Land Resources

This lecture content discuss about Land Resources, Land degradation, soil erosion and
Desertification

Land Resources

Land resources as a resource

Land is a valuable resource upon which we depend for our food, shelter and fuel wood,
the basics of life. Soil, especially the top soil is renewable resources because it is
continuously regenerated by natural process. About 200-1000 years are needed for the
formation of one inch or 2.5 cm soil, depending upon the climate and soil type. But when
the rate of is faster than the rate of renewal, then the soil becomes non-renewable.

Land use change

Land as a source of habitat is now under serious pressure due to an increasing ‘land
hunger’ to produce sufficient quantities of food for an exploding human population. It is a
process in which the biophysical environment or the nature of the land is affected by
combination of human induced process acting upon the land. Land resources are polluted
by industrial waste, rural and urban sewage.

Lands are increasingly being shifted for short-term economic gains to agriculture and
industry. Naturally available wetlands of great value are being drained for agriculture and
other purposes. Semi-arid land is being irrigated and overused. Most of the forests have
vanished during recent times. Scientists today believe that at least 10 percent of land
and bodies of each ecosystem must be kept for the long-term needs of protecting nature
and natural resources.

Land degradation

With increasing population growth, the demands for land are also increasing day by day.
Hence there is more and more pressure on limited land resources and it’s getting
depleting. The process such as soil , logging, salinization, poor agricultural practices and
contamination of land with chemicals causes land degradation and makes it poor to
utilize.

Soil

Leaching away of top soil by the natural physical forces of and wind or through forces
associated with farming activities. It is the most fertile, because it contains many
organic, nutrient-rich materials. One of the important causes of soil is , which is the loss
of topsoil due to .

Top soil is the uppermost layer of soil, usually the superficial layer. It has the highest
amount of organic matter and microorganisms and is where most of the Earth's biological
soil activity occurs. Topsoil is consisting of mineral particles, organic matter, , and air.
Organic matter varies in quantity on different soils.

Soil is of two types

1. Normal : Causes by physical, biological and hydrological activities by nature.

2. Accelerated : Caused by anthropogenic activities like overgrazing, deforestation,

mining and other activities.

Desertification
Desertification is the process by which fertile land turn into . It is typically as a result of
drought, deforestation or inappropriate agriculture, usually creates huge sand dunes. It
leads to the conversion of crop lands to like area in which agricultural productivity.

Reasons for desertification are overgrazing, deforestation, , salinization, soil compaction

( logging) and natural climate change.

Fig 5: Land Degradation

Source: [Link]

1. Deforestation – degradation of to meet the demand from its sources. Hence

there is no vegetation to hold back the surface run-off and drains off quickly. This
increases soil , loss of fertility and .

2. Overgrazing – this is because the increasing cattle population heavily grazes the
vegetation and denude the green cover soon. When the soil cover is denuded, the
ground become infertile to seed germination, prone to soil , growth of plants is affected
and dry barren land get exposed to more sunlight, wind patterns will change leading to
further desertification.

3. Salinization: irrigation contains small amounts of dissolved salts leading to

salinization of land. Evaporation and transpiration leave salts behind. builds up soil.

4. -logging (soil compaction): saturation of porosity (pores) of soil particles results in

absence of absorption leads to table rising. It’s bad for roots of crops

Consequences of Deforestation

This lecture content give an awareness about the consequences of deforestation

Consequences of Deforestation

Causes of deforestation

Population explosion: Population increase is the root cause of all the environmental
problems, vast area of forests is cleared for human settlement

Shifting Cultivation: It is a traditional agroforestry system in which a plot of land is

cultivated for a short period of time and then abandoned so that the natural vegetation
regenerates

Growing food demand: To meet the food demand of rapidly growing population more
and more forests are cleared off for agricultural purpose

Fire wood: Increasing demand of wood for fuel increases pressure on forests

Raw material for wood based industry: Increasing demand of wood for making
furniture, plywood, match box etc. results in tremendous pressure on forests

Infrastructure development: Massive destruction of forest occurs for various

infrastructure developments like, big dams, highways projects etc.

Forest fires: Forest fires, natural or manmade cause a huge loss of forest cover

Over grazing: Overgrazing of land by cattle result into soil erosion and desertification

Natural forces: Floods, storms, heavy winds, snow, lightening are some of the natural
forces.
Effects of Deforestation

1. Deforestation adversely affects and damages the environment

2. Soil erosion: The soil gets washed away with rain water on sloppy areas in the
absence of trees leading to soil erosion.

3. Expansion of deserts: Due to strong winds by rock dust, land mass gradually
gets converted in atmosphere.

4. Decrease in rainfall: In the absence of forest, rainfall declines considerably

because forest brings rains due to high rate of transpiration. It maintains humidity in
atmosphere

5. Loss of fertile land: Less rainfall results into loss of fertile land owing to less
natural vegetation growth.

6. Effect on climate: Deforestation induces global climate change. Climate

becomes warmer due to absence of humidity in deforested areas, also pattern of rainfall
changes.

7. Lowering of Water table: Lack of recharging of underground reservoir, results

into lowering of water table.

8. Economic Losses: Deforestation will cause loss of industrial timber and non-
timber products.

9. Loss of biodiversity: Loss of flora and fauna result into loss of bio-diversity
leading to disturbance in ecological balance worldwide.

10. Environmental changes: It will lead to increase in carbon dioxide concentration

and other pollutants which results in Global warming.

Impacts of mining and dam constructions on deforestation

Timber extraction, mining and dams are the needs of any developing country. If timber is
over harvested, the ecological functions of the forest are lost. Forests are located in
areas where rich mineral resources are available as well. They also cover the steep
embankments of river valleys, which are ideally suited to develop irrigation projects.
These forests where all the government as well as private sector projects are planned
can displace thousands of tribal people who lose their homes when these plans are
executed. This leads to high levels of suffering of fellow beings.

Construction of Dams across forest cover constitutes a major cause of forest loss. The
sites selected for dam building have been often those inhabited by tribal communities.
Shifting of cultivation clears forests in other areas in order to grow their crops and build
their homes. Additionally, dams imply road building, thus allowing access to previously
remote areas by loggers resulting in further deforestation processes.

However, the dams affect much more than forest loss and the major environmental
changes have impacted on local people, at the site of dam as well as in the entire river
basin. The major changes happen during the construction of dam are, flooding of the
agricultural soil by the reservoir and thereby alteration of local environment, where the
flora and fauna of the river begins to disappear with strong impacts on people who are
dependent on those resources. At the same time, construction of dams results in a
number of health hazards, starting with diseases introduced by the thousands of workers
that are brought in to build the dam.

Tribal people have persistently resisted the destruction of their homelands and they are
forced to resettlement (giving land to the migrant) and rehabilitation (evacuate from the
native place).
Effects of Dams on the environment

1. It creates the loss of forest which is submerged under the back waters of the dam.

2. It creates danger to the habitat of the wild life.

3. The animals are forced to migrate.

4. It also affects the land under cultivation, in the catchment area as the crops get
submerged under water.

5. It affects tribal community and are forced to migrate.

Dams constitute a major direct and indirect cause of forest loss and most of them have
resulted in widespread human rights abuses. The sites selected for dam constructions
have been often those inhabited by indigenous peoples, tribal people, ethnic minorities
and poor communities.

This also result in deforestation elsewhere, as farmers displaced by the dams will have to
clear forests in other areas in order to grow their crops and build their homes. In many
cases, dam constructions projects have resulted in widespread human rights violations.
As most of us would, local peoples have persistently resisted the destruction of their
homelands and their forced resettlement (giving land to the migrant) and rehabilitation
(evacuate from the native place). As a result, they have to face different types of
repression, ranging from physical and legal threats. They are definitely not a symbol of
development but one of economic and political power resulting in social and
environmental degradation.

Afforestation - is the process of planting saplings, or sowing seeds, in a barren land

devoid of any trees to create a forest.

The main objective of afforestation

• To control the deforestation

• To prevent soil erosion

• To regulate rainfall and maintain temperature

Water Resources

Water resources

Water from natural resources is potentially useful and it is used in industrial, agricultural
environmental, household, recreational activities.

Distribution of the water on Earth

Ocean water: 97.2%.

Glaciers and other ice: 2.15 %.

Groundwater: 0.61 %.

Fresh water lakes: 0.009 %.

Inland seas: 0.008 %.

Soil Moisture: 0.005 %.

Atmosphere: 0.001 %.
Rivers: 0.0001 %.

Sources of Fresh water on earth:

1. Surface water: The surface water is naturally replenished by precipitation

process and it is naturally lost through discharge to the oceans. Eg: Water in a lake, river
and fresh water wetland.

2. Ground Water: sub-surface water or ground water located inside the pores of the
soil by its nature of porosity and also water flowing within the aquifer (a body of
permeable rock which can contain or transmit groundwater.) below the water table.

3. Desalination-It is the artificial process by which saline water (generally sea water)
and is converted to fresh water.

4. Frozen water - Ice is water frozen into a solid state. Depend on the presence of
impurities such as particles of soil or bubbles of air, it can appear transparent or a more
or less opaque bluish-white color.

5. Under river flow - A river is a naturally flowing water stream, usually freshwater,
flowing towards an ocean, sea, lake or another river. Sometimes a river flows into the
ground and becomes dry at the end point where it reached last without reaching another
body of water.

Flood: It is the most common natural disaster that may result from snow, stroms, rain,
storm surges, and overflows of dams and due to other water systems. It develops slowly
or quickly – Flash floods can come with no warning.

Causes:

1. Heavy Rains.

2. Overflowing Rivers

3. Broken Dams

4. Urban Drainage Basins

5. Storm Surges and Tsunamis

6. Channels with Steep Sides

7. A Lack of Vegetation

8. Melting Snow and Ice

Effects: Floods can effect the status of economy, environment and people. Constructions
such as roads, bridges, farms, houses are destroyed.

How can we control floods?

1. Introduce better flood warning systems

2. Construct buildings above flood levels and Tackle climate change

3. Increase spending on flood defense

4. Protect wetlands and introduce plant trees strategically

5. Restore rivers to their natural courses

6. Introduce water storage areas

Drought
Drought is a period of least average precipitation in a given region, resulting in prolonged
shortages in water supply, whether atmospheric, surface water or ground water.
A drought can sustain for months or years, or may be declared after as few as 15 days.

