║JAI SRI GURUDEV║

Sri Adichunchanagiri Shikshana Trust (R)

S J B INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
BGS Health & Education City, Kengeri, Bengaluru – 60.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

CONTROL SYSTEM [BEC403]

Module 4-Stability analysis & Root locus
techniques
ACADEMIC YEAR – 2023 -2024

Faculty Name Mr. Rahul R Rai

Designation Assistant Professor
Course Control Systems
Course Code BEC403
Semester 4th
Control Systems 18EC43

MODULE-4
STABILITY ANALYSIS AND FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS

PART A- STABILITY ANALYSIS IN TIME DOMAIN

Every System, for small amount of time has to pass through a transient period. Whether system
will reach its steady state after passing through transients or not. The answer to this question is
whether the system is stable or unstable. This is stability analysis.

For example, we want to go from one station to other. The station we want to reach is
our final steady state. The traveling period is the transient period. Now any thing
may happen during the traveling period due to bad weather, road accident etc, there is a chance
that we may not reach the next station in time. The analysis of wheather the given system can
reach steady state after passing through the transients successfully is called the stability analysis
of the system.

In this chapter, we will steady

1. The stability & the factor on which system stability depends.
2. Stability analysis & location of closed loop poles.
3. Stability analysis using Hurwitz method.
4. Stability analysis using Routh-Hurwitz method.
5. Special cases of Routh’s array.
6. Applications of Routh-Hurwitz method.

Concept of stability:
Consider a system i.e a deep container with an object placed inside it as shown in fig(1)
force ‘F’

(a) fig(1) (b)

Now, if we apply a force to take out the object, as the depth of container is more, it will oscillate
& settle down again at original position.

Assume that force required to take out the object tends to infinity i.e always object will
oscillate when force is applied & will settle down but will not come out such a system is called
absolutely stable system. No change in parameters, disturbances, changes the output.

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Control Systems 18EC43

Now consider a container which is pointed one, on which we try to keep a circular object. In this
object will fall down without any external application of force. Such system is called Unstable
system.

(a) fig(2) (b)

While in certain cases the container is shallow then there exsists a critical value of
force for which the object will come out of the container.
F
F F

Fig(3) F<Fcritical F>Fcritical

As long as F<Fcritical object regains its original position but if F>Fcritical object will come out.
Stability depends on certain conditions of the system, hence system is called conditionally stable
system.

Pendulum where system keeps on oscillating when certain force is applied. Such
systems are neither stable nor unstable & hence called critically stable or marginally stable
systems

Stability of control systems:

The stability of a linear closed loop system can be determined from the locations of closed loop
poles in the S-plane.
If the system has closed loop T.F.

C(s) = 10
R(s) (S+2) (S+4) 1
Output response for unit step inputR(s) =
S

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C(s) 10 = A B C
S(S+2) (S+4) S S+2 S+4

Find out partial fractions

1 1 1
C(s) = 8 4 8 10
S S+2 S+4

= 1.25 2.5 1.25

S S+2 S+4

C(s) = 1.25 – 2.5e-2t+1.25e-4t

=Css + Ct(t)
If the closed loop poles are located in left half of s-plane, Output response contains exponential
terms with negative indices will approach zero & output will be the steady state output.
i.e.
Ct (t) = 0
t 
Transient output = 0
Such system are called absolutely stable systems.

Now let us have a system with one closed loop pole located in right half of s- plane
C(s) 10
R(s) S(S-2)(s+4)

A + B + C 10
= S S-2 S+4

C(t) = - 1.25 + 0.833e 2t + 0.416e – 4 t

Here there is one exponential term with positive in transient output
Therefore Css = - 1.25

t C(t)
0 0
1 + 4.91
2 + 44.23
4 +2481.88
 
From the above table, it is clear that output response instead of approaching to steady state value
as t  due to exponential term with positive index, transients go on increasing in amplitude.
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Control Systems 18EC43

So such system is said to be unstable. In such system output is uncontrollable & unbounded one.
Output response of such system is as shown in fig(4).
C(t) C(t) 

OR
Steady state
output

t
(a) fig(4) t
(b)
For such unstable systems, if input is removed output may not return to zero. And if the input
power is turned on, output tends to  . If no saturation takes place in system & no mechanical
stop is provided then system may get damaged.
If all the closed loop poles or roots of the characteristic equation lies in left of s-plane, then in the
output response contains steady state terms & transient terms. Such transient terms approach to
zero as time advances eventually output reaches to equilibrium & attains steady state value.
Transient terms in such system may give oscillation but the amplitude of such oscillation will
be decreasing with time & finally will vanish. So output response of such system is shown in
fig5 (a) & (b).
C(t)
C(t) Damped oscillations
Steady state
----------------------- ---------------------------
OR
Steady state output

t t
(a) fig 5 (b)

BIBO Stability : This is bounded input bounded output stability.

Definition of stable system:

A linear time invariant system is said to be stable if following conditions are satisfied.
1. When system is excited by a bounded input, output is also bounded & controllable.
2. In the absence of input, output must tend to zero irrespective of the initial conditions.
Unstable system:
A linear time invariant system is said to be unstable if,
1. for a bounded input it produces unbounded output.
2. In the absence of input, output may not be returning to zero. It shows certain output
without input.

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Besides these two cases, if one or more pairs simple non repeated roots are located
on the imaginary axis of the s-plane, but there are no roots in the right half of s-
plane, the output response will be undamped sinusoidal oscillations of constant
frequency & amplitude. Such systems are said to be critically or marginally stable
systems.
Critically or Marginally stable systems:
A linear time invariant system is said to be critically or marginally stable if for a bounded
input its output oscillates with constant frequency & Amplitude. Such oscillation of
output are called Undamped or Sustained oscillations.

For such system one or more pairs of non repeated roots are located on the imaginary axis as
shown in fig6(a). Output response of such systems is as shown in fig6(b).
C(t)
Constant Amplitude & frequency oscillations
X J2 ------------------------------------
----------------------------- steady state output
X J1 ------------------------------------

X - J1

X - J2
Fig 6(a)
non repeated poles on J axis. t

If there are repeated poles located purely on imaginary axis system is said to be unstable.

C(t)

J1 x x
-----------------------------------------
 steady state output
s-plane
J1 xx

Conditionally Stable:
A linear time invariant system is said to be conditionally stable, if for a certain
condition if a particular parameter of the system, its output is bounded one. Otherwise
if that condition is
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violated output becomes unbounded system becomes unstable. i.e. Stability of the system
depends the on condition of the parameter of the system. Such system is called conditionally
stable system.

S-plane can be divided into three zones from stability point of view.

J axis

Left half of s-plane Right half of s-plane

Real

Stable Unstable
S-Plane

(repeated)

unstable (non repeated roots)

Marginally stable

Sl. Nature of closed Location of closed loop Step response Stability condition
No loop poles. poles in s-plane
1. Real negative i.e
in LHS of splane J C(t)

--------------------- Absolutely stable

x x 
-02 -01

Real positive in J

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RHS of s-plane
2. C(t)
x  
a1 ------------------------Unstable

t
increasing towards 

3. Complex C(t)
conjugate with J
negative real x J 1
part
-a1 Absolutely stable.
 t
x
-J 2 Damped oscillation

4. Complex Ct
conjugate with
positive real
part J1 x

Unstable.
-J 1 -x

t
oscillations with
increasing amplitude

5. Non repeated C(t)

pair on J
imaginary axis Marginally or
x J1 critically stable


x -J2 t

OR C(t)

J

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X J2 t

x J1 Marginally or
 critically stable
Sustained
oscillations
x –J1 with two frequencies 1 &
2
x – J2

Two non repeated pairs on

imaginary axis.
6. Repeated pair J
on imaginary C(t)
axis
x x J1
------------------------
 Unstable

t
x x -J1

oscillation of increasing
amplitude

Relative Stability:
The system is said to be relatively more stable or unstable on the basis of settling time.
System is said to be more stable if settling time for that system is less than that of other
system.

The settling time of the root or pair of complex conjugate roots is inversely proportional
to the real part of the roots.

Sofar the roots located near the J axis, settling time will be large. As the roots move
away from J axis i.e towards left half of the s-plane settling time becomes lesser or smaller &
system becomes more & more stable. So the relative stability improves.

J C(t)

Stable for P1

x x  ----------------------------------
P2 P1
Relatively more stable for P2
t

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Control Systems 18EC43

J

C(t) stable for 1

x x


2 1 --------------------------------------------------------------
x x

more stable for 2

J axis

Relative stability s-plane

improves

Routh – Hurwitz Criterion :

This represents a method of determining the location of poles of a characteristics equation

with the respect to the left half & right half of the s-plane without actually solving the equation.
The [Link] any linear closed loop system can be represented as,

C(s) bsm
0 + bsm-1
1 +….+ bm
=
R(s) an
0 s+ a1 sn-1
+ …. + an
Where ‘a’ & ‘b’ are constants.
To find the closed loop poles we equate F(s) =0. This equation is called as Characteristic
Equation of the system.
F(s) = asn
0 + a1 s + a2 s + ….. + an = 0.
n-1 n-2

Thus the roots of the characteristic equation are the closed loop poles of the system which decide
the stability of the system.

Necessary Condition to have all closed loop poles in L.H.S. of s-plane.

In order that the above characteristic equation has no root in right of s-plane, it is necessary
but not sufficient that,
1. All the coefficients off the polynomial have the same sign.
2. Non of the coefficient vanishes i.e. all powers of ‘s’ must be present in descending order
from ‘n’ to zero.
These conditions are not sufficient.

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Hurwitz’s Criterion :

The sufficient condition for having all roots of characteristics equation in left half of s-plane
is given by Hurwitz. It is referred as Hurwitz criterion. It states that:

The necessary & sufficient condition to have all roots of characteristic equation in left half of
s-plane is that the sub-determinants DK, K = 1, 2,………n obtained from Hurwitz determinant
‘H’ must all be positive.

Method of forming Hurwitz determinant:

a1 a3 a5 …….. a2n-1
a0 a2 a4 ..…… a2n-2
0 a3 .……. a2n-3
a1
0 a2 …….. a2n-4
a0
H= 0 a1 ……... a2n-5
0
-
- ……... -
-
- - ……... -
0
- - ……. an

The order is n*n where n = order of characteristic equation. In Hurwitz determinant all
coefficients with suffices greater than ‘n’ or negative suffices must all be replaced by zeros.
From Hurwitz determinant subdeterminants, DK, K= 1, 2, ….n must be formed as follows:

a1 a3 a5
D1 = a1 D2 = a1 a3 D3 = a 0 a2 a4 DK = H
a0 a2 0 a1 a3

For the system to be stable, all above determinants must be positive.

Determine the stability of the given characteristics equation by Hurwitz,s method.

