CHAPTER 22: THE GREAT WAR – BREAKDOWN (Identical Wording)
I. Opening Context
• Quote from British Foreign Secretary Sir Edward Grey: “The lamps are going out all
over Europe. They will not be lit again in our lifetime.”
• Grey’s failed diplomacy to prevent war.
• Underestimation of the war's scale: 38.2 million casualties, downfall of four empires,
transformation of European life.
II. Origins of the Conflict
• First large-scale conflict since the Napoleonic era.
• Involved all major powers: Italy (1915), USA (1917), and minor states.
• Spark: Assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand (June 28, 1914) by a Serb
nationalist.
• Entangling alliances drew all powers into war.
III. Entangling Alliances
• Germany and Austria-Hungary: firm allies.
• Italy joined in 1882: formed Triple Alliance (revived in 1891, 1902).
• France, Britain, and Russia: formed the Triple Entente.
• Alliances created two armed camps.
IV. Irreconcilable Hatreds
• Franco-German animosity over Alsace and Lorraine.
• Francis Joseph: Emperor of Austria-Hungary (1848–1916), ceremonial but
determined on military strength.
• Ethnic tensions in the Austro-Hungarian Empire: Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Romanians,
South Slavs.
• Pan-Slavism fanned by Russia threatened the Habsburg monarchy.
• Russian goals: access to Dardanelles and Bosporus straits, control over Black Sea
access.
V. The Alliance System
• Rooted in Franco-German hostility, Austro-Russian Balkan rivalry, German fear of
encirclement.
• Bismarck’s goal: maintain balance by being in alliances with at least two others ("a
trois").
• Diplomats influenced by Klemens von Metternich: conservative, anti-democratic.
VI. Germany and Austria-Hungary vs. Russia
• Three Emperors’ League (1873): Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia.
• Congress of Berlin (1878): reduced Ottoman holdings, favored Austro-Hungarian
administration of Bosnia-Herzegovina.
• Dual Alliance (1879): Germany and Austria-Hungary.
• Triple Alliance (1882): included Italy.
• Rising tensions between Russia and Austria-Hungary over Slavic interests.
VII. Germany Encircled: Russia and France Ally
• Reinsurance Treaty (1887): lapsed after Bismarck’s dismissal.
• Franco-Russian Alliance (1892 military treaty, 1894 formal alliance): response to
Triple Alliance.
• Economic ties: French investment in Russia.
VIII. Anglo-German Rivalry
• Entente Cordiale (1904): Britain and France.
• Anglo-German tensions: Boer War reaction, German navy expansion.
• Naval arms race: Britain builds Dreadnought (1906); Germany follows.
IX. British-French Rapprochement
• Britain signs treaties with USA (1901) and Japan (1902).
• Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) brought Britain and France closer.
• Entente Cordiale resolves colonial disputes (e.g., Morocco, Egypt, Indochina).
X. First Moroccan Crisis (1905)
• German Kaiser’s visit to Tangier challenges French influence.
• Algeciras Conference (1906): recognizes French primacy in Morocco.
• Confirms Anglo-French unity; worsens German relations.
XI. Improved Anglo-Russian Relations
• Anglo-Russian Agreement (1907): divides Persia into spheres, resolves
Afghan/Tibetan issues.
XII. Europe of Two Armed Camps (1905–1914)
• Triple Entente (France, Britain, Russia) vs. Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-
Hungary, Italy).
• Germany fears isolation if Austria-Hungary collapses.
• Arms race escalates; public supports militarization.
XIII. The Balkan Tinderbox
• Nationalism grows among South Slavs.
• Serbia-Russia alliance strengthens.
• Economic conflict: Austria-Hungary bans Serbian pig exports (“Pig War,” 1906).
• Austria builds railroad to isolate Serbia.
XIV. Instability in Turkey
• Sultan Abdulhamid II (r. 1876–1909): reforms, later repression.
• Armenian Massacres (1894–1895).
• Young Turks Revolution (1908): restore 1876 constitution, led by Mustafa Kemal
(Atatürk).