Effects:

It affects the environment in many different ways. Plants and animals depend on water,
when it occurs, their food supply can shrink and their habitat can be damaged.
Sometimes the damage is seasonal and their habitat and food supply return to normal
when the drought is over.

Economic impacts include farmers who lose money because drought destroyed their
crops or ranchers who may have to spend more money to feed and water their animals.
In addition to the economy, drought also affects the environment and society.

How can droughts be prevented?

Irrigate slowly. Slow dipping limits runoff and encourages plants to develop deep root
systems that are better able to tolerate drought. The heavier your soil and slow dipping
can prevent runoff. To minimize transpiration, irrigate in the early morning or evening.

INTRODUCTION AND STRUCTURE OF TO ECOSYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

A small puddle at the back of your home has all sorts of living things, from
microorganisms to insects and plants. Every living organism depends on non-living things
like water, sunlight, temperature, pressure and nutrients in the water for life. We, human
beings also need air, water and temperature to live. So, every living organism on earth
needs basic things like air, water, sunlight etc., to survive. The amount, form or kind of
these needs vary from organism to organism.

Another example is that we all need air (oxygen) to live as we breathe. Without oxygen
we cannot breathe. This indicates that for the living organism to live there should be an
interaction, relationship with a non -living thing. Like wise water is also a non- living
thing. This type of relationship/ interaction of living with non-living is known as
ecosystem.

Thus, living organisms cannot live isolated from non-living environment. A stable
community is produced when there is interaction between a biotic community and
its environment. This natural self-sufficient unit is known as an ecosystem. Study of
ecosystem is known as ecology. The word ecosystem was coined by Sir Arthur
Tansley in the year 1935.

Definition: An ecosystem is, therefore, defined as a natural functional ecological unit

comprising of living organisms (biotic community) and their non-living (abiotic or physio
chemical) environment that interact to form a stable self-supporting system. A pond,
lake, desert, grassland, meadow, forest etc. are common examples of ecosystems.

In simple words: relationship or interaction between living and non - living components is
ecosystem.

TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM

Ecosystem can be

Natural - occurring in nature. Ex: Forest ecosystem, Desert ecosystem

Artificial - made by man. Ex: Aquarium, Zoo

Temporary - Ex: Pond until it gets dries up.

Permanent - exits in the environment permanently. Ex: Forest Ecosystem

Terrestrial – ecosystem occurring on land. Ex: Forest ecosystem

Aquatic - ecosystem occurring on water. Ex: Pond ecosystem

Courtesy: [Link]
ecosystem-types-components/

FUNCTION OF ECOSYSTEM

The topic of discussion is Water cycle, Oxygen cycle, Carbon cycle and Nitrogen cycle

You have earned 0 point(s) out of 0 point(s) thus far.

Function of ecosystem

Function of Ecosystem:

Life sustaining environmental system needs an ecosystem that is discrete, structural and
functional. This is achieved because of biotic and abiotic components in a habitat.
Interrelated mechanisms between the two communities help the very existence of
human life. Interrelated mechanisms include water cycle, the carbon cycle, the oxygen
cycle, the nitrogen cycle and the energy cycle.

WATER CYCLE

Water cycle aims in the cycling of water from the sea, to the sky, to the land and back to
the sea.

This cycling of water planet is vital to life. Water cycle is a continuous process happening
all the time, though some parts of the cycle take hundreds of years in the Polar Regions.

As the diagram shows:

· The sun’s rays heats up the water from the earth’s oceans and changes into a gas
(vapour) and rise into the air (this is called evaporation).

· The gas (vapour) begins to cool and turns back into a liquid in the sky
(condensation).
· The water droplets form clouds becomes heavy and falls in the form of rain, sleet,
hail or snow; this is called precipitation.

Courtesy – The School [Link]

Figure 2: Water Cycle

OXYGEN CYCLE:

Earth’s atmosphere makes up about 30% of oxygen and about 21% of oxygen in the air.
It is one of the most common element of the human body. Oxygen is used and produced
by different processes on Earth. The usage and production of oxygen constitutes the
oxygen cycle that includes the movement of oxygen within the earth’s three main
reservoirs. The cycle takes place as follows:

1. Photosynthesis:–

Plants take energy from the sun, carbon di oxide from the air, and water from the soil to
make their food during the day. Their food is simple – glucose. This process is called
photosynthesis during which oxygen is released into the air. At night, plants take in
oxygen and release carbon di oxide, to maintain their metabolism.

· 2. Respiration :–

· Humans, animals, and other organisms use oxygen that is released by plants
through respiration, i.e. breathing. The oxygen breaks down simple sugars and generates
energy. This process of photosynthesis and respiration takes place continuously and the
oxygen is recycled.
 Courtesy: [Link]

Figure 3: Oxygen cycle

CARBON CYCLE - Carbon in living organisms is in the form of carbohydrates. It is the key
ingredient of fossil fuels, petroleum, is used in Carbon dating, etc. The Carbon cycle
indicates the exchange of Carbon between the various organic and inorganic elements in
the atmosphere and the biosphere. Things, which absorb Carbon from the atmosphere,
are called the sinks and the one that releases are called as sources.
Courtesy: [Link]

Figure 4: Carbon cycle

Here is how the cycle works:

Plants along with sunlight use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere for the process of
photosynthesis. Process includes the conversion of Carbon dioxide into compounds that
can be used as nutrition by the plants releasing oxygen as a by-product.

Transfer of carbon from plants to animals and animals is through consumption of plants
in the form of food.
From animals and humans, the Carbon is sent back to the atmosphere through the
process of respiration in the form of CO2. Another way as to how carbon is transferred to
the earth is when the plants, animals or humans die, they decay and decompose. Fossil
formations of these remains over a period of thousand years are huge reservoirs of
Carbon.

When there is burning of wood, fossil fuels, combustion, etc CO 2 gets released into the
atmosphere. Another way CO2 is released into the atmosphere is when the surface water
of ocean bodies is warm (near tropical regions). When the surface water of ocean bodies
is cooler (as may happen in cold regions, near the poles) carbon is absorbed into the
water. The released CO2 is again absorbed by the plants for photosynthesis, and the cycle
repeats.

NITROGEN CYCLE

Nitrogen an essential component for animals and plants in the form of amino acids in
proteins, acts as building blocks of life. Free nitrogen cannot be absorbed directly from
the air by animals and plants and has to be processed through nitrogen cycle.

Courtesy: Eden [Link]

Figure 5: Nitrogen Cycle

1. Though 78% of the air around us contains nitrogen they are in the unreactive form and
needs to be processed into the form that can be used by plants (nitrates)

a) Lightening, a natural phenomenon converts nitrogen gas in the air to nitrates. These
nitrates get into the soil when it rains.

b) Bacteria present in the root nodules of leguminous plants converts nitrogen gas into
nitrates.

2. Nitrates present in the soil are absorbed through the roots of the plants and they grow.

3. When animals (including humans) eat the plants, absorb the nitrates and convert them
into proteins that enable them to grow and function healthily.

4. Nitrogen which is in the form of proteins in animals reaches the soil through animal
droppings and dead bodies (now nitrogen in the form of urea). The urea is broken down
to nitrogen gas by decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi and thus gets back into the
atmosphere. This cycle repeats and plants play a crucial part in nitrogen cycle.

(1) Abiotic Components:

Comprises the non-living factors or the physical environment present in the ecosystem
form the abiotic components. No matter they are non – living still they have a strong
influence on the structure, distribution, behaviour and inter-relationship of organisms.

Abiotic components are mainly of two types:

(a) Climatic Factors: that includes soil, rain, temperature, light, wind, humidity etc.

(b) Edaphic Factors: Which include soil, pH, topography minerals in the form of
carbon,

Oxygen etc.

The functions of abiotic components are:

Soil: Soils provide nutrients, water, a home, and a structural growing medium for
organisms and are responsible for the vegetation found growing on top of a soil with the
help of nutrient cycling. The air provides carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and oxygen
for respiration for the organisms found within ecosystems.

Light: Light in the form of solar radiation is used in ecosystems to heat the atmosphere
and to evaporate and transpire water into the atmosphere. Sunlight is also necessary for
photosynthesis. This process provides the energy for plant growth and metabolism, and
the organic food for other forms of life.

Water: Translocation of mineral nutrients in plants is by water, a medium which is also

necessary for the maintenance of leaf turgidity and photosynthesis. Wind helps in
carrying away the pollens onto the stigma for fertilization and thus new plants are grown.

(2) Biotic Components:

Animals, plants, and micro-organisms (Bacteria and Fungi) that are present in an
ecosystem form the biotic components.

(A) Producers

(B) Consumers

(C) Decomposers or Reducers.

(A) Producers: also known as autotrophs, transducers or convertors.

Includes green plants that have chlorophyll with which they trap solar energy and
change it into chemical energy of carbohydrates using simple inorganic compounds
namely water and carbon dioxide. This process is known as photosynthesis.

Since plants manufacture their own food they are also known as Autotrophs (i.e. auto =
self, trophos = feeder)

The food after production is stored in the form of chemical energy stored and is utilised
partly by the producers for their own growth and survival and the remaining is stored as
starch for their future use.

During photosynthesis, solar energy is converted to chemical energy and

thus producers are also known as transducers or convertors. Ex: plants,
macrophytes and some bacteria.

These plants are source of food for plant eating animals directly and for other
living organisms and thus are known as PRODUCERS.

(B) Consumers:

The animals lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesise their own food. Therefore, they
depend on the producers for their food. They are known as heterotrophs (i.e. heteros =
other, trophos = feeder)

The consumers are of four types, namely:

(a) Primary Consumers / First Order Consumers / Herbivores:

Comprise of animals which feed on plants or the producers. They are called herbivores.
Examples are rabbit, deer, goat, cattle etc.

(b) Secondary Consumers / Second Order Consumers / Primary Carnivores:

The animals which feed on or prey on the herbivores are called the primary carnivores.
Examples are cats, foxes, snakes etc.

(c) Tertiary Consumers / Third Order Consumers:

Includes the large carnivores which feed on the secondary consumers. Example is
Wolves.