Ex 1: F(s)= s3 + s2 + s1 + 4 = 0 is characteristic equation.

a0 = 1, a1 = 1, a2 = 1, a3 = 4, n = 3
a1 a3 a5 1 4 0
H= a 0 a2 a4 = 1 1 0
0 a1 a3 0 1 4

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D1 = 1 =1

1 4
D2 = 1 1 = -3

1 4 0
D3 = 1 1 0 = 4 –16 = -12.
0 1 4
As D2 & D3 are negative, given system is unstable.

Disadvantages of Hurwitz’s method :

1. For higher order system, to solve the determinants of higher order is very complicated &
time consuming.
2. Number of roots located in right half of s-plane for unstable system cannot be judged by
this method.
3. Difficult to predict marginal stability of the system.
4. Due to these limitations, a new method is suggested by the scientist Routh called Routh’s
method. It is also called Routh-Hurwitz method.

Routh’s Stability Criterion:

It is also called Routh’s array method or Routh-Hurwitz’s method
Routh suggested a method of tabulating the coefficients of characteristic equation
in a particular way. Tabulation of coefficients gives an array called Routh’s array.
Consider the general characteristic equation as,
F(s) = asn
0 + a1sn-1 + an-2
2 s + ….. + an = 0.

Method of forming an array :

Sn a0 a2 a4 a6 ……….

Sn-1 a3 a7
a1 a5
Sn-2 b2
b1 b3
Sn-3
c1 c2 c3

- - - -

- - - -

S0 an
Coefficients of first two rows are written directly from characteristics equation.
From these two rows next rows can be obtained as follows.

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Control Systems 18EC43

a1 a2 – a0 a3 a1 a4 – a0 a5 a1 a6 – a0 a7
b1 = , b2 = , b3 =
a1 a1 a1

From 2nd & 3rd row , 4th row can be obtained as

b1 a3 – a1 b2 b1 a5 – a1 b3
C1 = , C2 =
b1 b1

This process is to be continued till the coefficient for s0 is obtained which will be an. From this
array stability of system can be predicted.
Routh’s criterion :

The necessary & sufficient condition for system to be stable is “ All the terms in the first
column of Routh’s array must have same sign. There should not be any sign change in first
column of Routh’s array”.

If there are sign changes existing then,

1. System is unstable.
2. The number of sign changes equals the number of roots lying in the right half of the
s-plane.

Examine the stability of given equation using Routh’s method :

Ex.2: s3+6s2 + 11s + 6 =0

Sol: a0 = 1, a1 = 6, a2 =11, a3 = 6, n = 3

S3 1 11

S2 6 6

S1 11 * 6 – 6 =10 0
6
S0 6

As there is no sign change in the first column, system is stable.

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Ex. 3 s3 + 4s2 + s + 16 = 0
Sol: a0 =1, a1 = 4, a2 = 1, a3 = 16

S3 1 1

S2 +4 16

S1 4 - 16 = -3 0
4
S0 +16

As there are two sign changes, system is unstable.

Number of roots located in the right half of s-plane = number of sign changes = 2.

Special Cases of Routh’s criterion :

Special case 1 :

First element of any of the rows of Routh’s array is zero & same remaining rows contains at
least one non-zero element.

Effect : The terms in the new row become infinite & Routh’s test fails.

e.g. : s5 + 2s4 + 3s3 + 6s2 + 2s + 1 = 0

S5 1 3 2

S4 2 6 1 Special case 1 Routh’s array failed

S3 0 1.5 0

S2  …. …

Following two methods are used to remove above said difficulty.

First method : Substitute a small positive number ‘’ in place of a zero occurred as a first
element in the row. Complete the array with this number ‘’. Then
examine

lim
Sign change by taking . Consider above Example.
 0

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S5 1 3 2
S4 2 6 1
S3  1.5 0
S2 6 - 3 1 0


S1 1.5(6 - 3) 0
-


(6 - 3)


S0 1

To examine sign change,

Lim = 6 - 3 = lim 6- 3
 0   0 
=6-
= -  sign is negative.

Lim 1.5(6 – 3) - 2 = Lim 9 - 4.5 - 2

 0 6 -3  0 6 - 3
= 0 – 4.5 – 0
0 -3

= + 1.5 sign is positive

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Routh’s array is,

S5 1 3 2

S4 2 6 1

S3 + 1.5 0

S2 - 1 0

S1 +1.5 0 0

S0 1 0 0

As there are two sign changes, system is unstable.

Second method : To solve the above difficulty one more method can be used. In this, replace
‘s’ by ‘1/Z’ in original equation. Taking L.C.M. rearrange characteristic equation in descending
powers of ‘Z’. Then complete the Routh’s array with this new equation in ‘Z’ & examine the
stability with this array.

Consider F(s) = s5 + 2s4 + 3s3 + 6s2 + 2s + 1 = 0

Put s=1/Z

1+2+3+6+2+1=0
Z5 Z4 Z3 Z2 Z

Z5 + 2Z4+ 6Z3+3Z2+2Z+ 1 = 0

Z5 1 6 2

Z4 2 3 1

Z3 4.5 1.5 0

Z2 2.33 1 0

Z1 - 0.429 0

Z0 1

As there are two sign changes, system is unstable.

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Special case 2 :
All the elements of a row in a Routh’s array are zero.
Effect : The terms of the next row can not be determined & Routh’s test fails.

S5 a b c

S4 d e f

S3 0 0 0 Row of zeros, special case 2

This indicates no availability of coefficient in that row.

Procedure to eliminate this difficulty :

1. Form an equation by using the coefficients of row which is just above the row of zeros.
Such an equation is called an Auxillary equation denoted as A(s). For above case such
an equation is,
A(s) = ds4 + es2 + f
Note that the coefficients of any row are corresponding to alternate powers of ‘s’ starting
from the power indicated against it.

So ‘d’ is coefficient corresponding to s4 so first term is ds4 of A(s).

Next coefficient ‘e’ is corresponding to alternate power of ‘s’ from 4 i.e. s2 Hence the term es
2 & so on.

2. Take the derivative of an auxillary equation with respect to ‘s’.

i.e. dA(s)
= 4d s3 + 2e s
ds

3. Replace row of zeros by the coefficients of dA(s)

ds

S5 a b c

S4 d e f

S3 4d 2e 0

4. Complete the array of zeros by the coefficients.

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Importance of auxiliary equation:

Auxiliary equation is always the part of original characteristic equation. This means the
roots of the auxiliary equation are some of the roots of original characteristics equation.
Not only this but roots of auxiliary equation are the most dominant roots of the original
characteristic equation, from the stability point of view. The stability can be predicted from
the roots of A(s)=0 rather than the roots of characteristic equation as the roots of A(s) = 0
are the most dominant from the stability point of view. The remaining roots of the
characteristic equation are always in the left half & they do not play any significant role in
the stability analysis.
e.g. Let F(s) = 0 is the original characteristic equation of say order n = 5.
Let A(s) = 0 be the auxillary equation for the system due to occurrence of special case 2
of the order m = 2.

Then out of 5 roots of F(s) = 0, the 2 roots which are most dominant (dominant means very
close to imaginary axis or on the imaginary axis or in the right half of s-plane) from the stability
point of view are the 2roots of A(s) = 0. The remaining 5 –2 = 3 roots are not significant from
stability point of view as they will be far away from the imaginary axis in the left half of s-plane.

The roots of auxillary equation may be,

1. A pair of real roots of opposite sign [Link] shown in the fig. 8.10 (a).

j j
x

x x   

x Fig. 8. 10 (b)
Fig 8. 10(a)

2. A pair of roots located on the imaginary axis as shown in the fig. 8.10(b).
3. The non-repeated pairs of roots located on the imaginary axis as shown in the
fig.8.10 (c).
j j

x xx
x
x
 

x xx

Fig. 8.10(c) Fig. 8.10(d).

4. The repeated pairs of roots located on the imaginary axis as shown in the Fig.8.10 (d).

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Hence total stability can be determined from the roots of A(s) = 0, which can be out of
four types shown above.
Change in criterion of stability in special case 2 :

After replacing a row of zeros by the coefficients of dA(s) , complete the Routh’s array.
ds
But now, the criterion that, no sign in 1st column of array for stability, no longer remains
sufficient but becomes a necessary. This is because though A(s) is a part of original
characteristic equation, dA(s) is not, which is in fact used to complete the array.
ds
So if sign change occurs in first column, system is unstable with number of sign changes
equal to number of roots of characteristics equation located in right half of
s-plane.

But there is no sign changes, system cannot be predicted as stable . And in such case
stability is to be determined by actually solving A(s) = 0 for its roots. And from the location
of roots of A(s) = 0 in the s-plane the system stability must be determined. Because roots
A(s) = 0 are always dominant roots of characteristic equation.
Application of Routh’s of criterion :
Relative stability analysis :
If it is required to find relative stability of system about a line s = -  . i.e. how many roots
are located in right half of this line s = - , the Routh’s method can be used effectively.
To determine this from Routh’s array, shift the axis of s – plane & then apply Routh’s
array i.e. substitute s = s 1 - , ( = constant) in characteristic equation. Write polynomial in
terms of s1. Complete array from this new equation. The number of sign changes in first
column is equal to number of roots those are located to right of the vertical line
s = - .

Imaginary j


- 0

Determining range of values of K :

In practical system, an amplifier of variable gain K is introduced .

The closed loop transfer function is

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C(s) KG(s)
R(s) =
1+ KG(s) H(s)

Hence the characteristic equation is

F(s) = 1+ KG(s) H(s) = 0
So the roots of above equation are dependent on the proper selection of value of ‘K’.
So unknown ‘K’ appears in the characteristic equation. In such case Routh’s array is to be
constructed in terms of K & then the range of values of K can be obtained in such away that it
will not produce any sign change in first column of the Routh’s array. Hence it is possible to
obtain the range of values of K for absolute stability of the system using Routh’s criterion. Such
a system where stability depends on the condition of parameter K, is called conditionally stable
system.

Advantages of Routh’s criterion :

Advantages of routh’s array method are :

1. Stability of the system can be judged without actually solving the characteristic equation.
2. No evaluation of determinants, which saves calculation time.
3. For unstable system it gives number of roots of characteristic equation having
positive real part.
4. Relative stability of the system can be easily judged.

5. By using the criterion, critical value of system gain can be determined hence
frequency of sustained oscillations can be determined.
6. It helps in finding out range of values of K for system stability.
7. It helps in finding out intersection points of roots locus with imaginary axis.

Limitation of Routh’s criterion :

1. It is valid only for real coefficients of the characteristic equation.

2. It does not provide exact locations of the closed loop poles in left or right half of s-plane.
3. It does not suggest methods of stabilizing an unstable system.
4. Applicable only to linear system.