XV. Bosnian Crisis (1908)
• Austria-Hungary annexes Bosnia-Herzegovina, provoking Serbia and Russia.
• Russia backs down due to lack of support.
• German and Austro-Hungarian military cooperation increases.
• Serb nationalist groups (e.g., Black Hand) receive tacit support.
XVI. Second Moroccan Crisis (1911)
• Germany sends gunboat to Agadir.
• France refuses to cede Congo in exchange for Moroccan control.
• November 1911: France keeps Morocco; Germany gets part of Congo.
• Anglo-French military cooperation deepens.
XVII. The Balkan Wars
• Tripoli War (1911): Italy seizes Libya.
• First Balkan War (1912): Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria, Montenegro defeat Turkey.
• Treaty of London (1913): divides Ottoman holdings.
• Second Balkan War (1913): Bulgaria defeated by Serbia, Greece, Romania, and
Turks.
• Serbia strengthened; South Slav nationalism intensifies.
XVIII. The Final Crisis
• June 28, 1914: Archduke Francis Ferdinand and wife Sophie assassinated in Sarajevo
by Gavrilo Princip (Black Hand).
• European alliance system triggered, leading to World War I.
The Final Crisis
• The assassin was only a few feet away from Archduke Francis Ferdinand's car and
killed both him and his wife.
• Some Serbian officials supported the Black Hand, but Austria's claim that Serbia
orchestrated the assassination was incorrect.
• Despite internal dislike for the archduke in Austria-Hungary, his death provoked
public mourning.
The Ultimatum
• Habsburg officials saw a chance to crush Serbia; Berchtold now favored war.
• William II and Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg backed Austria and issued a "blank
check."
• The July 23, 1914 ultimatum included dissolving nationalist groups and allowing
Austro-Hungarian investigators.
• Edward Grey called it “the most formidable document ever presented by one
independent state to another.”
The Schlieffen Plan
• Germany planned to defeat France swiftly through Belgium, then turn to fight Russia.
• France's Plan XVII aimed to attack Alsace-Lorraine.
• Britain proposed negotiations after Russia mobilized, but Germany expected British
neutrality.
"A Jolly Little War"
• July 28, 1914: Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.
• Germany encouraged Austria and ignored peace proposals.
• Russia ordered full mobilization on July 30 after Austrian bombardment.
• Germany warned Russia and France, received no reply, and declared war on Russia
(Aug 1), France (Aug 3).
• Britain declared war on Germany (Aug 4) after Belgian invasion.
The Outbreak of War
• Germany’s plan led to a swift invasion of Belgium and France.
• Battle of the Marne (Sept 5–14) halted German advance; trench warfare began.
• Britain joined the war due to violation of Belgian neutrality.
Opening Hostilities
• Belgium resisted but lost Liege and Namur.
• British Expeditionary Force arrived August 20.
• Germans neared Paris; Joffre reinforced defenses.
• French counterattacked on the Marne; Germans retreated.
The Changing Nature of War
• Trench warfare dominated; barbed wire and spades were crucial.
• Psychological tolls included shell shock and disease.
• Machine guns and artillery made defense stronger than offense.
Trench Warfare
• 6,250 miles of trenches dug; conditions harsh and dangerous.
• Soldiers endured vermin, cold, bombardments, and psychological trauma.
• Creeping barrages and machine guns caused mass casualties.
War in the Air and on the Seas
• Aircraft evolved from reconnaissance to bombing and combat.
• Aces like Richthofen and Rickenbacker became legends.
• Germany’s U-boats challenged British dominance; blockades ensued.
The Home Front
• Propaganda fueled patriotism and hatred.
• Civilians were targeted; atrocities occurred on all sides.
• Women joined workforce; rationing, daylight saving, and controls introduced.
• Suffragettes paused campaigns to support war.
The War Rages On
• France and Britain suffered huge casualties for minimal gains in 1915.
• Italy joined Allies after the Treaty of London, 1915.
• Japan entered on Allied side seeking territorial gains.