(d) Quaternary Consumers /Fourth Order Consumers / Omnivores:

Includes the largest carnivores which feed on the tertiary consumers and are not eaten
up by any other animal. These are also called as top order carnivores. Examples are
lions and tigers.

(C) Decomposers or Reducers:

All the plants and animals die. When they die, they get decomposed by microorganisms.
Bacteria and fungi belong to this category. They breakdown the dead organic materials
of producers (plants) and consumers (animals) for their food and release to
the environment the simple inorganic and organic substances produced as by-products
of their metabolisms.

These simple substances are reused by the producers resulting in a cyclic exchange of
materials between the biotic community and the abiotic environment of the ecosystem.
The decomposers are also known as Saprotrophs (i.e., sapros = rotten, trophos =
feeder).

Are also called as micro consumers because microorganisms do the job. Also known
as reducers as they remove dead bodies of the organisms by feeding upon them.

FUNCTION OF ECOSYSTEM

The topic of discussion is Water cycle, Oxygen cycle, Carbon cycle and Nitrogen cycle

You have earned 0 point(s) out of 0 point(s) thus far.

Function of ecosystem

Function of Ecosystem:

Life sustaining environmental system needs an ecosystem that is discrete, structural and
functional. This is achieved because of biotic and abiotic components in a habitat.
Interrelated mechanisms between the two communities help the very existence of
human life. Interrelated mechanisms include water cycle, the carbon cycle, the oxygen
cycle, the nitrogen cycle and the energy cycle.

WATER CYCLE

Water cycle aims in the cycling of water from the sea, to the sky, to the land and back to
the sea.

This cycling of water planet is vital to life. Water cycle is a continuous process happening
all the time, though some parts of the cycle take hundreds of years in the Polar Regions.

As the diagram shows:

· The sun’s rays heats up the water from the earth’s oceans and changes into a gas
(vapour) and rise into the air (this is called evaporation).

· The gas (vapour) begins to cool and turns back into a liquid in the sky
(condensation).

· The water droplets form clouds becomes heavy and falls in the form of rain, sleet,
hail or snow; this is called precipitation.

OXYGEN CYCLE:

Earth’s atmosphere makes up about 30% of oxygen and about 21% of oxygen in the air.
It is one of the most common element of the human body. Oxygen is used and produced
by different processes on Earth. The usage and production of oxygen constitutes the
oxygen cycle that includes the movement of oxygen within the earth’s three main
reservoirs. The cycle takes place as follows:

1. Photosynthesis:–

Plants take energy from the sun, carbon di oxide from the air, and water from the soil to
make their food during the day. Their food is simple – glucose. This process is called
photosynthesis during which oxygen is released into the air. At night, plants take in
oxygen and release carbon di oxide, to maintain their metabolism.

· 2. Respiration :–

· Humans, animals, and other organisms use oxygen that is released by plants
through respiration, i.e. breathing. The oxygen breaks down simple sugars and generates
energy. This process of photosynthesis and respiration takes place continuously and the
oxygen is recycled.

CARBON CYCLE - Carbon in living organisms is in the form of carbohydrates. It is the key
ingredient of fossil fuels, petroleum, is used in Carbon dating, etc. The Carbon cycle
indicates the exchange of Carbon between the various organic and inorganic elements in
the atmosphere and the biosphere. Things, which absorb Carbon from the atmosphere,
are called the sinks and the one that releases are called as sources.

Here is how the cycle works:

Plants along with sunlight use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere for the process of
photosynthesis. Process includes the conversion of Carbon dioxide into compounds that
can be used as nutrition by the plants releasing oxygen as a by-product.

Transfer of carbon from plants to animals and animals is through consumption of plants
in the form of food.

From animals and humans, the Carbon is sent back to the atmosphere through the
process of respiration in the form of CO2. Another way as to how carbon is transferred to
the earth is when the plants, animals or humans die, they decay and decompose. Fossil
formations of these remains over a period of thousand years are huge reservoirs of
Carbon.

When there is burning of wood, fossil fuels, combustion, etc CO 2 gets released into the
atmosphere. Another way CO2 is released into the atmosphere is when the surface water
of ocean bodies is warm (near tropical regions). When the surface water of ocean bodies
is cooler (as may happen in cold regions, near the poles) carbon is absorbed into the
water. The released CO2 is again absorbed by the plants for photosynthesis, and the cycle
repeats.
NITROGEN CYCLE

Nitrogen an essential component for animals and plants in the form of amino acids in
proteins, acts as building blocks of life. Free nitrogen cannot be absorbed directly from
the air by animals and plants and has to be processed through nitrogen cycle.

1. Though 78% of the air around us contains nitrogen they are in the unreactive form and
needs to be processed into the form that can be used by plants (nitrates)

a) Lightening, a natural phenomenon converts nitrogen gas in the air to nitrates. These
nitrates get into the soil when it rains.

b) Bacteria present in the root nodules of leguminous plants converts nitrogen gas into
nitrates.

2. Nitrates present in the soil are absorbed through the roots of the plants and they grow.

3. When animals (including humans) eat the plants, absorb the nitrates and convert them
into proteins that enable them to grow and function healthily.

4. Nitrogen which is in the form of proteins in animals reaches the soil through animal
droppings and dead bodies (now nitrogen in the form of urea). The urea is broken down
to nitrogen gas by decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi and thus gets back into the
atmosphere. This cycle repeats and plants play a crucial part in nitrogen cycle.

ENERGY CYCLE, FOOD CHAIN, FOOD WEB AND ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID

This topic is about energy flow in the ecosystem

You have earned 0 point(s) out of 0 point(s) thus far.

ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM

ENERGY CYCLE

In nature, energy is circulated and recycled through biotic component of the ecosystem:
plants, animals and microbes and the abiotic components. Abiotic components play a
major role by synthesizing organic components of the cell and thus the organisms
survive. The synthesis of organic components and its continuation processes involve
energy exchange and this is known as energy cycle. The main energy comes from the
sun in the form of light or solar energy.

Photosynthesis an important process prepared by plants uses solar energy and converts
inorganic simple nutrients - CO2 and H2O into organic structures (C6H12O6 -
carbohydrates). The carbohydrates in the plants become the source of energy for
herbivores which, in turn gets transferred to carnivores on feeding. On feeding the
animals grow and add carbohydrates, proteins and fats to their body weight. When the
living organisms die out, they are eaten by saprophytic microbes, such as bacteria, fungi
and decompose them breaking the complex organic components to inorganic
components. When this happens heat is dissipated into the environment as heat energy.
Thus, in ecosystem energy from the sun, the input is fixed by plants and transferred to
animal components and a part of energy is released back into the atmosphere.

ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM

In an ecosystem, the interaction of biotic along with abiotic components is through

energy flow and mineral cycling. Of both, the flow of energy is unidirectional.

Energy means ability to do work. They exist in two forms: potential and kinetic.
The stored energy capable of performing work at rest is potential energy. Free energy
used for a motion of an object is kinetic energy.

The chemical energy obtained through photosynthesis is the source of energy required
by all living organisms.

Concept of energy flow follows 2 principles:

(1) The first law of Thermodynamics:

Energy can neither be converted nor destroyed but can change from one form to
another. Thus amount of energy in the universe is constant.

(2) The second law of Thermodynamics:

When energy is transformed from one form to another, part of energy gets liberated in
the form of heat.

Sun, being the main source of energy releases approximately 57% of energy onto the
planet earth, of which 35% is spent to heat and evaporate water. Of 57%, about 8% of
light energy strikes plant surface and in this 8%, about 10% to 15% is reflected, 5% is
transmitted and 80- 85% is absorbed.

Totally on an average of only 2% (0.5 to 3.5%) of the total light energy striking on a leaf
is used in photosynthesis and rest is transformed into heat energy.

TROPHIC LEVEL:

The arrangement of producers and consumers in ecosystem depending upon their

feeding groups is known as trophic level (feeding level). In an ecosystem, producers
(plants) represent the first trophic level, herbivores (plant eating animals) present the
second trophic level, primary carnivores represent the third trophic level and top
carnivores represent the last level.

FOOD CHAIN:

The transfer of energy and nutrients through a succession of organisms through repeated
process of eating and being eaten is known as food chain. Green plants trap solar
energy and convert it into chemical energy (food). The chemical energy is stored in the
form of organic compounds, such as carbohydrates, fats and proteins, in the green
plants. The food manufactured is utilized by them and then transferred in the form of
energy to herbivores. Animals feed repeatedly on the herbivores and thereby energy is
transferred and in this way one form of life supports the other form. In a food chain,
initial link is a green plant or producer which produces chemical energy available to
consumers.

A food chain link can be in the form of grass being consumed by grasshopper, the
grasshopper being consumed by a bird and that bird being consumed by hawk.

Marsh grass → grasshopper → bird → snake hawk

Food chains are of three types:

1. Grazing food chain

2. Parasitic food chain

3. Saprophytic or detritus food chain

1. Grazing food chain:

Food chain link that happens due to grazing is known as grazing food chain. It starts from
autotrophs (plants) then goes to herbivores (primary consumers) and to primary
carnivores (secondary consumers) and then to secondary carnivores (tertiary consumers)
and so on.

When these organisms respire the energy transformations takes place from one trophic
level to another.

2. Parasitic food chain:

Is the link of large organisms to smaller ones without killing as in the case of predator
but still energy transformations take place.

3. Detritus food chain:

When the living organisms die, the components of dead organisms i.e., metabolic wastes
and exudates are food for microorganisms. Since the food chain starts from dead
organisms it is termed as detritus. The group of organisms are called as detritivores and
the energy is transferred to them.

FOOD WEB:

One organism does not depend wholly on another. Depending upon the availability of
food, preference and taste changes. This indicates that the resources of food are shared
and thereby there establishes a network between various organisms. There is interlinking
of many food chains and this is known as food web. As a matter of fact, many food chains
exist in an ecosystem, but are not independent. This interrelationship interlinks between
the individuals of the whole community is known as food web and thus food web
maintains the stability of the ecosystem. Greater the number of alternative pathways,
more stable is the community of living things.

