two sides of a triangle is
parallel to third side and half of it.
24
So, ∆ PQR is also an equilateral triangle with side = 12 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.
2
√3
∴ Area of ∆ PQR = (12)2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2
4
12
Similarly, ∆ UVW is also an equilateral triangle with side = 6 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.
2
√3
∴ Area of ∆ UVW = (6)2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2
4
√3 √3 √3
So, areas of triangles are: 4 (24)2 , 4 (12)2 , 4 (6)2 ,……∞
√3 1
which is an infinite G.P. with 𝑎𝑎 = (24)2 and 𝑟𝑟 =
4 4
√3 √3 √3
∴ sum of triangles of all triangles = 4 (24) + 4 (12)2 + 4 (6)2 +……∞
2

√3
(24)2
= 4
1
1−
4

√3×24×24
=
3

= 192√3𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2

Geometric Mean (GM)

Given two (different) positive numbers 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏. If we insert a number G between them so that 𝑎𝑎, G, 𝑏𝑏 are in
G.P, the G is called the geometric mean (GM) between 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏.
∵𝑎𝑎, G, 𝑏𝑏 are in A.P
⇒𝐺𝐺 2 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎⇒ 𝐺𝐺 = +√𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
Hence, the geometric mean between 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏 is G = √𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎.
Now if we insert n numbers 𝐺𝐺1 , 𝐺𝐺2 , 𝐺𝐺3 , … , 𝐺𝐺𝑛𝑛 between 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏 such that the (𝑛𝑛 + 2) numbers:
𝑎𝑎, 𝐺𝐺1 , 𝐺𝐺2 , 𝐺𝐺3 , … , 𝐺𝐺𝑛𝑛 , 𝑏𝑏 are in G.P., then 𝐺𝐺1 , 𝐺𝐺2 , 𝐺𝐺3 , … , 𝐺𝐺𝑛𝑛 are called the 𝑛𝑛 geometric means between 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏.
• 1st term = 𝑎𝑎.
• Total number of terms= 𝑛𝑛 + 2.
1
𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛+1
• Common ratio(𝑟𝑟) =� � .
𝑎𝑎
• 𝐺𝐺1 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 , 𝐺𝐺2 = 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 2 , 𝐺𝐺3 = 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 3 , .. .. ..,𝐺𝐺𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 ,
𝑛𝑛
• 𝐺𝐺1 . 𝐺𝐺2 . 𝐺𝐺3 . … . 𝐺𝐺𝑛𝑛 = �√𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎�
i.e. product of 𝑛𝑛 number of geometric means = 𝑛𝑛th power of single geometric mean between 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏.

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Relationship between AM and G.M

Let 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 be any two distinct positive real numbers, then
𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏
A= A.M. between 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏 = and
2
G= G.M. between 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏 = √𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏
∴A–G= − √𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
2
1
= �𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 − 2√𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎�
2
1 2
= �√𝑎𝑎 − √𝑏𝑏� ≥ 0 [∵ perfect square expression is always positive]
2
⇒A≥G

Solved Examples
1 1
Example-1. Insert 3 geometric mean between and
4 64
1 1
Solution: As per question , 𝐺𝐺1 , 𝐺𝐺2 , 𝐺𝐺3 , are in G.P.
4 64
1
1 4
1
⇒ 𝑟𝑟 = � � = .
64
1
2
4
1 1 1
∴ 𝐺𝐺1 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = × =
4 2 8
1 1 1
𝐺𝐺2 = × =
8 2 16
1 1 1
𝐺𝐺3 = × =
16 2 32

Example-2. Find two numbers whose A.M. is 34 and geometric mean is 16.
Solution: Let 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 be any two distinct positive real numbers, then
𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏
A.M. = =34 ⇒ 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 = 68.
2
G.M. = √𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 =16 ⇒𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 256.
Now, (𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏)2 = (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
= 682 − 4 × 256
= 3600
∴ 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏 = 60. [∵ 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 be any two distinct positive real numbers]
Solving, 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 = 68 and 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏 = 60, we get
𝑎𝑎 = 4, 𝑏𝑏 = 64.

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Exercises
1. Choose the correct option:

(i) If 3rd, 8th, and 13th, terms of a G.P. are 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 and 𝑧𝑧 respectively, then which of the following is correct?
(a) 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 are in 𝐴𝐴. 𝑃𝑃. (c) 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧, 𝑥𝑥 are in 𝐴𝐴. 𝑃𝑃.
(b) 𝑥𝑥, 𝑧𝑧, 𝑦𝑦 are in 𝐺𝐺. 𝑃𝑃. (d) 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 are in 𝐺𝐺. 𝑃𝑃.