Ex.1. s6 + 4s5 +3s4 – 16s2- 64s – 48 = 0 Find the number of roots of this equation with positive
real part, zero real part & negative real part

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Sol: S6 1 3 -16 -48

S5 4 0 -64 0

S4 3 0 -48 0

S3 0 0 0

dA
A(s) = 3S4 – 48 = 0 = 12s3
ds

S6 1 3 -16 -48

S5 4 0 -64 0

S4 3 0 -48 0

S3 12 0 0 0

S2 ( )0 -48 0 0

S1 576 0 0 0

S0 -48

Lim 576
 0  = +

Therefore One sign change & system is unstable. Thus there is one root in R.H.S of the s – plane
i.e. with positive real part. Now
solve A(s) = 0 for the dominant roots

A(s) = 3s4 – 48 =0

Put S2 = Y

 3Y2 = 48  Y2 =16,  Y = 16 =  4

S2 = + 4 S2 = -4

S =2 S =  2j

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So S =  2j are the two parts on imaginary axis i.e. with zero real part. Root in R.H.S. indicated
by a sign change is S =  2 as obtained by solving A(s) = 0. Total there are 6 roots as n = 6.

Roots with Positive real part = 1

Roots with zero real part = 2
Roots with negative real part = 6 –2 – 1 = 3

Ex.2 : For unity feed back system,

k
G(s) = , Find range of values of K, marginal value of K
S(1 + 0.4s) ( 1 + 0.25 s) & frequency of sustained oscillations.

Sol : Characteristic equation, 1 + G (s) H (s) = 0 & H(s) = 1

K
1+ =0
s(1 + 0.4s) ( 1 + 0.25s)

s [ 1 + 0.65s + 0.1s2} + K = 0

 0.1s3 + 0.65s2 +s + K = 0

S3 0.1 1 From s0, K > 0

S2 0.65 K from s1,

S1 0.65 – 0.1K 0 0.65 – 0.1K > 0

0.65  0.65 > 0.1 K
S0 K  6.5 > K

 Range of values of K, 0 < K < 6.5

Now marginal value of ‘K’ is that value of ‘K’ for which system becomes marginally stable. For
a marginal stable system there must be row of zeros occurring in Routh’s array. So value of ‘K’
which makes any row of Routh array as row of zeros is called marginal value of ‘K’. Now K = 0
makes row of s0 as row of zeros but K = 0 can not be marginal value because for K = 0, constant
term in characteristic equation becomes zeros ie one coefficient for s0 vanishes which makes
system unstable instead of marginally stable.

Hence marginal value of ‘K’ is a value which makes any row other than s0 as row of zeros.
 0.65 – 0.1 K mar = 0

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Control Systems 18EC43

 K mar = 6.5
To find frequency, find out roots of auxiliary equation at marginal value of ‘K’

A(s) = 0.65 s2 + K = 0 ;
 0.65 s2 + 6.5 = 0 Because K = 6.5
s2 = -10
s =  j 3.162
comparing with s =  j
 = frequency of oscillations = 3.162 rad/ sec.

Ex : 3 For a system with characteristic equation

F(s) = s5 + s4 + 2s3 + 2s2 + 3s +15 = , examine the stability

Solution :
S5 1 2 3

S4 1 2 15
S3 0 -12 0

S2

S1

S0

S5 1 2 3

S4 1 2 15

S3  -12 0

S2 (2 + 12) 15 0

S1
(2 + 12)( -12 ) – 15
 0
2 + 12

S0 15
Lim 2 + 12 12

 0 =2+ =2+=+


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Lim (2 + 12)( -12 ) – 15 Lim -24  - 144 – 15 2

 0  =  0 2 + 12
2 + 12

0 – 144 - 0
= = - 12
0 + 12
S5 1 2 3
2
S4 1 15

S3  -12 0
There are two sign changes, so
system is unstable.
S2 + 15 0

S1 - 12 0

S0 15

Ex : 4 Using Routh Criterion, investigate the stability of a unity feedback system

whose open loop transfer function is
e -sT
G(s) =
s(s+1)

Sol : The characteristic equation is

1 + G(s) H(s) =0

e -sT
 1+ =0
s(s+1)

 s2 + s + e –sT = 0

Now e – sT can be Expressed in the series form as

s2 T2
e –sT = 1 – sT + + ……
2!

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Trancating the series & considering only first two terms we get

esT = 1 – sT

 s2 + s + 1 – sT = 0
 s2 + s ( 1- T ) + 1 = 0
So routh’s array is

S2 1 1

S 1-T 0

S0 1

 1 – T > 0 for stability

T<1
This is the required condition for stability of the system.

Ex : 5 Determine the location of roots with respect to s = -2 given that

F(s) = s4 + 10 s3 + 36s2 + 70s + 75

Sol : shift the origin with respect to s = -2
s = s1 – 2

(s – 2 ) 4 + 10 (s – 2)3 + 36(s – 2 )2 + 70 ( s –2) + 75 = 0

s4 + 2s3 + 0s2 + 14s + 15 = 0

S4 1 0 15
S3 14 0
2
15
S2 -7 0
0
S1 18.28 0

S 0 15

Two sign change, there are two roots to the right of s = -2 & remaining ‘2’ are to the left of
the line s = -2. Hence the system is unstable.

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Root–Locus Techniques

The characteristics of the transient response of a closed loop control system are related to
location of the closed loop poles. If the system has a variable loop gain, then the location of the
closed loop poles depends on the value of the loop gain chosen. It is important, that the designer
knows how the closed loop poles move in the s-plane as the loop gain is varied. W. R. Evans
introduced a graphical method for finding the roots of the characteristic equation known as root
locus method. The root locus is used to study the location of the poles of the closed loop transfer
function of a given linear system as a function of its parameters, usually a loop gain, given its
open loop transfer function. The roots corresponding to a particular value of the system
parameter can then be located on the locus or the value of the parameter for a desired root
location can be determined from the locus. It is a powerful technique, as an approximate root
locus sketch can be made quickly and the designer can visualize the effects of varying system
parameters on root locations or vice versa. It is applicable for single loop as well as multiple loop
system.

ROOT LOCUS CONCEPT

To understand the concepts underlying the root locus technique, consider the second
order system shown in Fig. 1.

R(s) E(s) K
s(s+ a)

Fig. 1 Second order control system

The open loop transfer function of this system is

K
G(s)= (1)
s(s+ a)
Where, K and a are constants. The open loop transfer function has two poles one at origin s = 0
and the other at s = -a. The closed loop transfer function of the system shown in Fig.1 is

C(s) G(s) K
= = (2)
R(s) 1+G(s)H(s) s2+as+ K

The characteristic equation for the closed loop system is obtained by setting the
denominator of the right hand side of Eqn.(2) equal to zero. That is,

1+G(s)H(s)=s2+as+K= 0 (3)

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The second order system under consideration is always stable for positive values of a and
K but its dynamic behavior is controlled by the roots of Eqn.(3) and hence, in turn by the
magnitudes of a and K, since the roots are given by

− a (a2 − 4K) − a   a2  
s,s =  =   −K (4)
1 2 2 2a 2  2 

From Eqn.(4), it is seen that as the system parameters a or K varies, the roots change.
Consider a to be constant and gain K to be variable. As K is varied from zero to infinity, the two
roots s1 and s2 describe loci in the s-plane. Root locations for various ranges of K are:

1) K= 0, the two roots are real and coincide with open loop poles of the system s1 =
0, s2 = -a.
2) 0  K < a2/4, the roots are real and distinct.
3) K= a2/4, roots are real and equal.
4) a2/4 < K < , the rots are complex conjugates.

The root locus plot is shown in Fig.2

Fig. 2 Root loci of s2+as+K as a function of K

Figure 2 has been drawn by the direct solution of the characteristic equation. This
procedure becomes tedious. Evans graphical procedure helps in sketching the root locus
quickly. The characteristic equation of any system is given by

Δ(s)=0 (5)
Where, (s) is the determinant of the signal flow graph of the system given by Eqn.(5).
∆=1-(sum of all individual loop gains)+(sum of gain products of all possible combinations of
two nontouching loops – sum of gain products of all possible combination of three
nontouching loops) + ∙∙∙
Or

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Δ(s)=1−P+P−P+ (6)
m1 m2 m3
m m m
Where, Pmris gain product of mthpossible combination of r nontouching loops of the graph.

The characteristic equation can be written in the form

1+P(s)=0
KA(s)
1+ =0 (7)
B(s)

For single loop system shown in Fig.3

P(s)=G(s)H(s) (8)

Where, G(s)H(s) is open loop transfer function in block diagram terminology or transmittance in
signal flow graph terminology.

R(s) E(s)
G(s)

H(s)

Fig. 3 Single loop feedback system

From Eqn.(7) it can be seen that the roots of the characteristic equation (closed loop
poles)occur only for those values of s where

P(s)=−1 (9)

Since, s is a complex variable, Eqn.(9) can be converted into the two Evans conditions
given below.

P(s)=1 (10)
P(s)=180(2q+1);q=0,1,2 (11)

Roots of 1+P(s) = 0 are those values of s at which the magnitude and angle condition
given by Eqn.(10) and Eqn.(11). A plot of points in the complex plane satisfying the angle
criterion is the root locus. The value of gain corresponding to a root can be determined from the
magnitude criterion.
To make the root locus sketching certain rules have been developed which helps in
visualizing the effects of variation of system gain K ( K > 0 corresponds to the negative feed

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Control Systems 18EC43

back and K < 0 corresponds to positive feedback control system) and the effects of shifting
pole-zero locations and adding in anew set of poles and zeros.

GENERAL RULES FOR CONSTRUCTING ROOT LOCUS

1) The root locus is symmetrical about real axis. The roots of the characteristic equation
are either real or complex conjugate or combination of both. Therefore their locus must
be symmetrical about the real axis.

2) As K increases from zero to infinity, each branch of the root locus originates from an
open loop pole (n nos.) with K= 0 and terminates either on an open loop zero (m nos.)
with K =  along the asymptotes or on infinity (zero at  ). The number of branches
terminating on infinity is equal to (n – m).

3) Determine the root locus on the real axis. Root loci on the real axis are determined by
open loop poles and zeros lying on it. In constructing the root loci on the real axis choose
a test point on it. If the total number of real poles and real zeros to the right of this point
is odd, then the point lies on root locus. The complex conjugate poles and zeros of the
open loop transfer function have no effect on the location of the root loci on the real axis.