Trophic structure of an ecosystem can be represented diagrammatically by means of

ecological pyramid. The shape of the pyramid is because at each step in the food chain
a considerable fraction of the stored energy is lost in the form of heat. Thereby,
organisms in each trophic level pass on less energy than they actually receive to the
next trophic level. If the food chain is longer then lesser energy is available for final
members. There is tapering off of available energy in the food chain and thus takes the
shape of the pyramid. As higher the steps in the ecological pyramid the lower will be the
number of individuals in the base.

The idea of ecological pyramids was advanced by Charles .E. Elton (1927). There are 3
different types of ecological pyramids. In each ecological pyramid, usually producer level
forms the base and successive levels make up the apex.

Types of ecological pyramids:

1. Pyramid of numbers,

2. Pyramid of biomass

3. Pyramid of energy.

Pyramid of numbers:

It represents the numbers of individuals in each trophic level with producers at the base
of the pyramids and consumers in different orders of an ecosystem. The base of pyramid
is characterised by producers that are the most abundant. In the sequential levels are
the consumers where in the number of organisms goes on decreasing rapidly until there
are a few carnivores.
In pyramid of numbers the producers are ingested in large numbers by smaller numbers
of primary consumers. These primary consumers are eaten relatively by smaller number
of secondary consumers and these secondary consumers, in turn, are consumed by only
a few tertiary consumers.

PYRAMID OF NUMBER IN LAKE and TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM

Pyramid of number is best explained using lake ecosystem, where at the base are the
producers that might be—algae, diatoms and other hydrophytes. At the next (second)
trophic level comes the herbivores or zooplanktons which feed on the producers and are
lesser in number than producers. Carnivores occupy the third trophic level and are much
smaller in number as compared to the herbivores and the last being the top carnivores
which are few. Thereby, in the ecological pyramid of numbers there is reduction in
number of organisms and an increase in the size of body from base to apex of the
pyramid.

However, in parasitic food chain that starts from the tree, the pyramid of numbers will be
inverted or spindle shaped wherein the number of organisms at each trophic level goes
on increasing.

In the above example the number of feeding organisms goes on increasing as on one
tree many birds are present and on each bird many parasites, in turn with many hyper
parasites on the parasites. The right one is an example for spindle shaped.

Thus the pyramid of number might be upright, inverted or spindle shaped.

PYRAMID OF BIOMASS OF ORGANISMS:

Pyramid of biomass of organisms represents the living weights of the members of the
food chain present at any one time. It is indicated by means of measuring materials and
depicts the total bulk of organisms or fixed energy present at one time. In the pyramid of
biomass there is decrease in the biomass at each tropic level from base to apex, e.g.,
total biomass of producers is more than the total biomass of the herbivores. Likewise, the
total biomass of secondary consumers will be lesser than that of herbivores and so on,
giving rise to sloping pyramid for most of the communities.

Depending upon the nature of the food chain in the particular ecosystem, the pyramids
of numbers and biomass may be upright or inverted. In the above example, since the
herbivores being larger in size feed on more number of producers the biomass
accumulation will be definitely more as compared to the producers. So the pyramid is
inverted.

PYRAMID OF ENERGY:

It is a pyramid which represents the energy transfer from one trophic level to another
level. It also depicts the actual role of various organisms in energy transfer. It is always
that pyramid of energy is upright. At the base, producers have more energy than the
energy at the successive higher trophic level. Though some producer organisms have
small mass, but definitely they will be more in number and thereby more energy.
However at higher trophic levels energy utilisation is more and much heat is lost through
respiration.

Energy moves unidirectional, to start with solar energy being the prime source of energy
is captured by autotrophs (plants) for photosynthesis and part of the energy gits into the
herbivores in the form of food on eating. Likewise energy moves progressively from one
trophic level to another and is no longer available to the previous levels. Thus the energy
flows in one direction only.
When there is flow of energy from one trophic level to another, there is a progressive
decrease in energy level at each trophic level which is accounted largely by the energy
dissipated as heat in metabolic activities.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION AND STAGES IN ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

DEFINITION AND CAUSES

DEFINITION AND CAUSES

In an environment, nothing remains same. Physical factors, climatic factors

changes over time meaning habitant changes. When habitat changes, the
biological community also changes. It is a slow process. This is known as
Ecological succession.

Ecological succession can be defines as the gradual process by which ecosystems

change and develop over time It can also be defined as the process by which the
structure of a biological community evolves over time. Ecological succession takes place
by 2 phases. They are primary and secondary succession.

Causes of succession:

(i) Climatic Causes:

Temperature, rainfall, light intensity, gaseous composition, wind etc. when changed
succession occurs

(ii) Biotic Causes:

Different members in a community compete for their existence. Then ones that are
strong survive but some of the members that are not found suitable are gradually
replaced by new ones.

(iii) Ecesis Causes:

As the soil condition changes the habitat changes and the community forms also
changes resulting in new population.

Characteristics:

Ecological succession has the following characteristics:

(1) Regarded as an orderly process of community development.

(2) It marks the modification of the physical environment of the community.

(3) There is nutrient variation that determines the settlement of new community.

(4) New community involves changes in species structure and thus increases diversity of
species.

Types of succession:

(1) Primary succession:

Primary succession usually starts on lifeless areas or regions in which the soil is
incapable of sustaining life because of factors such as lava flows, newly formed sand
dunes or rocks left from a retreating glacier or any natural disaster.

(2) Secondary succession:

Contrastingly, secondary succession occurs in areas where a community is already

established and previously existed but has been removed probably by typified smaller-
scale disturbances that do not eliminate all life and nutrients from the environment.
(3) Autotrophic succession:

In this succession, the population of autotrophs (plants) exceeds or dominates the

population of heterotrophs.

(4) Heterotrophic succession:

In this succession, the environment is dominated by heterotrophs like bacteria, fungi and
some animals in an organic environment.

(5) Autogenic succession:

There happens a modification of the community because of continuous interaction of

community with environment. This modification results in the replacement of an old
community by a new one, and is known as autogenic succession.

(6) Allogeneic succession:

Sometimes the replacement of a community takes place by other external conditions and
not by the existing organisms, the course of succession is known as allogeneic
succession.

(7) Habitat Succession:

Based upon the type of habitat from which the phasic replacement the succession
starts.

(a) Hydrosere:In an aquatic habitat if the succession starts, it is known as “Hydrach”

and the series of changes occurring in the vegetation of hydrarch are called ‘Hydrosere’.

(b) Mesarch:

Succession takes place in a habitat where adequate moisture condition is present.

(c) Halosere:

Succession takes place in a habitat where conditions of saline water or soil are present is
known as holosere.

(d) Xerosere:

On a xeric habitat like sand or rocks and where moisture is present at minimal amount if
succession takes place it is known as xerosere. Xeroseres can further be subdivided into:

(i) Psammosere:

Succession on a sandy habitat.

(ii) Lithosere:

Succession on the surface of rocks.

(e) Oxylosere:

Succession on acidic soils

The different stages of an ecological succession are as follows:

(1) Nudation:

Nudation includes the process of developing a bare area without any form of life for the
arrival of new species. The causes of nudation may be due to soil erosion (by gravity,
water or wind), land slide, volcanic activity etc. Sometimes, the existing community may
be destroyed due to storm, fire, frost, and drought. Destruction of forest, destruction of
grass land etc. for the reason of industrialisation and urbanisation destroys the existing
population and causes nudation. And diseases induced by bacteria and virus can also
destroy the existing population.

(2) Invasion:

On a nude area, the successful establishment of a new species is called as invasion.

Invasion is achieved in three successive steps:

(a) Migration (dispersal):

Through air, water etc., the seeds, spores or other progagules of the species are brought
to the bare area and helps in landing on the new area.

(b) Ecesis (Establishment):

Germination and growth of the species in the new area as a result of adjustment with the
prevailing conditions helps in the successful establishment of the species and is known
as ecesis.

(c) Aggregation:

The individuals of species increase their number by reproduction after ecesis, and thus,
are aggregated or colonised in a particular area.

(3) Competition and Coaction:

When colonisation and aggregation takes place in a limited space, there happens
competition (inter as well as intra specific) mainly for space and nutrition. During this
competition the stronger ones remain and the species which are found unable to
compete with others in the existing environment get discarded. In another instance, the
life process of one individual is affected by the surrounding species which is known as
coaction.

(4) Reaction:

After competition and coaction, reaction is seen in the form of the mechanism of the
modification of the environment. Modifications are changes in soil composition, water
content, light condition, temperature etc. Because of these drastic modifications of
the environment it may not be suitable for the existing community. Thereby the existing
community may be replaced by another community.

The process which involves the substitution of whole sequence of communities with
another one in the given area is known as sere and the various communities constituting
the sere are known as seral communities or seral stages.

(5) Stabilisation (Climax):

At the end, the community that gets stabilized for a longer period of time and which can
maintain equilibrium with the environment of that area constitutes the terminal
community. It is also known as climax community and the stage is as climax stage

TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM

FOREST AND AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM

FOREST AND AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM

FOREST ECOSYSTEM: The terrestrial system in which living things such as trees, insects,
animals, and people interact is referred to as a forest ecosystem. It is the smaller
classification of the ecosystem as a whole, which is the biggest functional unit comprising
all the geographical features and living organisms on Earth. There are many different
kinds of forest ecosystems, and they are categorised according to the local climate,
including the amount of rainfall and temperature.

There are a few types of forest ecosystems listed below:

1. Tropical Evergreen Rainforest: Only a small percentage of tropical forests are

rainforests where average rainfall is 80-400 inches in a year. This forest is characterised
by deep and dense vegetation consisting of tall trees reaching different levels.

2. Tropical Deciduous Rainforest: The main characteristic of tropical deciduous

rainforest are broad-leaved trees along with dense bushes, shrubs, etc. Two main
seasons – summer and winter – are distinctly visible there. This type of forest is found in
many parts of the world. A large variety of flora and fauna are found here.

3. Temperate Evergreen Forest: Temperate evergreen forest is a type of forest that is

characterised by a smaller number of trees but an adequate number of ferns and
mosses.

4. Temperate Deciduous Forest: Temperate deciduous forest evolves in the moist

temperate region with sufficient rainfall. Here also, winter and summer are well defined,
and trees shed their leaves during winter. Dominant trees are maple, oak, peach, etc.

5. Taiga/Boreal: Situated just south of the Tundra, Taiga is characterised by evergreen

conifers. The average temperature is below the freezing point for almost half of the year.