(ii) In an infinite G.P. has the 1st term ‘a’ and the sum 4, then which one of the following is correct?
(a) 𝑎𝑎 < −8 (c) 𝑎𝑎 > 8
(b) 0 < 𝑎𝑎 < 8 (d) −8 < 𝑎𝑎 < 0

(iii) 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑥𝑥 , 2𝑦𝑦 , 3𝑧𝑧 are in A.P. where the distinct numbers 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 are in G.P., then the common ratio of G.P.
is
1 1
(a) (c)
3 2
(b) 3 (d) (2)2

(iv) Consider the following statements:

Statement 1: If 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐, 𝑑𝑑 are four distinct positive numbers in G.P., then 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑑𝑑 > 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐.
Statement 2: If G.P. consists of n terms, then the product of these n terms =(middle)𝑛𝑛 , if n
is even.
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are true?
(a) Only 1 (c) Both 1 and 2
(b) Only 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

(v) Let two given positive numbers be 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏

Assertion: If one geometric mean and two arithmetic means 𝑝𝑝 and 𝑞𝑞 are inserted between 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏
then 𝐺𝐺 2 = (2𝑝𝑝 − 𝑞𝑞)(2𝑞𝑞 − 𝑝𝑝. )
Reason: 𝑎𝑎, q, p, b 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝐴. 𝑃𝑃.
(a) Both A and R individually true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.

(On General term)

5𝑛𝑛−1
2. Write the first five terms of the G P whose nth term is 2𝑛𝑛+1.

3. Find the 7th term of the G.P 0.4, 0.8, 1.6……

16 8 4 81
4. Which term of the GP ,− , , … is − .
27 9 3 8

2 2 2
5. Find the 5th term from end of the GP: , , , ..., 162
27 9 3

6. Prove that 5th, 8th, 11th terms of GP are three successive terms of another GP.

7. The third term of a GP is 4. Find the product of its first five terms.

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8. The first term of a GP is 81 and the square of the third term is equal to its 1st. term. Find the 6th term of
the GP.

9. The product of three numbers in GP is 216 and the sum of the products of the numbers, taken in pairs is
156. Find the numbers.

(On Sum of n terms (𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏 ))

10. Find the sum of:

(i) √7 + √21 + + 3 √7 + .... to n terms
(ii) 0.15 + 0.015 + 0.0015 + ⋯ to 8 terms

11. Find the sum of: 3 + 6 + 12 + …. + 1536

12. Find n and Sn if 𝑎𝑎1 = 5, 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 320, 𝑟𝑟 = 2.

13. The sum of n terms of a progression is (2𝑛𝑛 − 1). Show that it is a G.P. Find its common ratio.

14. Given a G P with 𝑎𝑎= 729 and 𝑇𝑇7 = 64. Determine S7 .

15. The sum of three numbers in GP is 21 and the sum of their squares is 189. Find the numbers.

(On Geometric Means)

16. The A.M. of two numbers is 2 times their G.M. Find the ratio of two numbers.

17. If a is the arithmetic mean and 𝐺𝐺1 , 𝐺𝐺2 are two geometric means between 𝑏𝑏 and 𝑐𝑐, show that

𝐺𝐺1 3 + 𝐺𝐺2 3 = 2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎.

(Application problems)

18. A boy spends ₹ 15 on the first week, ₹ 45 on the second week, ₹ 135 on the third week. Find how much,
in all will he spend at the end of 8 weeks.

19. One side of square is 10 cm. The midpoints of its sides are joined to form another square, whose mid
points are again joined to form one more square. The process is continued three more times. Find the sum
of the areas of all squares.

20. A ball is kicked into the air from the ground. It reaches a
height of 6 m before it falls and hits the ground. It then
2
bounces up again, several times. Each bounce is the
3
height of the previous bounce.
(i) In the first bounce, the ball travels 12 m (6 m up and 6
m down). Write down the total distance it travels in the
second bounce.
(ii) Find the total distance it has travelled as it returns to the ground for the sixth time.

21. A movie producer expects that 1000000 people will see her new film in its first week in the cinemas. Past
experience tells her that in each subsequent week, the number of people who see the film will be 80% of
the week before. Use her modelling assumptions to estimate the number of people who will see the film
in the first eight weeks. Give your answer to an appropriate degree of accuracy. Explain why your answer
is only an estimate.