4) Determine the asymptotes of root loci. The root loci for very large values of s must be
asymptotic to straight lines whose angles are given by

 180(2q+1)
Angle of asymptotes  = ; q = 0,1,2, n − m - 1 (12)
A n−m

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5) All the asymptotes intersect on the real axis. It is denoted

 aby
, given by

sum of poles−sum of zeros

σa =
n−m
( p + p +  p ) − ( z + z + z )
= 1 2 n 1 2 m
(13)
n−m

6) Find breakaway and breakin points. The breakaway and breakin points either lie on the
real axis or occur in complex conjugate pairs. On real axis, breakaway points exist
between two adjacent poles and breakin in points exist between two adjacent zeros. To
dK
calculate these polynomial =0 must be solved. The resulting roots are the breakaway
ds
/ breakin points. The characteristic equation given by Eqn.(7), can be rearranged as

B(s)+KA(s) =0 (14)
where, B(s)= (s+p)(s+p)(s+p) and
1 2 n
A(s)=K(s+z)(s+z)(s+z)
1 2 m
The breakaway and breakin points are given by

dK  d   d 
= AB−A B = 0 (15)
ds  ds  ds 

Note that the breakaway points and breakin points must be the roots of Eqn.
(15), but not all roots of Eqn.(15) are breakaway or breakin points. If the root is
not on the root locus portion of the real axis, then this root neither corresponds
to breakaway or breakin point. If the roots of Eqn.(15) are complex conjugate
pair, to ascertain that they lie on root loci, check the corresponding K value. If K
is positive, then root is a breakaway or breakin point.

7) Determine the angle of departure of the root locus from a complex pole

Angle of departure froma complexp=180

− (sum of angles of vectors to a complex pole in question from other poles)
+ (sum of angles of vectors to a complex pole in question from other zeros)
(16)

8) Determine the angle of arrival of the root locus at a complex zero

Angle of arrival at complex zero = 180

− (sum of angles of vectors to a complex zero in question from other zeros)
+ (sum of angles of vectors to a complex zero in question from other poles)
(17)

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9) Find the points where the root loci may cross the imaginary axis. The points where the
root loci intersect the j axis can be found by
a) use of Routh’s stability criterion or
b) letting s = j in the characteristic equation , equating both the real part and
imaginary part to zero, and solving for  and K. The values of  thus found give
the frequencies at which root loci cross the imaginary axis. The corresponding K
value is the gain at each crossing frequency.

10) The value of K corresponding to any point s on a root locus can be obtained using the
magnitude condition, or

product of lengths between points to poles

K= (18)
product of length between points to zeros

PHASE MARGIN AND GAIN MARGIN OF ROOT LOCUS

Gain Margin

It is a factor by which the design value of the gain can be multiplied before the closed
loop system becomes unstable.

Value of K at imaginary crossover

GainMargin= (19)
Design value of K
The Phase Margin

G(j
Find the point j1 on the imaginary axis for which )H(j
) = 1for the design value
of K i.e. B(j)/A(j)=K
design
.

The phase margin is

( )
φ = 180 + argG jω H(jω )
1 1
(20)

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Problem No 1
Sketch the root locus of a unity negative feedback system whose forward path transfer function
K
is G(s)= .
s
Solution:

1) Root locus is symmetrical about real axis.

2) There are no open loop zeros(m = 0). Open loop pole is at s = 0 (n = 1). One branch of
root locus starts from the open loop pole when K = 0 and goes to  asymptotically when
K→.

3) Root locus lies on the entire negative real axis as there is one pole towards right of any
point on the negative real axis.

 180 (2q + 1)
4) The asymptote angle is A = , q=n−m−1=0.
n−m
Angle of asymptote is A =  180.

(sumof poles)−(sumof zeros)

A =
5) Centroid of the asymptote is σ
n−m
0
= =0.0
1

6) The root locus does not branch. Hence, there is no need to calculate the break points.
7) The root locus departs at an angle of -180 from the open loop pole at s = 0.

8) The root locus does not cross the imaginary axis. Hence there is no imaginary axis cross
over.

The root locus plot is shown in Fig.1

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Figure 4 Root locus plot of K/s

Comments on stability:

The system is stable for all the values of K > 0. Th system is over damped.

Problem No 2
K(s+2)
The open loop transfer function is G(s)=
. Sketch the root locus plot
(s+1)2
Solution:

1) Root locus is symmetrical about real axis.

2) There is one open loop zero at s=-2.0(m=1). There are two open loop poles at
s=-1, -1(n=2). Two branches of root loci start from the open loop pole when
K= 0. One branch goes to open loop zero at s =-2.0 when K →  and other goes to
 (open loop zero) asymptotically when K →  .

3) Root locus lies on negative real axis for s ≤ -2.0 as the number of open loop poles plus
number of open loop zeros to the right of s=-0.2 are odd in number.

 180 (2q + 1)
4) The asymptote angle is A = , q=n−m−1=0.
n−m
Angle of asymptote is A =  180.

(sumof poles) − (sumof zeros)

5) Centroid of the asymptote is σA=
n−m
(−1− 1) − ( −2)
= = 0.0
1

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6) The root locus has break points.

(s+1)2
K = − (s+2)

Break point isgiven bydK = 0

ds
=0
2(s +1)(s+ 2) − (s +1)2
(s + 2)2
s1=−1,K=0;s2=−3,K=4

The root loci brakesout at the open loop poles at s=-1, when K =0 and breaks in
onto the real axis at s=-3, when K=4. One branch goes to open loop zero at s=-2
and other goes to  along the asymptotically.

7) The branches of the root locus at s=-1, -1 break at K=0 and are tangential to a line s=-
1+j0 hence depart at 90.

8) The locus arrives at open loop zero at 180.

9) The root locus does not cross the imaginary axis, hence there is no need to find the
imaginary axis cross over.

The root locus plot is shown in Fig.2.

Figure 5 Root locus plot of K(s+2)/(s+1)2

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Comments on stability:
System is stable for all values of K > 0. The system is over damped for K > 4. It is critically
damped at K = 0, 4.

Problem No 3
K(s + 4)
The open loop transfer function is G(s)= . Sketch the root locus.
s(s + 2)
Solution:

1) Root locus is symmetrical about real axis.

2) There are is one open loop zero at s=-4(m=1). There are two open loop poles at s=0, -
2(n=2). Two branches of root loci start from the open loop poles when K= 0. One branch
goes to open loop zero when K →  and other goes to infinity asymptotically when K →
.

3) Entire negative real axis except the segment between s=-4 to s=-2 lies on the root locus.
 180
n−m(2q + 1)
4) The asymptote angle is A = ,q=0,1,n−m−1=0.
Angle of asymptote are A =  180.

(sumof poles)−(sumof zeros)

A =
5) Centroid of the asymptote is σ
n−m
(−2)−(−4)
= =2.0
1
6) The brake points are given by dK/ds =0.

s(s+2)
K=−
dK (s+4)
(2s + 2)(s+ 4) − (s2 + 2s)
= =0
ds (s+4)2
7) Angle of departure from open loop pole at s =0 is 180. Angle of departure from pole at
s1 = −1.172, K = 0.343;
s2 = −6.828, K = 11.7

s=-2.0 is 0.

8) The angle of arrival at open loop zero at s=-4 is 180

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Control Systems 18EC43

9) The root locus does not cross the imaginary axis. Hence there is no imaginary cross over.

The root locus plot is shown in fig.3.

Figure 3 Root locus plot of K(s+4)/s(s+2)

Comments
0 > K > 0.343on stability:
:  > 1 over damped
K = 0.343 :  = 1 critically damped
System
0.343 > K > 11.7for
is stable :<all1values
under of K.
damped
K = 11.7 :  = 1 critically damped
K > 11.7 :  >1 over damped.
Problem No 4
The open loop transfer function is G(s)=
K(s + 0.2)
. Sketch the root locus.
s2 (s + 3.6)
Solution:

1) Root locus is symmetrical about real axis.

2) There is one open loop zero at s = -0.2(m=1). There are three open loop poles at
s = 0, 0, -3.6(n=3). Three branches of root loci start from the three open loop poles when
K= 0 and one branch goes to open loop zero at s = -0.2 when K →  and other two go to
 asymptotically when K →  .

3) Root locus lies on negative real axis between -3.6 to -0.2 as the number of open loop
poles plus open zeros to the right of any point on the real axis in this range is odd.

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 +
4) The asymptote angle is A = 180 (2q 1), q=n−m−1= 0,1


n−m
Angle of asymptote are A =  90,  270.

(sumof poles) −(sumof zeros)

A=
5) Centroid of the asymptote is σ
n−m
(−3.6) − (−0.2)
= =−1.7
2
6) The root locus does branch out, which are given by dK/ds =0.

(s3 + 3.6s2)
K = - s+0.2
dK (3s2 + 7.2s)(s+ 0.2) − (s3
ds = − + 3.6s2)
(s + 0.2)2
2s3 + 4.8s2 +1.44s = 0
s =0,−0.432,−1.67and K =0, 2.55, 3.66 respectively.

The root loci brakeout at the open loop poles at s = 0, when K =0 and breakin onto
the real axis at s=-0.432, when K=2.55 One branch goes to open loop zero at
s=-0.2 and other goes breaksout with the another locus starting from open loop
ploe at s= -3.6. The break point is at s=-1.67 with K=3.66. The loci go to infinity in
the complex plane with constant real part s= -1.67.

7) The branches of the root locus at s=0,0 break at K=0 and are tangential to imaginary axis
or depart at 90. The locus departs from open loop pole at s=-3.6 at 0.

8) The locus arrives at open loop zero at s=-0.2 at 180.

9) The root locus does not cross the imaginary axis, hence there is no imaginary axis cross
over.

The root locus plot is shown in Fig.4.

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Figure 4 Root locus plot of K(s+0.2)/s2(s+3.6)

Comments on stability:
System is stable for all values of K. System is critically damped at K= 2.55, 3.66. It is under
damped for 2.55 > K > 0 and K >3.66. It is over damped for 3.66 > K >2.55.
Problem No 5
The open loop transfer function is K
G(s) = . Sketch the root locus.
s(s+6s+25)
Solution:

1) Root locus is symmetrical about real axis.

2) There are no open loop zeros (m=0). There are three open loop poles at s=-0,
-3j4(n=3). Three branches of root loci start from the open loop poles when K= 0 and all
the three branches go  asymptotically when K →  .

3) Entire negative real axis lies on the root locus as there is a single pole at s=0 on the real
axis.

 180 (2q + 1)
4) The asymptote angle is A = ,q=0,1,n−m−1=0,1,2.
n−m
Angle of asymptote are A =  60,  180, 300.

(sumof poles)−(sumof zeros)

5) Centroid of the asymptote is σA=
n−m
(−3 − 3)
= =−2.0
3

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6) The brake points are given by dK/ds =0.