CASE STUDY:

Nagaland, a tribal state located in the North-eastern part of India is comprised of

eighteen tribes with almost 80% of the natural resources under the control of the
communities. It has a rich biodiversity with abundant forest resources. Agriculture has
been the main economy and forest the main source of livelihood for these communities.
The different Naga communities according to their own specific administrative and
institutional structures manage these resources. In recent years, however, there has
been a gradual shift in the role of community forest management (CFM). As a result of
several structural and socio-economic changes in the region, the significance,
importance, relevance and implications of CFM are major issues that need to be
addressed urgently. The introduction of modern institutions for the management and
control of natural resources and the shift from a traditional self-affluent economy to a
market oriented economy make this ‘commons’ untenable. The ‘commons’ which has
been managed by vibrant traditional sociocultural institutions has gradually become
ineffective for the above reasons. The current trend depicts an increasingly shrinking role
of the community forest management hinting at an undesirable and uncertain future. It
also threatens the sustainability of the forest resource and has raised adverse
sustainable livelihood issues for these communities.

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM:

A system of living things and their environment interacting in water is called aquatic
ecosystem. Living things include water, plants and animals. Their interaction with the
physical and chemical factors present in the water constitute aquatic ecosystem. The two
types of aquatic ecosystem are marine and freshwater ecosystems.

Examples of Marine ecosystems are coral reefs, estuaries, and the open ocean. Marine
ecosystems are home to various plants and animals, including fish, sea turtles, dolphins,
and whales.
Freshwater ecosystems are found in freshwater and include rivers, lakes, and wetlands.
Freshwater ecosystems are home to various plants and animals, including fish,
amphibians, and turtles.

Functions of Aquatic Ecosystem

Aquatic ecosystems play a significant role in the biosphere. They are responsible for
cycling and distributing a significant amount of the Earth’s water. They also provide a
habitat for many species and are a vital food source for many people.

Aquatic ecosystems are also responsible for cleansing water and regulating the Earth’s
climate.

Aquatic ecosystems are responsible for cycling and distributing a significant amount of
the Earth’s water. The water in aquatic ecosystems is constantly moving and cycling
through the system.

This movement and cycling are necessary to maintain the ecosystem’s balance. The
water in aquatic ecosystems also plays a vital role in regulating the Earth’s climate.

Aquatic ecosystems also provide a habitat for a large number of species. These
ecosystems are home to various fish, amphibians, reptiles, and invertebrates. These
species play a vital role in the health of the ecosystem. They help to keep the ecosystem
in balance, and they provide a source of food for other animals.

Aquatic ecosystems are also a vital source of food for many people. These ecosystems
provide a source of protein, vitamins, and minerals. They also provide a source of income
for many people. Aquatic ecosystems are an important part of the global food supply.

Aquatic ecosystems are incredibly important, and they serve a variety of functions. Some
of the most important functions of aquatic ecosystems are as follows:

§ Play a critical role in regulating the Earth’s climate.

§ Provide a habitat for an incredible diversity of plants and animals.

§ Help to clean the water and recycle nutrients.

§ Provide recreational opportunities for people.

§ Aquatic ecosystems are an important source of food for people and animals.

Levels of biological diversity

Contents covered:

Levels of biological diversity: Genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity

Ecosystem and biodiversity services: Ecological, economic, social, ethical, aesthetic and
Informational value.

Genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity, & Ecosystem Services

Definition & Types of Biodiversity

The word biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms inhabiting the earth (flora
and fauna).

Biodiversity or Biological diversity is defined as the differences between living organisms

inhabiting different terrains like terrestrial, marine, and non-marine aquatic ecosystems.
The science of biodiversity studies the levels of biodiversity, the consequences of having
it, and the ways and reasons why it changes over time

Ecologists classify biodiversity into three levels

Genetic biodiversity

Species biodiversity

Ecosystem biodiversity

1) Genetic diversity

The differences in the genetic constitution of individuals in a population, species or

community

Each individual organism possess a unique genetic composition that accounts for its
variability from another member of the same species

Ex: The differences in the symmetries of human faces are due to such genetic variability.

The term also encompasses the genetic differences between distinct populations of the
same species, such as different breeds of domesticated dogs or the different types of
roses.

The evolution of new species driven by natural selection is fuelled by genetic diversity.

The availability of genetic diversity is put to use in plant hybridisation programmes to

develop superior varieties of crop plants.

2) Species diversity

Species diversity can be defined as the quantitative and qualitative diversity in the
number and abundance of species that are present in a given geographic area

Species diversity refers to the diversity in the number of species

species richness is the number of different species that is present in a particular

location

There are approximately 1.8 million different species classified on earth.

50% of all the known species on the earth inhabits the tropical rain forests, which
accounts only for 7% of the total land.

The number of individuals in a given species is called abundance

3) Ecosystem diversity

The diversity in the ecosystems of a given area

If an area has four different ecosystems like boreal, grasslands, forests and tundra and
another area has only forests and grasslands as ecosystems we say that the first area
has more ecosystem biodiversity.

Ecosystem types include terrestrial landscapes like forests, grasslands, deserts,

mountains etc and aquatic systems like oceans, rivers, ponds, lakes etc.

Grazing pastures, farmlands, agricultural fields etc represent ecosystems that are
manmade or modified.

Value of biodiversity
Biodiversity value is a term used to represent the benefits that its presence bestows on
the environment and organisms inhabiting it

Biodiversity values are indispensable to humans because we depend on it for our socio-
cultural, economic and environmental well being

One can think of the biodiversity values as the contributions of biodiversity that would
prompt one to protect it

o Falls under the following categories

1. Consumptive use value

2. Productive use value

3. Social value

4. Ethical value

5. Aesthetic value

6. Option value

1) Consumptive use value:

Value offered by products of biodiversity that can be directly harvested and consumed

These products are consumed locally and hence not bought or sold in larger markets
hence do not contribute to the economy

Examples include: fuels (like wood), food (grains, tubers etc), drugs (herbal remedies
etc), Fibres (cotton, jute etc).

2) Productive use value:

This is the value associated with those products that are harvested and then sold in the
commercial market either after processing or in unprocessed form

Examples include food materials like vegetables, fish, fruits etc

Medicines and other synthetic products whose design and manufacture was inspired
form nature also belongs to this group

3) Social value

Being a source of sustainable development of human culture biodiversity has immense

social value

It can improve standards of living, make people proud and help them lead more fruitful
lives.

Aesthetic, spiritual and cultural values associated with biodiversity adds to the social
value of biodiversity.

4) Ethical values

One gets sensitised on the importance of respecting and protecting all life forms by
appreciating the importance of biodiversity

The presence of biodiversity imparts the sense of responsibility that entails one to
protect all life forms
It also leads to the realisation that humans are only a tiny fraction of the larger
biodiversity and hence prompts one to acknowledge the right of all living organisms to
inhabit the earth.

5) Aesthetic value:

The aesthetic appeal of the mother earth is due to the biodiversity it carries.

The monotony of single or few species inhabiting all of the earth would have been
aesthetically and biologically displeasing

The beauty of the dense forests, serene grasslands, and of a house hold garden is all
dependent upon the biodiversity present

6) Option value

These are values that are not yet explored but possible available for the future.

These include undomesticated, edible crops, undiscovered medicines etc.

There of course is a possibility that one might find a cure for a non-curable disease deep
down the waters of an ocean or in the wilderness of a rainforest.

Biodiversity at the local, national and global levels

Contents:
Biodiversity at the local, national and global levels

Biodiversity at global, national and local levels

Biodiversity at the global level

The biodiversity present on the earth is contained and distributed in specific ecological
areas

More than 1000 major eco-regions are present in the world

‘Global 200’ is a term applied to the 200 eco-regions which are the most distinctive and
rich and rare in terms of biodiversity.

Such regions are given priority in biodiversity conservation programmes.

Mega diverse Countries in the World

The conservation International (CI), a US based non-profit organisation has identified a

group of countries that contain more than 70% of the earth’s biodiversity. These are
called the mega diverse countries.

The group contain 17 nations, and most of them are located in the tropical and
subtropical regions

Includes India, Peru, Ecuador, Australia, USA, Brazil etc

Biodiversity at the national level

Among the world nations India is marked with exceptionally high level of biodiversity and
species richness

One among the 17 mega-diverse nations India has three biodiversity hotspots.
Approximately 7% of all mammals, 8% of reptiles, 13% of birds , 6% of amphibians and
6% of all known plant species are present in India

The tropical rain forests, Western Ghats and the Himalayas contain most of these
biodiversity.

India is house to more than eighteen biosphere reserves and five hundred wildlife
sanctuaries and eighteen biosphere reserves.

India as a megadiversity nation

Contents covered

India as a megadiversity nation

India as a mega-diversity nation

India is classified into 10 bio geographical zones

They are:

1) Trans-Himalaya

2) Himalaya

3) Desert

4) Semi-arid

5) Western Ghats

6) Deccan peninsula

7) Gangetic plain

8) Coasts

9) North-East

10) Islands

India ranks first among the 12 regions harbouring rich diversity in crop plant varieties
and are in the 7th position for contribution of agricultural species. This way India is a rich
source of traditional crop varieties

166 species of crop plants and 320 species of wild relatives of domesticated crops
originates has India as its origin

India’s marine biodiversity is also rich, supporting the most productive ecosystems such
as mangroves, coral reefs and estuaries

Supporting highly productive ecosystems like mangroves, coral reefs and estuaries India
also has a rich marine bio diversity

India is rich in angiosperm diversity (17,500 species) whereas the number of

gymnosperm species is low at around 64 species.

India has around 68,389 arthropods, which tops the list of animal diversity in India. With
just 119 species protochordata forms the least diverse group of animals

Reasons for India being a mega-diversity nation

1. Endemism:

When a particular species is seen and is restricted to a specific area, the species is said
to endemic.

India is home to a good number of endemic species

A good percentage of amphibians (62%), lizards (50%), fresh water fishes (53%), reptiles
(36%) mammals (10%) and angiosperms (33) that are found in India are endemic to
India.

The highest degree of endemism is witnessed in the Western Ghats

2. Centre of origin

Many species are known to have originated in India.