The Eastern Front
• Russia faced major losses at Tannenberg and Lemberg.
• Hindenburg and Ludendorff rose to prominence.
• Harsh Carpathian conditions caused chaos and heavy losses.
• Germans pushed Russians back to Brest-Litovsk by Aug 1915.
The War in the Middle East, Africa, and the Far East
• British leaders debated focusing on Europe vs. peripheral campaigns.
• Churchill planned Gallipoli to weaken Turkey and open supply lines to Russia.
• April 1915: British ships attacked Dardanelles; troops landed at Gallipoli.
• The campaign failed against Turkish resistance.
Chapter 22.3: The Great War (Identical Wording Breakdown)
The Gallipoli Campaign
• In August, the British launched an assault that failed miserably.
• Submarines from both sides were active, affecting supply tactics.
• Over 400,000 men were committed, half killed or wounded.
• Churchill and Kitchener lost influence due to criticism.
• Historians differ: some see it as imaginative, others as a needless diversion.
The Balkans and Eastern Front
• Bulgaria joined the Central Powers in October 1915, promised Macedonia and
Thrace.
• Serb army was crushed by end of 1915, suffering 100,000 deaths of 450,000.
• Salonika campaign tied up half a million Allied troops.
• British forces also fought Turks in Palestine and Mesopotamia.
African and Asian Campaigns
• German colonies fell: Togoland (1914), Southwest Africa (1915), Cameroons (1916).
• Combat in East Africa continued until end of war.
• Japan seized German holdings in the Pacific and Qingdao.
Western Front: Verdun and the Somme
• General Haig and Joffre planned a Somme offensive.
• German General Falkenhayn planned to attrition the French at Verdun.
• Verdun: began February 21, 1916; massive artillery bombardment.
• French held under General Petain; 540,000 French and 430,000 German casualties.
• Battle of the Somme: began July 1, 1916, with 60,000 British casualties on first day.
• Total Somme losses: 420,000 British, 200,000 French, 650,000 German.
Futility and Stalemate
• Twelve Battles of Isonzo; Caporetto (1917) saw 250,000 Italian troops captured.
• Russian offensive of June 1916 pushed Austrians back but gains minimized.
• More than 1 million casualties on both sides.
Soldiers and Civilians
• Soldiers outraged by civilians' detachment from war’s horror.
• Women replaced men in industries and services, faced lower wages.
• Censorship masked death tolls and failures.
• Propaganda painted a noble and clean image of war.
• Bonds among soldiers strengthened; resentment toward command.
• Christmas truce of 1914 and informal ceasefires occurred.
Growing War Weariness
• Romania joined Allies but was quickly defeated.
• Austria’s Charles I proposed peace in March 1917, ignored.
• Joffre replaced by Nivelle; Lloyd George became UK PM.
• Germany's peace note in December 1916 rejected by Britain.
Home Front Dissent
• Soldiers more sympathetic to enemies than leaders.
• Executions for fraternization and refusal to follow orders.
• Strikes and protests in France, Austria, Italy.
• Irish Republicans revolted in Easter 1916; Casement executed.
• Clara Zetkin and Rosa Luxemburg jailed in Germany.
• Sassoon and other poets condemned the war.
Russian Withdrawal and U.S. Entry
• U.S. joined Allies in April 1917 after submarine warfare resumed and Zimmermann
Telegram.
• Russian Revolution toppled Tsar in February 1917.
• Bolsheviks seized power in November 1917, signed Brest-Litovsk in March 1918.
Allied Offensives and Mutinies
• Nivelle offensive failed; mass French mutinies followed.
• Haig’s Passchendaele campaign gained 4 miles at the cost of 300,000 British
casualties.
• Clemenceau cracked down on dissent, arrested peace advocates.
Middle East and Italy
• British encouraged Arab revolt; T.E. Lawrence led guerrilla attacks.
• Balfour Declaration (Nov 2, 1917): promised Jewish national home in Palestine.
• Italy defeated at Caporetto; Allies established Supreme War Council.