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22. A blog gains 150000 followers in its first month, 120000 in its second month, and 96000 in its third month.
(i) Show that the number of new followers per month in the first three months forms a geometric
sequence.
(ii) Assuming that this pattern continues, and the number of followers that the blog would gain in its first
six months.
(iii) Assuming that the number of new followers per month continues to fall in the same way, and the
maximum number of followers the website should expect to have in total.

23. In the 2014 Ebola outbreak, the number of deaths from the disease was doubling every month from April.
In June there were 252 deaths.
(i) If 𝑢𝑢𝑛𝑛 represents the number of deaths n months after April explain why 𝑢𝑢𝑛𝑛+1 = 2𝑢𝑢𝑛𝑛
(ii) Find the number of deaths in April and write an explicit formula for finding the number of deaths in
any month after April.
(iii) Find the number of deaths from Ebola in September.
(iv) Explain why this model does not fully explain the outbreak and the continued number of deaths over
a longer period of time.

24. A person is entitled to receive an annual payment which for each year is less by one-tenth of what it was
for the year before. If the first payment is ₹ 800, show that he cannot receive more than ₹ 8,000 however
long he may live.
Answers
1. (i) (d) (ii) (b) (iii) (a) (iv) (a) (v) (c) 16. 7 + 4√3 :1, 7 − 4√3 :1
1 5 25 125 625
2. , , , , 18. ₹49200
4 8 16 32 64
19. 196.88 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2
3. 25.6
20. (i) 8m (ii) 32.8m
4. 5th term
21. 4.16 million. It is only an estimate because
5. 2
she has estimated the rate at which attendance
7.1024 will fall, and other factors, such as reviews, might
influence attendance.
1 1
8.− 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 22. (i)
120000
=
96000
= 0.8 , The sequence has
3 3 15000 12000

9. 2,6,18 or 16,6,2 common ratio.

𝑛𝑛
√7(√3 +1)�3 2 −1� (ii) 553392 (in nearest whole number)
1 1
10. (i) (ii) �1 − �
2 6 108 (iii) 750000
11. 3069
23. (i) Deaths a month is 2 times the previous
12. 635 month.
(ii) 63; 63× 2𝑛𝑛
13. 2
(iii) 2016.
14. 2059
(iv) The infection can double in size only for a
15. 12,6,3 short period of time because soon the
population size will be exceeded.

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Sum to 𝒏𝒏 terms of special series

1. Let 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 denote the sum of first 𝑛𝑛 natural numbers, then
𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛+1)
𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 1 + 2 + 3 + … … . . . + 𝑛𝑛 = 2
.

𝒏𝒏(𝒏𝒏+𝟏𝟏)
i.e. ∑ 𝒏𝒏 = 𝟐𝟐

2. Let 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 denote the sum of squares first 𝑛𝑛 natural numbers, then
𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛+1)(2𝑛𝑛+1)
𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 12 + 22 + 32 + … … . . . + 𝑛𝑛2 = 6
.

𝒏𝒏(𝒏𝒏+𝟏𝟏)(𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐+𝟏𝟏)
i.e.∑ 𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐 = 𝟔𝟔

3. Let 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 denote the sum of cubes first 𝑛𝑛 natural numbers, then
𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛+1) 2
𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 13 + 23 + 33 + … … . . . + 𝑛𝑛3 = � 2
� .

𝒏𝒏(𝒏𝒏+𝟏𝟏) 𝟐𝟐
i.e.∑ 𝒏𝒏𝟑𝟑 = � 𝟐𝟐
�

Note:

• 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛3 + 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛2 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑⇒𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎 ∑ 𝑛𝑛3 + 𝑏𝑏 ∑ 𝑛𝑛2 + 𝑐𝑐 ∑ 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑑𝑑 ∑ 1

• 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛3 + 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛2 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 ⇒𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎 ∑ 𝑛𝑛3 + 𝑏𝑏 ∑ 𝑛𝑛2 + 𝑐𝑐 ∑ 𝑛𝑛 + ∑ 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛

Method of difference
The "method of differences" is a technique used to find the 𝑛𝑛th term of a sequence when the differences
between consecutive terms(𝑻𝑻𝒏𝒏 and𝑻𝑻𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 ) form a known pattern, such as an arithmetic progression/geometric
progression. This method essentially involves repeatedly finding the differences between terms until a
constant difference is achieved. Once a constant difference is found, we use it to construct the general formula
for the 𝑛𝑛th term of the original sequence. This method is useful for sequences that don't fit into standard
progressions like arithmetic or geometric progressions.