K = −s(s2 + 6s+25)=−(s 3 + 6s2 +25s)
dK
= 3s2+ 12s+25=0
ds
s1, = −2  j2.0817and
2 = 34 j18.04

K1,For a point to be break point, the corresponding value of K is a real number greater than
or equal to zero. Hence, S1,2 are not break points.
2
7) Angle of departure from the open loop pole at s=0 is 180. Angle of departure from
complex pole s= -3+j4 is
 = 180
− (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex pole in question from other poles)
p

+ (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex pole inquestion from zeros)

4
=180−
p (180− tan−1 +90)=−36.87
3
Similarly, Angle of departure from complex pole s= -3-j4 is
φ 180−(233.13+270)=−323.13or36.87
p=

8) The root locus does cross the imaginary axis. The cross over point and the gain at the
cross over can be obtained by

Rouths criterion
The characteristic equation is s3+6s2+25s+K=0. The Routh’s array is
s3 1 25
s2 6 K
1 150−K
s 6
s 0
For the system to be stable K < 150. At K=150 the auxillary equation is 6s2+150=0.
s = ±j5. 6
or
substitute s= j in the characteristic equation. Equate real and imaginary parts to zero. Solve
for  and K.

s3+6s2+25s+K=0
( 3
jω)+6(jω)+25(jω)+K=0
2

(−6ω2+K)+jω(ω2+25)=0
ω=0, j5 K =0,150

The plot of root locus is shown in Fig.5.

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Figure 5 Root locus plot of K/s(s2+6s+25)

Comments on stability:
System is stable for all values of 150 > K > 0. At K=150, it has sustained oscillation of 5rad/sec.
The system is unstable for K >150.
Problem No 1
Sketch the root locus of a unity negative feedback system whose forward path transfer function

K(s + 2)
is G(s)H(s)= (s+1)(s+3+ j)(s+3− j). Comment on the stability of the system.

Solution:

9) Root locus is symmetrical about real axis.

10) There is one open loop zero at s = -2 (m = 1). There are three open loop poles at
s = -1, -3 ± j (n=3). All the three branches of root locus start from the open loop
poles when K = 0. One locus starting from s = -1 goes to zero at s = -2 when
K → , and other two branches go to  asymptotically (zeros at ) when K →  .
11) Root locus lies on the negative real axis in the range s=-1 to s= -2 as there is one pole to
the right of any point s on the real axis in this range.

180(2q+1)
12) The asymptote angle is A = , q=n−m−1=0,1.
n−m
Angle of asymptote is A =  90, 270.

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(sumof poles)−(sumof zeros)

13) Centroid of the asymptote isAσ=
n−m
(−1−3−3)−(−2)
= =−2.5
1

14) The root locus does not branch. Hence, there is no need to calculate break points.
15) The angle of departure at real pole at s=-1 is 180. The angle of departure at the complex
pole at s=-3+j is 71.57.
 =
p 180
− (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex pole in question from other poles)
+ (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex pole inquestion from zeros)

1
θ1 = tan−1- 2 =−26.57 or 153.43
θ = atan2(-2,1) = 153.43
1

 = tan−1 1 =-45or 135, 2

θ3 =tan −1 = 90
-1 0
 = 180 −(153.43 +  + 135 =71.57
p
90 )

The angle of departure at the complex pole at s=-3-j is -71.57.

 p=180 −(206.57 +270)+225 = −71.57
16) The root locus does not cross the imaginary axis. Hence there is no imaginary axis cross
over.

The root locus plot is shown in Fig.1

ECE/SJBIT Page 40
Control Systems 18EC43

Figure 1 Root locus plot of K(s+2)/(s+1)(s+3+j)(s+3-j)

Comments on stability:
The system is stable for all the values of K > 0.

Problem No 2

K
The open loop transfer function isG(s)H(s)= Sketch the root locus
s(s +
plot. Comment on the stability of the system. 0.5)(s2 +0.6s+ 10)
.

Solution:

10) Root locus is symmetrical about real axis.

11) There are no open loop zeros (m=0). There are four open loop poles (n=4) at s=0,
-0.5, -0.3 ± j3.1480. Four branches of root loci start from the four open loop poles when
K= 0 and go to  (open loop zero at infinity) asymptotically when K → .

12) Root locus lies on negative real axis between s = 0 to s = -0.5 as there is one pole to the
right of any point s on the real axis in this range.

 180 (2q + 1)
13) The asymptote angle is A = , q=n−m−1=0,1,2,3.
n−m
Angle of asymptote is A =  45,  135, 225, ±315.

(sumof poles)−(sumof zeros)

14) Centroid of the asymptote is σA=
n−m

ECE/SJBIT Page 41
Control Systems 18EC43

(−0.5− 0.3− 0.3)

= =−0.275
4
The value of K at s=-0.275 is 0.6137.

15) The root locus has break points.

K = -s(s+0.5)(s2+0.6s+10) = -(s4+1.1s3+10.3s2+5s)

Break points are given by dK/ds = 0

dK
=4s3+3.3s2+20.6s+5=0
ds
s= -0.2497, -0.2877 j 2.2189
There is only one break point at -0.2497. Value of K at s = -0.2497 is 0.6195.

16) The angle of departure at real pole at s=0 is 180 and at s=-0.5 is 0. The angle of
departure at the complex pole at s = -0.3 + j3.148 is -91.8
=
p 180


− (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex pole in question from other poles)
+ (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex pole inquestion from zeros)
θ = tan−1 3.148
= −84.6 or 95.4
1
-0.3
3.148 6.296
=tan−1 0.2 = 86.4 , θ=tan−1 0 =90
2 3

of=
The angle p
d1e8p0art−ur(e9 5at.4 th+e-0.3
8c6om.4p+le9x0
- j3.148 is 91.8 po)l=e −at9 s1 .=8
=180−(264.6+273.6+270)
p
=91.8

17) The root locus does cross the imaginary axis, The cross over frequency and gain is
obtained from Routh’s criterion.

The characteristic equation is

s(s+0.5)(s2+0.6s+10)+K =0 or s4+1.1s3+10.3s2+5s+K=0

ECE/SJBIT Page 42
Control Systems 18EC43

The Routh’s array is

s4 1 10.3 K
s3 1.1 5
s 5.75
2 K
s1 28.75-1.1K
5.75
s0 K

The system is stable if 0 < K < 26.13

The auxiliary equation at K 26.13 is 5.75s2+26.13 = 0 which gives s = ± j2.13 at

imaginary axis crossover.
The root locus plot is shown in Fig.2.

Figure 6 Root locus plot of K/s(s+0.5)(s2+0.6s+10)

Comments on stability:
System is stable for all values of 26.13 >K > 0. The system has sustained oscillation at
2.13 rad/sec at K=26.13. The system is unstable for K > 26.13. =

Problem No 3

K
is =
The open loop transfer function G(s) . Sketch the root locus.
s(s+ 4)(s2 + 4s+ 20)

ECE/SJBIT Page 43
Control Systems 18EC43

Solution:

10) Root locus is symmetrical about real axis.

11) There are no open loop zeros (m=0). There are three open loop poles (n=3) at s = -0, -4, -
2  j4. Three branches of root loci start from the three open loop poles when K= 0 and to
infinity asymptotically when K →  .

12) Root locus lies on negative real axis between s = 0 to s = -4.0 as there is one pole to the
right of any point s on the real axis in this range.

 180 (2q + 1)
13) The asymptote angle is A = , q=n−m−1=0,1,2,3
n−m
Angle of asymptote are A =  45,  135,  225,  315.

(sumof poles)−(sumof zeros)

14) Centroid of the asymptote isAσ=
n−m
(−2.0 − 2.0 − 4.0)
= =−2.0
4
15) The root locus does branch out, which are given by dK/ds =0.

K = −s(s+ 4)(s2 + 4s + 20)

= − (s4 +8s3 + 36s2 +80s)
dK
Break point isgiven by =0
ds
4s3 + 24s2 + 72s+80 = 0
4s3 +8s2 +16s2 + 32s+ 40s+80 = 0
(s + 2)(4s2 +16s+ 40)
s =−2.0,K =64;
1
s =−2.0 j2.45,K =100
2

The root loci brakeout at the open loop poles at s = -2.0, when K = 64 and breakin and
breakout at s=-2+j2.45, when K=100

16) The angle of departure at real pole at s=0 is 180 and at s=-4 is 0. The angle of
departure at the complex pole at s = -2 + j4 is -90.
= 180
− (sum
p
of the angles of vectors to a complex pole in question from other poles)
+ (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex pole inquestion from zeros)

ECE/SJBIT Page 44
Control Systems 18EC43

θ = tan−14 = 63.4 or116.6

1 -2
θ =atan2(4,-2)=116.6
1

4 
8
θ =t an−1 = 63.4, θ =tan−10 =90
2 2 3

=180-(116.6+63.4+90)=−90
p

The angle of departure at the complex pole at s = -2 – j4 is 90

=180-(243.4+296.6+270
p
)
= −270 = 90
17) The root locus does cross the imaginary axis, The cross over point and gain at cross over
is obtained by either Routh’s array or substitute s= j in the characteristic equation and
solve for  and gain K by equating the real and imaginary parts to zero.

Routh’s array

The characteristic equation is s4+8s3+36s2+80s+K=0

The Rouths array is

s4 1 36 K
s3 8 80
s2 26 K
1 2080−8K
s 26
s0
K

For the system to be stable K > 0 and 2080-8K > 0. The imaginary crossover is given by
2080-8K=0 or K = 260.
At K = 260, the auxiliary equation is 26s2+260 = 0. The imaginary cross over occurs at s=
j10.

or
s4 +8s3 + 36s2 +80s+ K = 0
put s= jω
(jω)+8(jω)+36(jω)+80(jω)+K=0
4 3 2

(ω4 −36ω2 + K)+ j(−8ω3 +80ω)= 0

Equate real and imaginary parts to zero
−8ω3 +80ω = 0  ω = 0,j 10;s = j 10
ω4−36ω2+K=0K=260
ECE/SJBIT Page 45
Control Systems 18EC43

The root locus plot is shown in Fig.3.

Figure 7 Root locus plot of K/s(s+4)(s2+4s+20)

Comments on stability:

For 260 > K > 0 system is stable

K = 260 system has stained oscillations of 10 rad/sec.
K > 260 system is unstable.

ECE/SJBIT Page 46
Control Systems 18EC43

Recommended Questions:
1. Explain briefly how system depends on poles and zeros.
2. Mention the necessary condition to have all closed loop poles in LHS of S-Plane

3. Explain briefly the Hurwitz’s Criterion.

4. Explain briefly the Routh’s Stability Criterion.

5..Examine the stability of given equation using Routh’s method

s3+6s2 + 11s + 6 =0

6. Examine the stability of given equation using Routh’s method

s5 + 2s4 + 3s3 + 6s2 + 2s + 1 = 0

7. Using Routh Criterion, investigate the stability of a unity feedback system whose open loop
transfer function is
e -sT
G(s) =
s(s+1)

8. Give the general rules for constructing root locus.

9. Define Phase margin and Gain margin of root locus.

10. Sketch the root locus of a unity negative feedback system whose forward path transfer
K
function is G(s)= s .

K(s+2)
11. The open loop transfer function is G(s)= . Sketch the root locus plot.
(s +1)2

K(s + 4)
12. The open loop transfer function is G(s)=
s(s+2) . Sketch the root locus.

K
13. The open loop transfer function is G(s)=
s(s+6s+25). Sketch the root locus.