German Spring Offensive and Collapse
• March 1918: Ludendorff launched Somme offensive, advanced 36 miles.
• By July, Allies halted advance; began counterattack in August.
• Prince Max von Baden asked Wilson for armistice on Oct 4, 1918.
• Armistices: Austria-Hungary (Nov 3), Germany (Nov 11).
The Fourteen Points and Peace
• Wilson’s January 8, 1918 speech: open diplomacy, self-determination, League of
Nations.
• Germany hoped to use Fourteen Points to avoid harsh surrender.
• Clemenceau and Foch demanded unconditional surrender.
• Collapse of Central Powers: Bulgaria, Turkey, Austria-Hungary, Germany.
The Impact of the War
• 9.4 million soldiers dead, 21.2 million wounded.
• Epidemic influenza killed 50 million globally.
• Economic devastation: especially France, Belgium, Germany.
• Psychological toll on survivors: disillusionment and bitterness.
• Armenian deportations led to over 500,000 deaths.
• Europe faced economic strain, decreased birthrate, and political instability.
Conclusion
• War caused by alliances, nationalism, imperial rivalries, and militarism.
• Deep disillusionment followed: war seen as a moral and human catastrophe.
• Peace and recovery would be difficult and prolonged.
CHAPTER 22 – NAMES AND DATES
KEY FIGURES MENTIONED
• Sir Edward Grey – British foreign secretary; warned of the Great War in 1914.
• Archduke Francis Ferdinand (1863–1914) – Heir to Austro-Hungarian throne;
assassinated June 28, 1914.
• Sophie – Wife of Francis Ferdinand.
• Gavrilo Princip (1895–1918) – Serb nationalist from Black Hand; assassin of
Archduke.
• Francis Joseph (1830–1916) – Emperor of Austria-Hungary (1848–1916).
• Maximilian – Brother of Francis Joseph; executed in Mexico (1867).
• Klemens von Metternich – Austrian statesman; post-Napoleonic diplomacy model.
• Otto von Bismarck – German chancellor; architect of alliance system.
• William II (Kaiser Wilhelm II) – German emperor; dismissed Bismarck (1890).
• Alexander III – Russian tsar; visited Paris (1889).
• Nicholas II – Russian tsar; cousin of Wilhelm II.
• Bernhard von Bülow (1849–1929) – German chancellor; provoked First Moroccan
Crisis.
• Alexander Izvolsky (1856–1919) – Russian foreign minister; pushed entente with
Britain.
• Theophile Delcassé (1852–1923) – French foreign minister; mediated Anglo-Russian
issues.
• Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz (1849–1930) – Led German naval expansion.
• Sergei Sazonov (1861–1927) – Russian foreign minister; supported Serbian
nationalism.
• Leopold Berchtold (1863–1942) – Austro-Hungarian foreign minister; negotiated
during Balkan Wars.
• Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) (1881–1938) – Young Turk leader; later founder of
modern Turkey.
• Abdulhamid II – Ottoman sultan (r. 1876–1909); suspended 1876 constitution.
• Young Turks – Reform group that restored the Ottoman constitution in 1908.
• "The Black Hand" & "The People’s Defense" – Serb nationalist organizations.
KEY DATES AND EVENTS
• 1870–1871 – Franco-Prussian War; Germany annexes Alsace-Lorraine.
• 1873 – Three Emperors’ League formed.
• 1875 – Revolt in Bosnia and Herzegovina against Ottomans.
• 1877–1878 – Russo-Turkish War.
• 1878 – Congress of Berlin.
• 1879 – Dual Alliance (Germany–Austria-Hungary).
• 1881 – Italy occupies Libya; UK buys Suez Canal shares.
• 1882 – Triple Alliance formed.
• 1887 – Reinsurance Treaty (Germany–Russia).
• 1889 – Alexander III visits Paris.
• 1890 – Bismarck dismissed.
• 1891 & 1902 – Triple Alliance renewed.
• 1892 – Franco-Russian military treaty.