Solved Examples
Example-1. Sum the series: 3 × 12 + 5 × 22 + 7 × 32 +…. upto 𝑛𝑛 terms.
Solution:𝑛𝑛th term of 3,5,7, … = 3 + (𝑛𝑛 − 1)2 = 2𝑛𝑛 + 1
𝑛𝑛th term of 1,2,3, … = 𝑛𝑛.
Let, 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 be the 𝑛𝑛th term of the given series.
⇒𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 = (2𝑛𝑛 + 1)𝑛𝑛2 = 2𝑛𝑛3 + 𝑛𝑛2

∴ 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 2 � 𝑛𝑛3 + � 𝑛𝑛2

𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛+1) 2 𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛+1)(2𝑛𝑛+1)
= 2� 2
� + 6

𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 + 1) 2𝑛𝑛 + 1
= �𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 + 1) + �
2 3

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𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 + 1)
= [3𝑛𝑛2 + 5𝑛𝑛 + 1]
6

1 1 1
Example-2. Sum the series: 1 + �1 + �+�1 + + � +…. upto 𝑛𝑛 terms.
5 5 52

Solution: Let, 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 be the 𝑛𝑛th term of the given series.

1 1
⇒𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 = 1 + + + ⋯ upto 𝑛𝑛 terms
5 52
1
1�1− 𝑛𝑛 �
5
= 1
1−
5

5 1
= �1 − �.
4 5𝑛𝑛
5 1
∴ 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = �� 1 − � � 𝑛𝑛 ��
4 5
5 1 1 1
= �𝑛𝑛 − � + 2 + 3 + ⋯ upto 𝑛𝑛 terms��
4 5 5 5
1 1
5 �1− 𝑛𝑛�
= �𝑛𝑛 − 5 5
1 �
4 1−
5

5 1
= �4𝑛𝑛 −1+ �
16 5𝑛𝑛

Example-3. Find sum to 𝑛𝑛 terms of the series: 3 + 5 + 11 + 29 + … upto n terms.

Solution: Given series is neither A.P. nor G.P but differences of successive terms 2, 6, 18, ... forms a G.P.
Hence, we apply method of difference to find the nth. term.
𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 3 + 5 + 11 + 29 + … … . . +𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛−1 + 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 .
Also, 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 3 + 5 + 11 + 29 + … … … … + 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛−1 + 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛
On subtraction, we get:
⇒ 0 = 3 + 2 + 6 + 18 + ⋯ … . − 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛
⇒ 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 = 3+ [2 + 6 + 18 + ⋯ upto (𝑛𝑛 − 1) terms]
2�3𝑛𝑛−1 −1�
=3+ 3−1

= 2 +3𝑛𝑛−1

∴ 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = �2 � 1 + �(3𝑛𝑛−1 )�

= [2𝑛𝑛 + (1 + 3 + 32 + ⋯ upto 𝑛𝑛 terms)]

1(3𝑛𝑛 −1)
= �2𝑛𝑛 + 3−1
�
(3𝑛𝑛 −1)
= 2𝑛𝑛 + 2
1
= (3𝑛𝑛 + 4𝑛𝑛 − 1)
2

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Exercises
1. Choose the correct option:
(i) 103 + 113 + 123 + ⋯ + 203 =
(a) ∑20 3 9
𝑘𝑘=10 𝑘𝑘 − ∑𝑘𝑘=1 𝑘𝑘
3
(c) ∑20 3 9
𝑘𝑘=1 𝑘𝑘 + ∑𝑘𝑘=1 𝑘𝑘
3

(b) ∑20
𝑘𝑘=1 𝑘𝑘
3
(d) ∑20 3 9
𝑘𝑘=1 𝑘𝑘 − ∑𝑘𝑘=1 𝑘𝑘
3

(ii) nth. term of the series: (33 − 23 ) + (53 − 43 ) + (73 − 63 ) + ⋯

(a) (2𝑛𝑛 + 1)3 − (2𝑛𝑛)3 (c) (𝑛𝑛 + 1)3 − (𝑛𝑛)3
(b) (2𝑛𝑛 + 1)3 + (2𝑛𝑛)3 (d) (𝑛𝑛 + 1)3 − (2𝑛𝑛)3