About 500 species of angiosperms have their origin in India

166 species of crop plants and 320 species of wild relatives of cultivated crops has India
as their centre of origin

3. Marine diversity

Rich biodiversity can be witnessed in the 7500 km long coastline of India

These coastlines harbours mangroves, coral reefs and back waters which harbour diverse
species

Molluscs, crustaceans, marine grasses and mangrove plants contribute to the rich
biodiversity

Levels of biological diversity

Contents covered:

Levels of biological diversity: Genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity

Ecosystem and biodiversity services: Ecological, economic, social, ethical, aesthetic and
Informational value.

Genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity, & Ecosystem Services

Definition & Types of Biodiversity

The word biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms inhabiting the earth (flora
and fauna).

Biodiversity or Biological diversity is defined as the differences between living organisms

inhabiting different terrains like terrestrial, marine, and non-marine aquatic ecosystems.

The science of biodiversity studies the levels of biodiversity, the consequences of having
it, and the ways and reasons why it changes over time

Ecologists classify biodiversity into three levels

Genetic biodiversity

Species biodiversity

Ecosystem biodiversity
1) Genetic diversity

The differences in the genetic constitution of individuals in a population, species or

community

Each individual organism possess a unique genetic composition that accounts for its
variability from another member of the same species

Ex: The differences in the symmetries of human faces are due to such genetic variability.

The term also encompasses the genetic differences between distinct populations of the
same species, such as different breeds of domesticated dogs or the different types of
roses.

The evolution of new species driven by natural selection is fuelled by genetic diversity.

The availability of genetic diversity is put to use in plant hybridisation programmes to

develop superior varieties of crop plants.

2) Species diversity

Species diversity can be defined as the quantitative and qualitative diversity in the
number and abundance of species that are present in a given geographic area

Species diversity refers to the diversity in the number of species

species richness is the number of different species that is present in a particular

location

There are approximately 1.8 million different species classified on earth.

50% of all the known species on the earth inhabits the tropical rain forests, which
accounts only for 7% of the total land.

The number of individuals in a given species is called abundance

3) Ecosystem diversity

The diversity in the ecosystems of a given area

If an area has four different ecosystems like boreal, grasslands, forests and tundra and
another area has only forests and grasslands as ecosystems we say that the first area
has more ecosystem biodiversity.

Ecosystem types include terrestrial landscapes like forests, grasslands, deserts,

mountains etc and aquatic systems like oceans, rivers, ponds, lakes etc.

Grazing pastures, farmlands, agricultural fields etc represent ecosystems that are
manmade or modified.

Value of biodiversity

Biodiversity value is a term used to represent the benefits that its presence bestows on
the environment and organisms inhabiting it

Biodiversity values are indispensable to humans because we depend on it for our socio-
cultural, economic and environmental well being

One can think of the biodiversity values as the contributions of biodiversity that would
prompt one to protect it

o Falls under the following categories

1. Consumptive use value

2. Productive use value

3. Social value

4. Ethical value

5. Aesthetic value

6. Option value

1) Consumptive use value:

Value offered by products of biodiversity that can be directly harvested and consumed

These products are consumed locally and hence not bought or sold in larger markets
hence do not contribute to the economy

Examples include: fuels (like wood), food (grains, tubers etc), drugs (herbal remedies
etc), Fibres (cotton, jute etc).

2) Productive use value:

This is the value associated with those products that are harvested and then sold in the
commercial market either after processing or in unprocessed form

Examples include food materials like vegetables, fish, fruits etc

Medicines and other synthetic products whose design and manufacture was inspired
form nature also belongs to this group

3) Social value

Being a source of sustainable development of human culture biodiversity has immense

social value

It can improve standards of living, make people proud and help them lead more fruitful
lives.

Aesthetic, spiritual and cultural values associated with biodiversity adds to the social
value of biodiversity.

4) Ethical values

One gets sensitised on the importance of respecting and protecting all life forms by
appreciating the importance of biodiversity

The presence of biodiversity imparts the sense of responsibility that entails one to
protect all life forms

It also leads to the realisation that humans are only a tiny fraction of the larger
biodiversity and hence prompts one to acknowledge the right of all living organisms to
inhabit the earth.

5) Aesthetic value:

The aesthetic appeal of the mother earth is due to the biodiversity it carries.

The monotony of single or few species inhabiting all of the earth would have been
aesthetically and biologically displeasing
The beauty of the dense forests, serene grasslands, and of a house hold garden is all
dependent upon the biodiversity present

6) Option value

These are values that are not yet explored but possible available for the future.

These include undomesticated, edible crops, undiscovered medicines etc.

There of course is a possibility that one might find a cure for a non-curable disease deep
down the waters of an ocean or in the wilderness of a rainforest.

Biodiversity at the local, national and global levels

Contents:
Biodiversity at the local, national and global levels

Biodiversity at global, national and local levels

Biodiversity at the global level

The biodiversity present on the earth is contained and distributed in specific ecological
areas

More than 1000 major eco-regions are present in the world

‘Global 200’ is a term applied to the 200 eco-regions which are the most distinctive and
rich and rare in terms of biodiversity.

Such regions are given priority in biodiversity conservation programmes.

Mega diverse Countries in the World

The conservation International (CI), a US based non-profit organisation has identified a

group of countries that contain more than 70% of the earth’s biodiversity. These are
called the mega diverse countries.

The group contain 17 nations, and most of them are located in the tropical and
subtropical regions

Includes India, Peru, Ecuador, Australia, USA, Brazil etc

Biodiversity at the national level

Among the world nations India is marked with exceptionally high level of biodiversity and
species richness

One among the 17 mega-diverse nations India has three biodiversity hotspots.

Approximately 7% of all mammals, 8% of reptiles, 13% of birds , 6% of amphibians and

6% of all known plant species are present in India

The tropical rain forests, Western Ghats and the Himalayas contain most of these
biodiversity.

India is house to more than eighteen biosphere reserves and five hundred wildlife
sanctuaries and eighteen biosphere reserves.

Hotspots of Biodiversity
A biodiversity hotspot is a region that has a high amount of biodiversity (especially
endemic species) and has been threatened by high degree of habitat loss (and hence
biodiversity loss)

The term "biodiversity hotspot" was coined by the British Biologist Norman Myers in 1988

There are 35 biological hotspots and all them have lost at least 70 % of their original
habitat.

60% of the worlds plant, bird, reptile, mammal and amphibian species inhabit in the
remaining natural habitats associated with these hotspots

Interestingly this area amounts to only 1.4 % of earths land surface.

Rich endemism and high degree of threat are 2 criteria that are considered while
identifying a region as a hotspot

Having at least 1500 (0.5%) of the worlds 3, 00, 00 plants species as endemics is also
necessary to
World’s biodiversity hotspots
qualify a
1 Tropical 8 Caribbean 1 Coastal 2 Western 2 Japan a place as a
Andes Islands 5 Forests of 2 Ghats and 9 hotspot.
Eastern Sri Lanka
Africa

2 Tumbes- 9 California 1 Horn of 2 Mountains 3 Southwest

Choco- Floristic 6 Africa 3 of South- 0 Australia
Magdalen Province Central
a China

3 Atlantic 10 Guinean 1 Madagasca 2 Indo-Burma 3 Forests of

forest Forest of 7 r and 4 1 East
West Indian Australia
Africa Ocean
Islands

4 Cerrado 11 Cape 1 Mediterran 2 Himalaya 3 East

Floristic 8 ean Basin 5 2 Melanesian
Region Islands

5 Chilean 12 Succulent 1 Caucasus 2 Sundaland 3 New Zeeland

Winter Karoo 9 6 3
Rainfall
and
Valdivian
Forest

6 Mesoamer 13 Maputala 2 Irano- 2 Wallacea 3 New

ica nd– 0 Anatolian 7 4 Caledonia
Pondolan
d–Albany

7 Madrean 14 Eastern 2 Mountains 2 Philippines 3 Polynesia–

Pine-Oak Afromont 1 of Central 8 5 Micronesia
woodland ane Asia
s
Biodiversity hotspots in India

1) Himalaya:

2) Indo-Burma

3) Sundalands

4) Western Ghats

Western Ghats- A hotspot of Biodiversity

A network of peaks that run parallel to the western coast of India.

Western Ghats run through the states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Goa,
Maharashtra and Gujarat

It runs about1600 Km in a long continuous stretch interrupted only by the 30 km palghat

gap.

The total area covered by the Ghats is around 140,000 km²

Western Ghats harbour exceptionally high degree of endemism and species diversity.

It is considered along with Sri Lanka as one of the worlds eight ‘hottest hotspots’

Some of the world’s best non-equatorial tropical evergreen forests are seen in the
Western Ghats.

The Ghats contain at least 325 species identified as globally threatened in the IUCN red
data list

229 plant species, 31 mammal species, 15 bird species, 43 amphibian species, 5 reptile
species and 1 fish species seen in the Western Ghats are included in the list of
threatened species.

129 out of the 325 threatened species in the Western Ghats are classified as Vulnerable,
145 as Endangered and 51 as Critically Endangered.

Introduction, Types, Causes & Control of Pollution

Environmental Pollution

Environmental pollution is one of the most common issues facing humanity and other life
forms on our planet today. Environmental pollution is defined as “the contamination of
the physical and biological components of the earth/atmosphere system to
Environmental pollution is defined as "contamination of the physical and biological
components of the earth / atmosphere system to a degree that adversely affects normal
environmental processes”. Pollutants may be naturally occurring substances or energies,
but if they exceed natural levels, they are considered contaminants. Any use of natural
resources at a rate higher than the ability of nature to restore itself can lead to air, water
and land pollution.

Environmental pollution is the unfavorable alteration of our environment, wholly or in

large part as a by- product of human actions, by the direct or indirect effects of changes
in the energy pattern, radiation levels, chemical and physical composition and
abundance of organisms. Environmental pollution is a global problem and is common to
both developed and developing countries, which has serious long-term consequences for
human beings. The decline in environmental quality as a result of pollution is
demonstrated by the loss of vegetation, biodiversity, excessive amounts of harmful
chemicals in the atmosphere and in food grains and the increasing risk of environmental
accidents and life-support systems.