ECE/SJBIT Page 77
Control Systems 18EC43

K
14. The open loop transfer function is G(s)= . Sketch the root locus
s(s +4)(s2 +4s+ 20)
diagram

15. Define the following terms: i) Resonant peak ii) Resonant frequency
16. iii)Band width iv) cut off frequency
17. Write a note about gain margin in brief.
18. Sketch the Bode plot for the transfer function

19. State the advantages and limitations of frequency domain approach.

20. Determine the transfer function, of a system whose asyptotic gain plot is shown in fig.

21.

22.

ECE/SJBIT Page 78
 C H A P T E R 7

The Root Locus Method

Exercises
E7.1 (a) For the characteristic equation
s(s + 4)
1+K =0,
s2+2s+2
the root locus is shown in Figure E7.1.

1 x
Imag Axis

0 o o

-1 x

-2

-3

-4

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

Real Axis

FIGURE E7.1
s (+4)
s
Root locus for 1 + K s2+2+2s =0.
 (b) The system characteristic equation can be written as
(1+K)s2+(2+4K)s+2=0.

Solving for s yields

−(1+2K) (2+4 K )2 − 8(1+ K )

s= ± √ .
2(1+K)
When
(2 + 4K)2 −8(1+K)=0,

then we have two roots at s1,=2 −(1+2K)

1+[Link]=
0.31.
(c) When K = 0.31, the roots are

s1,2= −(1+0.62) = −1.24.

(1.31)
(d) When K = 0.31, the characterisitc equation is
s2 + 2.472s + 1.528 = (s + 1.24)2 = 0 .
Thus, ωn = 1.24 and ζ = 1, the system is critically damped. The
settling time is Ts ≈ 4 sec.
E7.2 (a) The root locus is shown in Figure E7.2. When K = 6.5, the roots of
the characteristic equation are

s1,2 = −2.65±j1.23 and s3,4=−0.35±j0.8.

The real part of the dominant root is 8 times smaller than the other
two roots.
(b) The dominant roots are

(s + 0.35 + j0.8)(s + 0.35 − j0.8) = s2 + 0.7s + 0.7625 .

From this we determine that

0.7
ωn=0.873 and ζ= 2(0.873) =0.40.

Thus, the settling time is

4 4
Ts= ζωn= 0.35=11.43sec.
√ 1−ζ2
Thepercentovershoot is P.O. =e −πζ/ =25.4%.
 4

2 * K=6.5

*
1 x
*

Imag Axis 0 x x

*
-1 x
*

-2

-3

-4
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

Real Axis

FIGURE E7.2
1
Root locus for 1 + K s ( s+2)(s2+4s+5)
=0.

E7.3 The root locus is shown in Figure E7.3. The roots are s1 = −8.7, s2,3=
−1.3 ± j2.2 when K = 7.35 and ζ = 0.5.

zeta=0.5
3

* <----- K=7.35
2 o

1
Imag Axis

0 * x x

-1

-2 o
*

-3

-4
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4

Real Axis

FIGURE E7.3
s 2 +4s+8
Root locus for 1 + K s 2 (s+4)
=0.
E7.4 The root locus is shown in Figure E7.4.

1.5

1 x

0.5
Imag Axis

0 o

-0.5

-1 x

-1.5

-2
-4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1

Real Axis

FIGURE E7.4
s +1
Root locus for 1 + K s
s2+4+5
=0.

The departure angles and entry points are

θ=225o
d , −225o

and

σb= −2.4 .

E7.5 (a) The root locus is in Figure E7.5. The breakaway points are

σb1= −13.0 , σb2 = −5.89 .

(b) The asymptote centroid is

σcent =−18,

and
φasy m
= ±90o .
(c) The gains are K 1 = 1.57 and K 2 = 2.14 at the breakaway points.
 40

30

20

10

Imag Axis 0

-10 < asymptote

-20

-30

-40
-15 -10 -5 0 5
Real Axis

FIGURE E7.5
s2 +2s+10
Root locus for 1 + K =0.
( s4 +38s3 +515s2 +2950s+6000)

E7.6 The system is unstable for K > 100.

Root Locus

30

20

10
Imaginary Axis

−10

−20

−30
−50 −40 −30 −20 −10 0 10 20
Real Axis

FIGURE E7.6
20K
Root locus for 1 + K s(s2+20s+100)
=0.
E7.7 The root locus is shown in Figure E7.7. The characteristic equation has

Root Locus

20

15

10 asymptote −−−>

System: sys
5 Gain: 25.2
Pole: −1.59 + 1.19i
Damping: 0.8
Overshoot (%): 1.53
Frequency (rad/sec): 1.98
Imaginary Axis

−5

−10

−15

−20
−25 −20 −15 −10 −5 0 5 10
Real Axis

FIGURE E7.7
s+10
Root locus for 1 + K s ( s+5)(s+6)(s+8)
=0.

4 poles and 1 zero. The asymptote angles are φ = +60o, −60o , −180o
centered at σcent = −3. When K = 25.2 then ζ = 0.8 for the complex
ro ots.
E7.8 The characteristic equation is
(s + 1)
1+K =0,
s2(s + 9)
or
s3+9s2+Ks+K=0.

For all the roots to be equal and real, we require

(s+r)3=s3+3rs2+3r2s+r3=0.
Equating terms and solving for K yields K = 27. All three roots are equal
ats= −3, when K = 27. The root locus is shown in Figure E7.8.
 8

2
3 roots at s=-3
Imag Axis

0 x o x

-2

-4

-6

-8
-15 -10 -5 0 5

Real Axis

FIGURE E7.8
s +1
Root locus for 1 + K s2s
(+9)
=0.

E7.9 The characteristic equation is

1
1+ K 2 =0
s(s +2s+5)
or
s3+2s2+5s+K=0.

(a) The system has three poles at s = 0 and −1 ± j2. The number of
asymptotes is np − nz = 3 centered at σcent = −2/3, and the angles
areφ asymp at ± 6o o
0 ,180 .
(b)Theangleofdeparture,θ d,is90+θd+116.6=180,soθd=
o o o o
−26.6 .

(c) The Routh array is

s 1 5
3 2 K
s b
2 K
s K = 10 the roots lie on the imaginary
where b = 5 −K/ 2. So, when
1
s
o
 axis. The auxilary equation is
2s2 + 10 = 0 which implies s1,2= ± j √ 5 .

(d) The root locus is shown in Figure E7.9.

2 x

1
asymptote --->
Imag Axis

0 x

-1

-2 x

-3

-4
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

Real Axis

FIGURE E7.9
1
Root locus for 1 + K s(s 2 +2s+5)
=0.

E7.10 (a) The characteristic equation is

K(s + 2)
1+ =0.
s(s + 1)
Therefore,
(s2 + s)
K = − (s + 2) ,

and
2
dK
= −s+4s+2 =0.
ds (s+2)2
−0.586 and −3.414. Thus, the system
Solving s2+4s+2 = 0 yields s =
 breakaway and entry points are at s = −0.586 and s = −3.414.
(b) The desired characteristic polynomial is

(s+2+aj)(s+2 −aj)=s2+4s+4+a2=0,

where a is not specified. The actual characteristic polynomial is

s2+(1+K)s+2K=0.
√
Equating coefficients and solving for K yields √K=3anda= 2.
Thus,whenK=3,therootsares 1,2= − 2 ± 2j.
(c) The root locus is shown in Figure E7.10.

1.5 K=3, s=-2+1.414j

*

0.5
Imag Axis

s=-3.41 s=-0.58
0 o x x

-0.5

-1

*
-1.5

-2
-4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1

Real Axis

FIGURE E7.10
s +2
Root locus for 1 + K s (+1)
s
=0.

E7.11 The root locus is shown in Figure E7.11 for the characteristic equation
K(s + 2.5)
1+ =0.
(s2 + 2s + 2)(s2 + 4s + 5)

From the root locus we see that we can only achieve ζ = 0.707 when
K=0.
 5

1 x x <---- zeta=0.707 & K=0

Imag Axis

0 o

-1 x x

-2

-3

-4

-5
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Real Axis

FIGURE E7.11
K (s+2.5)
Root locus for 1 + ( s2 +2s+2)(s2 +4s+5)
=0.

E7.12 (a) The root locus is shown in Figure E7.12 for the characteristic equation

K(s + 1)
1+ =0.
s(s2 + 6s + 18)

(b) The roots of the characteristic equation are

(i) K = 10: s1,2 =
−2.8064 ± 4.2368j and and
s3 s3
=
−0.3872 −2.7134 ± 5.2466j
(ii) K = 20: s1,2 = = −0.5732
(c) The step response performance of the system is summarized in Ta-
ble E7.12.

K 10 20
Ts (sec) 9.0 5.5
P.O. 0 0
Tr (sec) 4.8 2.6
TABLE E7.12 K =10 and K =20.
System performance when
 Root Locus

15

10

Imaginary Axis 5

−5

−10

−15
−3.5 −3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5
Real Axis

FIGURE E7.12
K s(+1)
Root locus for 1 + s(s2+6 s+18) =0.

E7.13 (a) The characteristic equation is

s(s+1)(s+3)+4s+4z=0.

Rewriting with z as the parameter of interest yields

4
1 + z s(s + 1)(s + 3) + 4s = 0 .

The root locus is shown in Figure E7.13a.

(b) The root locations for

z = 0.6 , 2.0 , and 4.0

are shown in Figure E7.13a. When z = 0.6, we have ζ = 0.76 and

ωn = 2.33. Therefore, the predicted step response is
P.O.=2.4% and Ts=2.3sec (ζ=0.6).

When z = 2.0, we have ζ = 0.42 and ωn = 1.79. Therefore, the

predicted step response is

P.O.=23% and Ts=5.3sec (ζ=2.0).

 4

2
+ * z=0.6
x o z=2.0
*
o + z=4.0
1
Imag Axis
0 + o * x

-1
* o
x
-2 +

-3

-4
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

Real Axis

FIGURE E7.13
4 =0.
(a) Root locus for 1 + z s (s +1)(s+3)+4 s

Finally, when z = 4.0, we have ζ = 0.15 and ωn = 2.19. Therefore,

the predicted step response is P.O. = 62% and Ts = 12 sec.
(c) The actual step responses are shown in Figure E7.13b.

1.6

1.4 ___ z=0.6

- - - z=2.0
1.2 ..... z=4.0

0.8
y(t)

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
time (sec)

FIGURE E7.13
CONTINUED: (b) Step Responses for z = 0.6, 2.0
,and 4.0.
E7.14 (a) The root locus is shown in Figure E7.14 for the characteristic equation

K(s + 10)
1+ =0.
s(s + 5)

The breakaway point is sb = −2.93; the entry point is se = −17.1.

10

6 K=5, s=-5+5j
*
4

2
Imag Axis

0 s=-17.1 o x s=-2.93 x

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5

Real Axis

FIGURE E7.14
K (s+10)
Root locus for 1 + s(+5)
s =0.