• 1894 – Franco-Russian formal alliance.
• 1895 – Wilhelm II congratulates Boer Republic.
• 1897 – Anglo-German naval competition begins.
• 1898 – Fashoda crisis.
• 1899 & 1907 – The Hague peace conferences.
• 1899–1902 – Boer War.
• 1901 – Britain signs Panama Canal treaty with U.S.
• 1902 – Anglo-Japanese alliance.
• 1904 – Entente Cordiale (Britain–France).
• 1904–1905 – Russo-Japanese War.
• 1905 – First Moroccan Crisis; Kaiser visits Tangier.
• 1906 – Algeciras Conference.
• 1906 – "Pig War" between Serbia and Austria-Hungary.
• 1907 – Anglo-Russian agreement.
• 1908 – Bosnian Crisis; Austria annexes Bosnia-Herzegovina; Young Turk
Revolution.
• 1909 – British panic over German invasion; Dreadnought built.
• 1910 – Serb youth attempts assassination in Bosnia.
• 1911 – Second Moroccan Crisis (Agadir); Tripoli War begins.
• 1912 – First Balkan War.
• May 1913 – Treaty of London.
• Summer 1913 – Second Balkan War; Treaty of Bucharest.
• April 1912 – Anglo-French naval coordination established.
• June 28, 1914 – Assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand.
Names and Backgrounds Mentioned in Chapter 22.2
• Archduke Francis Ferdinand – Heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, assassinated in
Sarajevo.
• Sophie (Duchess of Hohenberg) – Wife of Francis Ferdinand, also killed.
• Leopold Berchtold – Austrian foreign minister; shifted from opposition to war in
1912 to favoring war in 1914.
• William II (Kaiser Wilhelm II) – German emperor who urged Austria to retaliate
against Serbia.
• Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg (1856–1921) – German chancellor, issued the
"blank check" to Austria; fatalistic after wife's death.
• Sazonov – Russian foreign minister, mobilized support for Serbia and blamed
Germany.
• Maurice Paléologue – French ambassador to Russia, encouraged Russian resistance.
• Raymond Poincaré – French president who visited Russia shortly before war.
• Nicholas II – Tsar of Russia, ordered full mobilization.
• Alfred von Schlieffen (1833–1913) – Former German chief of general staff; author of
the Schlieffen Plan.
• Joseph Joffre (1852–1931) – French military commander, planned Plan XVII.
• Edward Grey – British foreign secretary, tried to broker peace.
• Victor Adler – Austrian socialist leader; warned about war's consequences.
• Jean Jaurès – French socialist leader assassinated on July 31, 1914.
• Helmuth von Moltke (1848–1916) – German general staff chief, led German military
mobilization.
• Alexander von Kluck – Commander of the First German Army.
• Sarah Bernhardt – French actress who entertained troops.
• Siegfried Sassoon – British soldier and poet.
• Manfred von Richthofen (Red Baron) – Famous German fighter pilot.
• Eddie Rickenbacker – American fighter pilot starting in 1917.
• Lord Horatio Kitchener – British Secretary of War; face of recruitment campaign.
• David Lloyd George (1863–1945) – British politician, later wartime prime minister,
ran the Ministry of Munitions.
• Millicent Garrett Fawcett (1847–1929) – British suffragette who supported the war.
• General Paul von Hindenburg (1847–1934) – German general, key figure in Eastern
Front.
• General Erich Ludendorff (1865–1937) – German general, partnered with
Hindenburg.
• Winston Churchill (1874–1965) – First Lord of the Admiralty, architect of Gallipoli
campaign.
Key Dates and Events in Chapter 22.2
• June 28, 1914 – Assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand and Duchess Sophie.
• July 21, 1914 – Russia warns Austria-Hungary against attacking Serbia.
• July 23, 1914 – Austria-Hungary delivers ultimatum to Serbia.
• July 25, 1914 – Serbia replies; Russia places army on alert; Serbia begins
mobilization.
• July 28, 1914 – Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia.