A pollutant may be any chemical (toxic metal, radionuclides, organophosphorus

compounds, gasses) or geochemical substance (dust, sediment), biological organism or
product, or physical substance (heat, radiation, sound wave) that is deliberately or
inadvertently released into the environment by man with actual or potential adverse
effects, harmful, unpleasant or uncomfortable. Such unwanted effects can be direct
(affecting human beings) or indirect, mediated by resources or climate change.

The different types of pollutants are:

Primary Pollutants: These are the pollutants that are emitted directly from the sources
such as volcanic eruptions, combustion of fossil fuel, etc. These include nitrogen oxide,
sulphur oxide, etc.

Secondary Pollutants: These are the pollutants that are not directly emitted from the
sources but are formed when primary pollutants react in the atmosphere. For eg., ozone.

Depending on the nature of pollutants and subsequent

environmental pollution, pollution can be classified as follows:

a. Air Pollution

b. Water Pollution

c. Soil/Land Pollution

d. Noise Pollution

e. Radioactive Pollution

f. Thermal Pollution

Among these types of pollution, air pollution is the main type threatening
the environment, humans, plants, animals, and all living organisms.

Types & Causes of Pollution

Air pollution is the leading and most hazardous form of pollution. It happens
for many reasons. Excessive fuel burning, which is a daily necessity for
cooking, driving and other industrial activities; releases an enormous quantity
of chemical substances into the air every day; these pollute the air.

Smoke from fireplaces, factories, vehicles or wood burning is mainly caused by coal
burning, which releases sulfur dioxide into the air and makes it toxic. The effects of
air pollution are also apparent. The release of sulfur dioxide and hazardous gasses into
the air causes global warming and acid rain, which has increased worldwide
temperatures, rainfall and droughts; making it tough for the animals to survive. We
breathe in every polluted particle from the air; we breathe from the air into each polluted
particle; the result is an increase in asthma and lung cancer.

Water Pollution has taken all the surviving species of the earth into account. Nearly 60
percent of species live in bodies of water. It occurs due to several factors; industrial
waste dumped into the rivers and other water bodies causes a water imbalance which
causes severe contamination and death of aquatic species in the water. If you suspect
that nearby water sources have been contaminated by a corporation then it might be a
good idea to hire an expert to see your options.

Also spraying insecticides, pesticides like DDT on plants pollutes the ground water
system and oil spills in the oceans have caused irreparable damage to the water bodies.
Eutrophication is another big source; it occurs due to daily activities like washing clothes,
utensils near lakes, ponds or rivers; this forces detergents to go into water which blocks
sunlight from penetrating, thus reducing oxygen and making it inhabitable.

Water pollution does not only harm aquatic beings, but also contaminates the whole food
chain by seriously affecting people who depend on it. Waterborne diseases such as
cholera and diarrhea have also increased everywhere.

Soil pollution occurs due to human activity due to the incorporation of unwanted
chemicals into the soil. The use of insecticides and pesticides absorbs the nitrogen
compounds from the soil, preventing plants from obtaining nutrition. The land is also
exploited by the release of industrial waste, mining and deforestation. Since plants can
not properly grow, they cannot hold the soil, leading to soil erosion.

Noise pollution is caused by unpleasant noise affecting our ears and causing
psychological problems such as stress, hypertension, hearing impairment, etc. It is
caused by industrial machines, loud music, and so on.

Radioactive pollution is highly dangerous when it occurs. It can occur due to nuclear
plant malfunctions, improper nuclear waste disposal, accidents, etc. It causes cancer,
infertility, blindness, defects at the time of birth; can sterilize soil and affect air and
water.

Thermal/heat pollution is due to the excess heat that causes unwanted changes in
the environment over long periods of time; due to the large number of industrial plants,
deforestation and air pollution. It increases the temperature of the earth and causes
drastic climate change and wildlife extinction.

Light pollution occurs due to prominent excess illumination of an area. It is largely

visible in big cities, on advertising boards and billboards, in sports or entertainment
events at the night. In residential areas the lives of the inhabitants is greatly affected by
this. It also affects the astronomical observations and activities by making the stars
almost invisible.

Causes of Environmental Pollution

Let us first take a look at the causes of environmental pollution:

1. Industries: Industries have polluted our environment, especially since the beginning
of the industrial revolution, as mentioned above, especially as fossil fuels are increasingly
used. Coal was used in the 19th century and for a large part of the 20th century to make
machines work faster and replace human force. Though pollution by industries mainly
causes air pollution, soil and water contamination can also occur. This is particularly the
case for power-generating industries, such as plants producing electricity (May they be a
dam, a nuclear reactor or some other type of plant).

Also, the transportation of this energy can be harmful to the environment. We can take
the transport of petrol through pipelines as an example; if the pipeline leaks, the soil is
automatically contaminated. At the same time, if the tanker transports the oil from its
production plant to the place where the leaks or sinks are consumed, the water becomes
contaminated.

2. Transportation: Ever since men abandoned animal power to travel, pollution of the
environment has become higher and higher. Its levels have only been increasing until
now. Similarly to industries, pollution caused by transport can mainly be attributed to
fossil fuels. Indeed, humans went from horse carriages to cars, trains (which, before
electricity, used to be propelled by coal), and airplanes. As the traffic is increasing every
day, pollution follows that evolution.
3. Agricultural Activities: Agriculture is primarily responsible for water and soil
contamination. This is due both to the increased use of pesticides and to the intensive
nature of their production. Almost all pesticides are made of chemicals and are intended
to keep diseases and animals out of the crop. By keeping these forms of life away,
however, harm is almost always caused to the surrounding environment as well.
Furthermore, as agriculture gets more and more intensive to feed the increasing world
population, more environments and ecosystems are destroyed to make space for the
crops. Some of them, like rapeseed –used to make oil – demand a lot of space for a
relatively small output.

4. Trading Activities: Trading activities including goods and services manufacturing

and exchange. Concerning goods, pollution can mainly be caused by packaging (which
often involves the use of fossil-fuel plastic) or by transport.

5. Residences: Finally, residential areas provide their fair share of pollution as well.
First, to be able to build homes, natural environment has to be destroyed in one way or
another. Wildlife and plants are driven away and replaced by human constructions. As it
requires the work of industries, construction itself is also a source of contamination of
the environment. Then, when people settle in, they will produce waste every day,

Effects of Environmental Pollution

Now that we have identified the main causes of environmental pollution, let us study the
negative effects it has:

1. Effects on Humans: The impacts of ecological pollution on people are chiefly

physical, yet can likewise transform into neuro-affections in the long term. The best-
known inconveniences to us are respiratory, as hypersensitivities, asthma, aggravation of
the eyes and nasal entries, or different types of respiratory infections. Strikingly, these
well spread affections can be seen when air contamination is high in urban areas, when
the climate gets hot, for example. In addition, ecological contamination has been turned
out to be a main consideration in the improvement of malignant growth. This can occur
for instance when we eat memories of toxins utilized in the generation of prepared
sustenance, or pesticides from the harvests. Other, rarer, illnesses incorporate hepatitis,
typhoid affections, loose bowels and hormonal disturbances.

2. Effects on Animals: Environmental pollution mainly affects animal by causing harm

to their living environment, making it toxic for them to live in. Acid rains can change the
organization of streams and oceans, making them poisonous for fishes, a critical amount
of ozone in the lower parts of the air can make lung issues all creatures. Nitrogen and
phosphates in water will cause excess of harmful green growth, counteracting different
types of life to pursue their typical course. Eventually, soil pollution will cause harm and
sometimes even the destruction of microorganisms, which can have the dramatic effect
of killing the first layers of the primary food chain.

3. Effects on Plants: As for animals, plants, and especially trees, can be destroyed by
acid rains (and this will also have a negative effect on animals as well, as their
natural environment will be modified), ozone in the lower atmosphere block the plant
respiration, and harmful pollutants can be absorbed from the water or soil.

4. Effects on the Ecosystem: In short, environmental pollution, almost exclusively

created by human activities, has a negative effect on the ecosystem, destroying crucial
layers of it and causing an even more negative effect on the upper layers.

Environmental pollution has adversely influenced the life of both individuals and
creatures. Practically the majority of our increases in the fields of modern advancement,
science and innovation had so far been acknowledged at the expense of our wellbeing.
Indeed, even our vegetation were observed to be compromised with elimination.
 This truly abandons us thinking about whether every one of our accomplishments and
mechanical development truly enable us to climb the pinnacles of thriving or basically
bring us down the obscured back roads of difficulty. It isn't just in India, however
everywhere throughout the world – even in Europe and U.S.A. – that the inquiry is being
raised whether everything is great with our modern development and advancement in
the field of science and innovation. Numerous crusaders against ecological
contamination are passionately challenging the aimless infringement submitted day by
day for the sake of advancement. The natural contamination isn't brought about by the
drop out from atomic tests or ventures alone. The smoke deserted the autos and other
vehicular traffic, the expanding utilization of manufactured cleansers, nitrogen composts
and bug sprays pollute both air and water.

· The water we drink the vegetables are all contaminated to-day. As a result of this
contamination our world is afflicted with a quite a number of incurable diseases.

· Environmental pollution affects water sources which mean that there is less fresh
water available for drinking, washing, cooking and irrigating crops.

· Nothing in this world is immune, no life is safe and the future of this world is bleak.

· The factories are mostly built in populated areas and the smoke-emitting vehicles
ply through the congested areas. Besides causing immense disturbances, there are
increasing case of pulmonary tuberculosis and thrombosis and various sorts of brain and
heart complications.

· Air-pollution may cause severe lungs-diseases, asthma, brain-disorder diseases,

etc.

· Soil-pollution may have negative effect on farm output ratio. It can also
contaminate the ground water.

· Noise-pollution have negative effects on hearing or auditory sense organs. It can

also cause deafness, tiredness, and mental losses.

· The heat generated by industries and vehicles causes thermal pollution by raising
the environmental temperature of the nearby areas.

· Many scientists believe that we are living in an era of mass extinction, due to
human made environmental pollution.

The birth of mills and factories is the result of the growth of industry in this machine-
predominated age. As long as they will be there, they must emit smoke, pollute the air
and hasten our end by slow-poisoning.