√
(b) We desire ζ =1/ 2=[Link],thedesiredcharacteristicpolyno-
mial is

s2+2 ( √)1 ωs+

n
2
ωn=0.
2

Comparing the desired characteristic polynomial to the actual we find

the relationships

ω2 √
n=10K and 2ωn=5+K.

Solving for K and ωn yields K = 5 and ωn = 7.07. The roots are

s1,2 = −5 ± j5 when K = 5.
E7.15 (a) The characteristic equation

(s + 10)(s + 2)
1+K =0
s3
has the root locus in Figure E7.15.

Root Locus
15

10

5 K=1.67
Imaginary Axis

?-5

?-10

?-15
?-25 ?-20 ?-15 ?-10 -5 0 5
Real Axis

FIGURE E7.15
K (s+10)(s+2)
Root locus for 1 + s3
=0.

(b) The Routh array is

s3 1 12K
s2 K 20K
s1 b
so 20K
when b = 12K − 20. For stability, we require all elements in the first

column to be positive. Therefore,

K > 1.67 .

(c) When K > /3 4, we have

1 ·1=lim s2
ess = lim sEs()=lims =0.
s s→01+ GHs()s2 s→0s3+ K s( +1)(s+3)
→0
E7.16 The expansion for e−Ts is
(T s)2
e−Ts = 1− T s + 2! − ...

If( Ts) << 1, then

a+bs
e−Ts ≈ 1 − Ts= ,

where a, b, cand d are constants to be determined. Using long division,

40

30

20 K=21 *

10
Imag Axis

0 x x o

-10

-20

-30

-40
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Real Axis

FIGURE E7.16
K (20−s)
Root locus for 1 + =0.
(s+1)(20+s)

we expand (a+bs)/(c+ds) and match as many coefficients as possible. In

this case, we determine that a = c = (2/T) and also that b = −d = −1.
In this case, with T = 0.1, we have
−Ts 20−s
e = = −(s−20) .
20+s (s+20)
So, the characteristic equation is

1+ −K(s−20) ,
(s + 1)(s + 20)
and the root locus is shown in Figure E7.16. Using a Routh-Hurwitz
 analysis with the characteristic polynomial
s2 + (21 −K)s+20+20 K =0 ,
we determine that the system is stable for − 1 < K < 21.
E7.17
(a) The root locus is in Figure E7.17a.

1.5

0.5
Imag Axis

0 x x

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Real Axis

FIGURE E7.17
K
(a) Root locus for 1 + s(s− 1)
=0.

The root locus is always in the right half-plane; the system is unstable
for K > 0.
(b) The characteristic equation is
K(s + 2)
1+ =0,
s(s − 1)(s+20)
and the root locus is shown in Figure E7.17b. The system is stable
for K > 22.3 and when K = 22.3, the roots are
s1,2 = ±j1.53 and s3=−19.
 10

2 K=22.3
*

Imag Axis 0 x o x x

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10

Real Axis

FIGURE E7.17
K (+2)
s
CONTINUED: (b) Root locus for 1+ s ( s+20)(s−1) =0.

E7.18 The root locus is shown in Figure E7.18.

x + K=8.15
+
Imag Axis

0 x x

+
x +

-2

-4

-6
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

Real Axis

FIGURE E7.18
K
Root locus for 1 + s ( s+3)( s2+2s+2)
=0.

When K = 8.15, the roots are s1,2= ± j 1. 095 and s3,4= −2.5 ± j 074.
.
E7.19 The characteristic equation is
K
1+ =0,
s(s + 3)(s2 + 6s + 64)
and the root locus is shown in Figure E7.19. When K = 1292.5, the roots
are
s1,2 = ±j4.62 and s3,4=−4.49±j6.36.

15

10

x
+
5 + K=1292.5
Imag Axis

0 x x

+
-5
+
x

-10

-15
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15

Real Axis

FIGURE E7.19
K
Root locus for 1 + s ( s+3)( s2+6s+64)
=0.

E7.20 The characteristic equation is

K(s + 1)
1+ =0 ,
( − 1)(s+4)
ss
and the root locus is shown in Figure E7.20. The system is stable for

K>6.

The maximum damping ratio of the stable complex roots is

ζ=0.2.
 8

6 max zeta=0.2

Imag Axis 0 x o x x

-2

-4

-6

-8
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8

Real Axis

FIGURE E7.20
K (+1)
s
Root locus for 1 + s(s− 1)(s+4) =0.

E7.21 The gain is K = 10.8 when the complex roots have ζ = 0.66.

10

K=10.8
+ x
Imag Axis

0 x + o

+ x

-5

-10
-10 -5 0 5 10

Real Axis

FIGURE E7.21
Root locus for 1 + Ks =0.
s3+5 s2
+10
E7.22 The root locus is shown in Figure E7.22. The characteristic equation is
K(s2 + 20)(s + 1)
1+ =0.
(s2 − 2)(s + 10)

1
Imag Axis

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2
Real Axis

FIGURE E7.22
K(s2 +20)(s+1)
Root locus for 1 + ( s 2 − 2)(s+10)
=0.

E7.23 The characteristic equation is

5s2+ as + 4 = 0 ,

which can rewritten as

as
1+ =0.
5s2 + 4
The roots locus (with a as the parameter) is shown in Figure E7.23.
 1.5

1
x

0.5
Imag Axis

0 o

-0.5

x
-1

-1.5

-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

Real Axis

FIGURE E7.23
as
Root locus for 1 + =0.
5s2+4

E7.24 The transfer function is

G(s) = C(sI − A ) − 1 B+ D
−1
s
−1   0 
=[1 0]  2
s+k   1 
1
=.
s2+ks+2
Therefore, the characteristic equation is
s2+ks+2=0,

or
s
1+k =0.
s2 + 2
The root locus for 0 < k < ∞ is shown in Figure E7.24. The closed-loop
system is stable for all 0 < k < ∞ .
 Root Locus
1.5

0.5

Imaginary Axis
0

-0.5

-1

-1.5
-2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0
Real Axis

FIGURE E7.24
Root locus for 1 + k s2s =0.
+2

E7.25 The characteristic equation is

10
1+K =0.
s(s + 25)
The root locus shown in Figure E7.25 is stable for all 0 < K < ∞ .

Root Locus

15

10

5
Imaginary Axis

−5

−10

−15
−30 −25 −20 −15 −10 −5 0 5
Real Axis

FIGURE E7.25
Root locus for 1 + K 10 =0.
s ( s+25)
E7.26 The characteristic polynomial is
 s −1 
det
s+K− 3 s+K+2 =0
or
s+1
1+K =0.
s2 +2s − 3
The root locus shown in Figure E7.26 is stable for all 0 < K < 3.

Root Locus

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
Imaginary Axis

−0.2

−0.4

−0.6

−0.8
−12 −10 −8 −6 −4 −2 0 2
Real Axis

FIGURE E7.26
Root locus for 1 + K s +1 =0.
s
s2+2−3

E7.27 The characteristic equation is

1+p
s
s2+4s+40 = 0 .
The root locus shown in Figure E7.25 is stable for all 0 < p < ∞ .
 Root Locus

Imaginary Axis
0

−2

−4

−6

−8
−12 −10 −8 −6 −4 −2 0 2
Real Axis

FIGURE E7.27
s
Root locus for 1 + p =0.
s 2 + 4s+ 4 0
 C H A P T E R 6

The Stability of Linear Feedback

Systems

Exercises
E6.1 The Routh array is

s3 1 K +
s2 3K 2
s1 b 5
s 4 0
where o
3K (K +2) − 5
b= .
3K
For stability, we require K > 0and b > [Link],usingthecondition
that b > 0, we obtain
3K2 + 6K − 5 > 0 ,

and solving for K yields K > 0.63 and K < −2.63. We select K > 0.53,
since we also have the condition that K > 0.
E6.2
The Routh array is
s3 1 2
s2 9 24
s1 -2/3 0
so 24
The system is unstable since the first column shows two sign changes.
E6.3 The Routh array is

s 1 45.7 10
4 9.5 20
s 43.59 10
3 17.82
s 10
2
By the Routh-Hurwitz criterion, the system is stable (i.e., all the numbers
s
in the first column are positive).
E6.4 The closed-loop transfer1 function is
s
T(s)= −K(s−1) .
0 s3 + 3s2 + (2−K)s+K
Therefore, the characteristic equation is

s3 + 3s2 + (2
−K)s+K=0.

The corresponding Routh array is given by

s3 1 (2 − K )
3
s2 b K
0
s1 K
so

where
3(2 − K ) − K 6−4K
b= = 3 .
3
For stability we require K > 0 and b > 0 . Thus, the range of K for
stability is 0 < K < 1.5.
E6.5 The closed-loop transfer function is

K
T(s)= .
s3+10s2+27s+18+K

When K = 20, the roots of the characteristic polynomial are

s1,2 = −1.56 ± j1.76

 and

s3= −6.88 .

E6.6 When K = 252, the roots of the characteristic equation are on the imag-
inary axis. The roots are
s1,2 = ±j5.2 and s3=−10.

E6.7 (a) The closed-loop system characteristic equation is

K(s + 2)
1+GH(s)=1+ =0,
s(s − 1)
or
s2+( K − 1)s+2K=0 .
√
We have the relationships ω n = 2Kand2 ζωn = K − 1, where
ζ = 0.707. Thus,
√
2 ( √12) 2K = K − 1 ,

or
2 2
(K−)12K
( )√22 = √ ,

and
K2
−6K+1=0.
Solving for K yields K = 5.83 and K = 0.17. However, for stability
we require K > 1 (from the Routh array), so we select K = 5.83 √ .
(b)ThetworootsontheimaginaryaxiswhenK=1ares 1,2= ± j 2.
E6.8
The closed-loop system characteristic equation is
3 + 20s2 + (100 + K)s + 20K = 0 .

The corresponding Routh array is

s3 1 (100+K)
20 20K
0
s2 b
s1
so 20K
 where

20(100 + K) −20K 20(100)

b= = 20 =100.
20

Therefore, the system is stable for all K > 0.

E6.9 The characteristic equation is

s3+2s2+(K+1)s+6=0,

and the Routh array is given by

s3 1 K6
+1
2
b 0
s2
s1
so 46

where

2(K +1) − 6
b= = K − 2.
2

Setting b = 0, yields

K −2=0 or K>2.

E6.10 Stable with your eyes open and (generally) unstable with your eyes closed.
E6.11 The system is unstable. The poles are s1 = −5.66, s2 = −0.90 and s3,4 =
0.28± j0.714.
E6.12 The characteristic equation associated with the system matrix is

s3+3s2+5s+6=0.

The roots of the characteristic equation are s1 = −2 and s2,3 = −5±j1.66.