• July 29, 1914 – Austria bombards Belgrade.
• July 30, 1914 – Nicholas II orders full Russian mobilization.
• July 31, 1914 – Germany warns Russia; France refuses neutrality.
• August 1, 1914 – Germany declares war on Russia.
• August 2, 1914 – Germany demands Belgian passage; Luxembourg invaded.
• August 3, 1914 – Germany declares war on France.
• August 4, 1914 – Britain declares war on Germany after Belgium invasion.
• August 16, 1914 – Liege falls to Germany.
• August 20, 1914 – British Expeditionary Force arrives.
• September 5–14, 1914 – First Battle of the Marne.
• November 1914 – Last open battle at Ypres.
• January 24, 1915 – British win naval battle at Dogger Bank.
• March 10, 1915 – British offensive at Neuve Chapelle.
• April 1915 – Italy signs Treaty of London; Gallipoli campaign begins.
• May 1915 – German offensive pushes Russia back.
• August 1915 – German forces reach Brest-Litovsk.
Historical Figures
• Winston Churchill – Lost influence after Gallipoli.
• Horatio Kitchener – Also lost influence post-Gallipoli.
• General Douglas Haig (1861–1928) – British commander in chief from December
1915.
• General Joseph Joffre – Planned Somme offensive.
• General Erich von Falkenhayn (1861–1922) – German commander; led Verdun
strategy.
• General Philippe Pétain (1856–1951) – Hero of Verdun; improved soldier
conditions.
• General Robert Nivelle (1856–1924) – Replaced Joffre; led failed 1917 offensive.
• Lloyd George – Became British Prime Minister in December 1916.
• Isaac Rosenberg – British war poet; wrote "Break of Day in the Trenches."
• Robert Graves – British poet; commented on soldiers' alienation.
• Lord Northcliffe – British press baron, propagandist.
• Sir Roger Casement (1864–1916) – Irish nationalist, executed after Easter Rising.
• Clara Zetkin (1857–1933) – Jailed for anti-war activism in Germany.
• Rosa Luxemburg – Polish socialist, imprisoned for anti-war efforts.
• Siegfried Sassoon – British soldier and poet; protested war.
• Alexander Kerensky (1881–1970) – Head of Russian Provisional Government.
• Vladimir Lenin (1870–1924) – Returned from exile, led Bolshevik Revolution.
• General John Pershing (1860–1948) – U.S. commander in Europe.
• Ferdinand Foch (1851–1929) – Took command of Allied armies in 1918.
• Prince Max von Baden (1867–1929) – German chancellor; requested armistice.
• Wilfred Owen – British poet; killed days before Armistice.
• Philip Larkin – British poet; remarked on lost innocence.
• F. Scott Fitzgerald – Described WWI battlefield in postwar reflection.
Dates and Events
• August 1915 – Gallipoli assault.
• January 1916 – British evacuation from Gallipoli.
• October 1915 – Bulgaria joined Central Powers.
• 1916 – Battle of Verdun (Feb–Dec); Battle of the Somme (July–Nov).
• July 1, 1916 – Start of Battle of the Somme.
• 1917 – Caporetto offensive; French mutinies; Balfour Declaration (Nov 2).
• December 1916 – Romania defeated; Lloyd George becomes UK PM.
• April 6, 1917 – U.S. enters the war.
• May 7, 1915 – Lusitania sunk.
• May 3, 1917 – French mutinies begin.
• November 1917 – Bolshevik Revolution.
• March 1918 – Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
• March 21, 1918 – Start of German Spring Offensive.
• July 15, 1918 – Major German attack repulsed.
• August 8, 1918 – Allied counterattack begins.
• October 4, 1918 – Germany seeks armistice.
• November 3, 1918 – Austria-Hungary signs armistice.
• November 11, 1918 – Armistice signed with Germany.
• January 8, 1918 – Wilson’s Fourteen Points speech.
• 1918–1919 – Influenza pandemic.
• 1915 – Armenian deportations begin.
• 1914–1918 – Duration of the Great War.