(iii) The sum of the series: 22 + 42 + 62 +. . +(2𝑛𝑛)2 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘(𝑛𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛𝑛 + 1), then 𝑘𝑘 =
1 2
(a) (c)
3 3
4 3
(b) (d)
3 2

(iv) Consider the following statements:

Statement 1: nth. term of a series is 2𝑛𝑛2 − 1. Sum of 𝑛𝑛 terms of the series = 2 ∑𝑛𝑛𝑘𝑘=1 𝑘𝑘 2 − 1
Statement 2: If the differences 𝑇𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑇1 , 𝑇𝑇3 − 𝑇𝑇2 , 𝑇𝑇4 − 𝑇𝑇3 , …are in G.P. with common ratio 𝑟𝑟, then
we take general term of the series 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐, and determine constants by putting 𝑛𝑛 = 1,2,3.
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are true?
(a) Only 1 (c) Both 1 and 2
(b) Only 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

(v) Assertion: nth. term of series: 5 + 7 + 13 + 31 + 85 +… is 4 + 3𝑛𝑛−1

Reason: The sequence of the differences between successive terms is a G.P.
(a) Both A and R individually true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.

2. Find the sum of the following series to 𝑛𝑛 terms:

(i) 1.2.5 + 2.3.6 + 3.4.7 + ⋯
(ii) 23 + 43 + 63 + 83 + ⋯
(iii) 1. 22 + 2.32 +3.42 +……

3. Find the sum of the series whose 𝑛𝑛th term is: 𝑛𝑛3 − 3𝑛𝑛

4. Find the sum of the following series to 𝑛𝑛 terms:

(i) 1 + 3 + 6 + 10 + 15 +…….
(ii) 1 + 4 + 13 + 40 + 121 +……

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Answers
1. (i) (d) (ii) (a) (iii) (c) (iv) (d) (v) (a)
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
2. (i)
12
(𝑛𝑛 + 1)(3𝑛𝑛2 + 23𝑛𝑛 + 24) (ii) 2𝑛𝑛2 (𝑛𝑛 + 1)2 (iii) 2 (𝑛𝑛 + 1)(𝑛𝑛 + 2)(3𝑛𝑛 + 5)

𝑛𝑛2 (𝑛𝑛+1)2 3
3. 4
− (3𝑛𝑛 − 1)
2
𝑛𝑛 1
4. (i) (𝑛𝑛 + 1)(𝑛𝑛 + 2)
6
(ii) 4 (3𝑛𝑛+1 − 2𝑛𝑛 − 3)

HISTORICAL NOTE

Ancient Civilizations
1. Babylonians (circa 2000 BCE):
− Used sequences in their calculations, particularly in astronomy and commerce. They had
methods for approximating square roots and calculating areas, which involved arithmetic
sequences.
2. Greeks (circa 600 BCE - 300 CE):
− Pythagoreans studied numerical relationships and introduced the concept of sequences,
particularly in relation to music and harmony.
− Euclid and Archimedes explored geometric series and methods for summation.
Middle Ages
1. Indian Mathematicians (circa 500-1200 CE):
− Mathematicians like Brahmagupta and Bhaskara II developed rules for arithmetic sequences and
contributed to the understanding of series, particularly in their work on quadratic equations and
summation formulas.
2. Islamic Golden Age (circa 800-1100 CE):
− Scholars such as Al-Khwarizmi and Al-Kindi made significant contributions to arithmetic and
geometric sequences, which involved manipulation of sequences.
Renaissance and Early Modern Period
1. Europe (16th-17th centuries):
− The revival of interest in mathematics led to studies of infinite series. Nicolaus
Mercator and John Wallis worked on series expansions, particularly for logarithmic and
trigonometric functions.
− Blaise Pascal and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz explored binomial coefficients and their
relationships to sequences.
18th Century
− Leonhard Euler made extensive contributions to the theory of series, particularly in his work on
power series and the convergence of infinite series.
− He introduced Euler's formula and explored the concept of generating functions.
19th Century
− Series were used to solve differential equations and in mathematical physics.

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20th Century to Present

− In the 20th century, sequences and series found applications in computer science, particularly in
algorithms and data analysis.
The study of sequences and series has evolved from ancient practical applications to a formalized branch
of mathematics with deep theoretical implications. Today, they play crucial roles in various fields,
including calculus, number theory, finance and computer science.

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