−4, s2 = −3, s3,4 = −1 ± j2 and s5,6 = ±j0.5.
The system is stable.
E6.13
The system
The roots ofisq(s) are s1 =stable. The Routh array is
marginally
 s6 1 31.25 67.75 15
s5 9 61.25 14.75
s4 24.44 66.11 15
s3 31.909 9.2273 0
s2 60 15
s1 0 0
s
o
The auxillary equation is

60s2+15=0.

Solving the auxillary equation yields two roots at s1,2 =

±j0.5. After
accounting for the row of zeros, the completed Routh array verifies that
the system has no poles in the right half-plane.
E6.14 The Routh array is

s4 1 45 50
s3 9 87
s2 35.33 50
s1 74.26 0
so 50

The system is stable. The roots of q(s) are s1,2 = −3 ± j4, s3 = −2 and
s4= −1.
E6.15 The characteristic equation is

s3+6s2+11s+6=0.

The system is stable. The roots of the characteristic equation are s1 =

−1,
s2= −2 and s3 = −3.
E6.16 The roots of q(s) are s1 =−20 and s2,3 = ±j2.24. The system is marginally

stable. The Routh array is

 s3 1 5
s2 20 100
s1 0 0
so

The auxillary equation is

20s2 + 100 = 0 .

The roots are s = ±j2.24. So, the system has roots at s = ±j2.24.
Completing the Routh array (after accounting for the row of zeros) verifies
that no poles lie in the right half-plane.
E6.17 (a) Unstable.
(b) Unstable.
(c) Stable.
E6.18 (a) The roots are s1,2 = −2 and s3 = −1.
(b) The roots are s1,2,3 = −3.
E6.19
The characteristic equation is
(sn − 2)3 + 10(sn − 2)2 + 29(sn − 2) + K = 0

or
2
s3n+4s n
+ sn − 26+ K = 0 .

The Routh array is

s 1 1
3 4 K −26
s 30−K 0
4
2 K −26
s equation is 4s2
If K = 30, then the auxillary n+4=0orsn= ±j.
Therefore, s = sn − 2 implies s = −2 ± j.
1
E6.20 This system is not stable. The output response to a step input is a ramp
y(t) = kt. s
E6.21 The characteristic polynomial is
o
s3+3s2+ks+6=0.
 The Routh array is

s3 1 k
s2 3 6
3k− 6
s1 3

s 6
So, k > 2 for stability. o
E6.22 The transfer function is
1
G(s) = C(sI −A)− B+ D
 s −s1 0  0 

=[1 0 0 ] 0 k −1 
 0

 
 k s+ k  1 


 s2+ ks + k s+ k 1  0

s   1
= [ 1 0 0 ] −k s2 + k 0
∆(s)
 s 2 
 − ks − ks − k s  1 
where ∆(s) = s3 + ks2 +  k
+ .Thus,thetransferfunctionis
ks
1
G (s) = .
s3+ks2+ks+ k
The Routh array is

s3 1 k
s2 k k
s1 k− 1
so k
For stability k > 1.
E6.23 The closed-loop transfer function is
Ks+1
T(s)= .
s2(s+p)+Ks+1

Therefore, the characteristic equation is

s3+ps2+Ks+1=0.
 The Routh array is
s 1 K
3 p 1
s (pK − 1)/p
2 1
We see that the system iss stable for any value of p > 0and pK − 1 > 0.
E6.24 The closed-loop transfer 1function is
s 10
T (s) = .
2s2 + (K − 20)s+10
o
Therefore, the characteristic equation is
2s2 + (K
−20)s+10=0.
The Routh array is
s2 2 10
s1 K −20
so 10
We see that the system is stable for any value of K > 20.
 Problems

P6.1 (a) Given

2
s +5s+2,

we have the Routh array

s 1 2
2 5 0
s 2
1
Each element in the first column is positive, thus the system is stable.
(b) Given s
s3+4s2+8s+4,
o

we have the Routh array

s 1 8
3 4 4
s 7 0
2 4
s
Each element in the first column is positive, thus the system is stable.
(c) Given 1
s3 +s2s2
−4s+20,
we determine by inspection othat the system is unstable, since it is
necessary that all coefficients have the same sign. There are two roots
in the right half-plane.
(d) Given
s4+s3+2s2+10s+8,

we have the Routh array

s4 1 2 8
s3 1 10 0
s2 -8 8 0
s1 11 0
so 8
 There are two sign changes in the first column, thus the system is
unstable with two roots in the right half-plane.
(e) Given
s4+s3+3s2+2s+K,

we have the Routh array

4
s 1 3 K
1
1 2
K 0
s3 − 0

s2
s1 2 K
so K
Examining the first column, we determine that the system is stable
for0<K<2.
(f) Given
s5+s4+2s3+s+6,

we know the system is unstable since the coefficient of the s2 term is

missing. There are two roots in the right half-plane.
(g) Given
s5+s4+2s3+s2+s+K,

we have the Routh array

s5 1 2 1
s4 1 1 K
s3
1 1 −K
s2 K K
s1 −K 0
s K

Examining the first column,

o we determine that for stability we need
K > 0 and K < 0. Therefore the system is unstable for all K.
P6.4 (a) The closed-loop characteristic equation is
K(s + 40)
1+GH(s)=1+ =0,
s(s + 10)(s + 20)

or

s3 + 30s2 + 200s + Ks +40 K = 0 .

The Routh array is

s 1 200+K
3 30 40K
s 0
200− K 3
2 40K
s we require 200 − K/3 > 0 and 40K > 0. So,
Therefore, for stability
the range of K for stability
1 is

s 0<K<600.

(b) At K = 600, the auxilary

o equation is
30s2 + 40(600) = 0 or s2 + 800 = 0 .

The roots of the auxiliary equation are

s = ±j28.3 .

(c) Let K = 600/2 = 300. Then, to the shift the axis, first define so =
s + 1. Substituting s = so − 1 into the characteristic equation yields

(s o− 1)3+30(so− 1)2+500(so−1)+12000=s3+27s2
o o+443so+11529.

The Routh array is

s3 1 443
s2 27 11529
s1 16 0
so 11529
All the elements of the first column are positive, therefore all the
roots lie to left of s = −1. We repeat the procedure for s = so − 2
and obtain
s3+24s2
o o+392so+10992=0.

The Routh array is

 s 1 392
3 24 10992
s -66 0
2 10992
s in the first column indicating two roots
There are two sign changes
to right of s = −2. Combining the results,
1 −1 andwe
s =determine thatof
−2. The roots there
the
are two roots located between s =
s
characteristic equation are
o
s1= −27.6250 and s2,3=−1.1875±20.8082j.

We see that indeed the two roots s2,3 −1.1875±20.8082j

= lie between
-1 and -2.

P6.5 (a) Given the characteristic equation,

s3+3s2+4s+2=0,

we compute the roots s1 = −1, and s2,3 = −1 ± j.

(b) The roots of the characteristic equation
s4+9s3+30s2+42s+20=0

are s1 = −1, s2 = −2, and s3,4 = −3 ± j1.

(c) The roots of the characteristic equation
s3 + 19s2 + 110s + 200 = 0

are s1 = −4,s2 = −5, and s3 = −10.

P6.6 (a) The characteristic equation is

1+G(s)=0,

or
s3+s2+10s+2=0.

The roots are: s1 = −0.2033, and s2,3 = −0.3984 ± j3.1112.

(b) The characteristic equation is
s4+10s3+35s2+50s+24=0.

The roots are s1 = −1, s2 = −2, s3 = −3, and s4 = −4.

(c) The characteristic equation is

s3+11s2+29s+6=0.

The roots are s1 = −0.2258, s2 = −3.8206 and s3 = −6.9536.

P6.9 (a) The closed-loop characteristic equation is
10K
1+GH(s)=1+ ,
(s + 100)(s + 20)2
or
s3 + 140s2 + 4400s + 40000 + 10
K =0.

The Routh array is

s3 1 4400
s2 140 K
40000 + 10
s1 b
s 40000 + 10
K
where o
140(4400)−(40000+10K)
b= .
140
Examining the first column and requiring all the terms to be positive,
we determine that the system is stable if

−4000 < K < 57600 .

(b) The desired characteristic polynomial is
2
(s+b)(s2+1.38ω ns+ω n) 3 2 2 2
= s +(1.38ωn+b)s +(ωn+1.38ωnb)s+bωn

where we have used the fact that ζ = 0.69 to achieve a 5% over-

shoot, and ωn and b are to be determined. The actual characteristic
polynomial is
s3 + 140s2 + 4400s + 40000 + 10K = 0 .

Equating the coefficients of the actual and desired characteristic poly-

nomials, and solving for K, b, and ωn yields

b = 104.2 , ωn = 25.9 and K = 3003 .

So, a suitable gain is K = 3003.

 where
(1 + K)10 −(5+15K) 5−5K
b= = 1+K .
1+K
Given that K > 0, we determine that the system is stable when−55K>0
or

0<K<1.
When K = 1, the s2 row yields the auxilary equation

2s2+20=0.
√ √
Therootsares= ±j [Link],thesystemfrequencyofoscillationis 10
rads/sec.
P6.12
The system has the roots
s1,2 = ±j2, s3,4=±j2, s5=−3, and s6=−2.

Therefore, the system is not stable since there are repeated roots on the
j ω -axis.

P6.14 (a) The Routh array is

s 1 5
3 5 6
s 3.8
2 6
Examining the first column sof the Routh array, we see no sign changes.
So, the system is stable.
1
(b) The roots of the system are s1 = −0.3246 and s2,3 = −2.3377 ±
3.6080j . s
(c) The step response is shown oin Figure P6.14.

Step Response
0.18

0.16

0.14

0.12
Amplitude

0.1

0.0

0.0

0.0 0
0 5 10 15
4 Time (sec)
0.0
FIGURE P6.14
Unit step response.
2
P6.19 The state transition matrix is

1  (k2−p 1)e−p1t− ( 2 ) e−p2t

k− 2p e−p1t−e−p2t 
Φ(t,0)=
p2−p1  − k1e
−p1t +k1e −p2t −p1t
−p1e +p2e −p2t 

where p1p2 = k1 and p1 + p2 = k2. We assume that p16= p2. In the case
whenp1=p2,thestat e
etransitionmatrixwillchange,butthefactors−p1t
and e−p2t will remain. The eigenvalues of A are given by the solution to

det |λI−A|=λ2+k2λ+k1=0.

Therefore,theeigenvaluesareλ,
2−4k1.Ifk2>0and 12= −k/±
22 √ k2
stable. The transfer function is given by

−1 s−1
G(s)=C(sI − A) B= − .

Therefore the characteristic equation is s2 + k2s + k1 = 0 and the poles

ares,12= −k/± 22 √ k2 2−4k1.Ifk2>0andk1>0,thenthepolesarein
thelefthalf-plane,[Link]λ1,2
and s1,2 are the same. Also, the eigenvalues are the same as the values of
−p1 and −p2. So, if the eigenvalues are negative, then the elements of the
state transition matrix will decay exponentially.