Note: The worst industrial environment tragedy occurred at Bhopal on December 3, 1984
as a result of toxic and poisonous leakage of methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas from a multi-
national Union Carbide pesticides manufacturing plant. Over 2000 people including
woman and children were killed, and hundreds were severely hurt.

Control of Pollution

· Gas discharge contamination is being moderated in an assortment of routes with

vehicle outflow control, electric and cross breed vehicles and open transportation
frameworks. Not every single significant city have fruitful execution and better than
average open transportation set up, yet the world is chipping away at this issue always
and we have figured out how to decrease discharges significantly in the course of the
most recent decade. There is much making up for lost time to do.

· The cost of radioactive power plants is getting to be evident and the times of coal
control plants are almost dead. The radiation is a significant issue. Radioactive spillage
from power plants and atomic testing have officially tainted maritime life to such an
extent, to the point that it will take several years to come back to typical. More radiation
arrangements are underway with different environmentally amicable power advances
being manufactured each day. Solar power is a fantastic solution. Now that solar
radiation is at a climactic peak, we can reap power from the sun using solar panel
systems. These range from home systems to larger scale systems powering entire
communities and cities.

· Wind control is becoming possibly the most important factor. This may not appear
much at first, but rather when you get around 100 feet off the ground, there is a lot of
wind up there. By building wind turbines to reap regular breeze vitality, power is created.
Wind turbine control and sun based power are both incredible powers against non-
renewable energy source control and radioactive power. The one issue here is control
organizations. They need to remain with radioactive power plants since they really can't
be expelled. It has turned into the campaigns of numerous people and little enterprises
to do the switch and there are a lot of individuals following this as populaces shout out
for help.

• Electromagnetic radiation (ER) decrease. When real makers of PCs and electronic
gadgets understood the outright potential for tremendous ER discharges specifically into
the eyes and minds of clients, they began to execute equipment conventions to limit
chances and lessen ER creation fundamentally. More up to date gadgets are in the
number one spot to thump this issue out and, luckily, this is working.

• Also, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is very much aware all things
considered and traps ventures are utilizing to dump squanders. This organization
currently has very strict conventions and testing methodology actualized against such
offices so populaces are not influenced. Also, the EPA is estimating air contamination and
executing administrative methods for vehicle emanations. They additionally screen dust
issues and, with the assistance of the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), they actualize
answers for decrease dust noticeable all around.

• Dropping pollen counts to a noteworthy concentration for EPA and CDC exercises.
Asthma and other unfavorably susceptible conditions are flooding medicinal
consideration offices and pharmaceutical organizations with genuine general medical
issues. The reaction has been quick and different strategies to control outflows and
diminish dust include are the works. Kids and old individuals are at the most astounding
danger for ecological contamination related medical issues. The uplifting news is we are
straightforwardly seemingly within easy reach to chop down the causes and dangers
while giving reasonable wellbeing answers for the overall population all through the
world.

Types of Pollution

Water pollution

Water Pollution happens when synthetic concoctions or perilous outside substances are
acquainted with water, including synthetics, sewage, pesticides and composts from
farming overflow, or metals like lead or mercury. As indicated by the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA), 44 percent of surveyed stream miles, 64 percent of lakes and
30 percent of straight and estuarine zones are not perfect enough to fish and swimming.
The EPA additionally expresses that the United State's most regular contaminants are
microscopic organisms, mercury, phosphorus and nitrogen. These originate from the
most widely recognized wellsprings of debases, that incorporate rural spillover, air
affidavit, water preoccupations and channelization of streams.

Water Pollution isn't only an issue for the United States. As per United Nations, 783
million individuals don't approach clean water and around 2.5 billion don't approach
satisfactory sanitation. Sufficient sanitation shields sewage and different contaminants
from entering the water supply. Each living being depends, specifically, on water so this
has taken an overwhelming toll on the whole living population. Other than direct
conditions, over 60% of the species live in some type of water. Thus water pollution is
another major type of pollution that needs to be curbed.

It very well may be credited to numerous components - mechanical emanating dumped

into the waterways and ocean causes a gigantic unevenness in the water properties
which renders the water bodies unfit for amphibian lives. Water pollution is likewise a
noteworthy reason for ailments caused to the non-oceanic species. Insecticides,
pesticides which are sprayed on the plants, pollutes the ground water framework and oil
slicks in the seas have made hopeless harm the water bodies. Eutrophication is another
huge source; it happens because of day by day exercises like washing garments, utensils
close lakes, lakes or streams; this powers cleansers to go into water which blocks
sunlight from infiltrating, along these lines lessening oxygen and making it inhabitable.

As per National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 80 percent of

the pollution in marine conditions originates from the land through sources, for example,
overflow. Water pollution can extremely influence marine life. For instance, sewage
makes pathogens develop, while natural and inorganic compounds in water can change
the composition of the precious resource. As indicated by the EPA, low dimensions of
dissolved oxygen in the water are additionally viewed as a pollutant. Dissolved oxygen is
brought about by the disintegration of natural materials, for example, sewage brought
into the water. Water pollution harms the oceanic creatures as well as pollutes the whole
natural way of life by extremely influencing people subject to these. Water-borne
diseases like cholera, diarrhoea have increased in all areas.

Significant causes of water pollution include:

Dumping solid wastes in water bodies

Disposing untreated industrial sewage into water bodies

Human and animal wastes

Agricultural runoff containing pesticides and fertilisers

Effects of water pollution include:

Disruption of the ecosystem

Threats to marine life

Increased risk of water-borne diseases

Increases toxic chemicals (such as mercury) in water bodies

Eutrophication

Air Pollution

The air we inhale has a correct compound structure; 99 percent of it is comprised of

nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor and inert gases. Air pollution happens when things that
aren't ordinarily there are added to the air. A typical kind of air pollution happens when
individuals discharge particles into the air from burning fuels. This pollution looks like
soot, containing millions of tiny particles, floating in the air.

Another basic kind of air pollution is unsafe gases, for example, sulfur dioxide, carbon
monoxide, nitrogen oxides and compound vapors. These can partake in further chemical
reactions once they are in the environment, making acid rain and smog. Other sources of
air pollution can come from within buildings, such as secondhand smoke.

It is the most common and unsafe type of pollution particularly considered to go hand in
hand with urbanization. There are numerous reasons to it. Primary among these is the
excessive fuel combustion which has become a basic necessity for cooking, transport and
other industrial activities. This discharges umpteen no. of synthetic compounds to the
air which are a far from being expelled from it. These are specifically influencing our
reality.

Smoke discharges SO2 into the air making it toxic. It is caused primarily due to
fireplaces, processing factory stacks, vehicles or something as basic as 'burning of wood'.
Release of SO2 and other ozone depleting substances into air causes a worldwide
temperature alteration and has ability to cause acid rain. An unnatural weather change
or release of these gases has increased temperatures, erratic rains and dry seasons
around the world. This has intensely expanded the instances of Asthma, Bronchitis and
the more dangerous lung malignancy, for the most part in the metro urban areas.

Air pollution is accepted to end lives of more than 20 lakh individuals consistently – an
investigation, distributed in the diary Environmental Research Letters, says. One of the
major and sad instances of what can air contamination lead to is the Bhopal Gas Tragedy
of 1984. It was an immediate aftereffect of arrival of methyl isocyanate gas at Union
Carbide plant in Bhopal. It slaughtered more than 2,000 individuals, and more than
200,000 endured respiratory issues. An irritant (for example particulates under 10
micrometers) may cause respiratory sicknesses, cardiovascular illness and increments in
asthma. Indeed, even today there are birth abandons in the children borne, which are
accepted to be a result of the catastrophe.

An irritant (for example particulates under 10 micrometers) may cause respiratory

sicknesses, cardiovascular illness and increments in asthma. "The extremely youthful,
the old and those with helpless safe frameworks are most in danger from air
contamination. The air pollutant may be carcinogenic (e.g. some volatile organic
compounds) or biologically active (e.g. some viruses) or radioactive (e.g. radon).

Some causes that contribute to air pollution are:

Burning fossil fuels

Mining operations

Exhaust gases from industries and factories

The effects of air pollution vary based on the kind of pollutant. But generally, the impact
of air pollution ranges from:

Increased risk of respiratory illness and cardiovascular problems

Increased risk of skin diseases

May increase the risk of cancer

Global warming

Acid rain

Ozone depletion

Hazards to wildlife

Soil pollution
Also known as Land Pollution, this occurs due to incorporation of unwanted chemicals in
the soil due to human activities. Use of insecticides and pesticides absorbs the nitrogen
compounds from the soil making it unfit for plants to derive nutrition from. Release of
industrial waste, mining and deforestation also exploits the soil. Since plants can’t grow
properly, they can’t hold the soil and this leads to soil erosion.

Food is a big contributor to landfill waste. Up to 40 percent of food produced in the

United States is trashed each year, according to the Natural Resources Defense Council.

Commercial or industrial waste is a significant portion of solid waste. According to the

University of Utah, industries use 4 million pounds (1.8 million kg) of materials in order to
provide the average American family with needed products for one year. Much of it is
classified as non-hazardous, such as construction material (wood, concrete, bricks, glass,
etc.) and medical waste (bandages, surgical gloves, surgical instruments, discarded
needles, etc.). Hazardous waste is any liquid, solid or sludge waste that contain
properties that are dangerous of potentially harmful to human health or the environment.
Industries generate hazardous waste from mining, petroleum refining, and pesticide
manufacturing and other chemical production. Households generate hazardous waste as
well, including paints and solvents, motor oil, fluorescent lights, aerosol cans, and
ammunition. While the above three are most common forms of Pollution that we hear
about, there are few other forms of Pollution that have seemed to grow at an alarming
pace these days. Let us briefly look at what they are.

Some of the common causes of soil pollution are:

Improper industrial waste disposal

Oil Spills

Acid rain which is caused by air pollution

Mining activities

Intensive farming and agrochemicals (like fertilisers and pesticides)

Industrial accidents

The effects of soil pollution are numerous. Specific wastes, such as radioactive
waste become particularly hazardous when they are not well-contained. A well-
documented example is a nuclear accident in Chernobyl, which has left an area of 2,600
km2 uninhabitable for several thousand years.

Other effects of soil pollution include:

Loss of soil nutrients, which renders the soil unfit for agriculture

Impacts the natural flora and fauna residing in the soil

Degrades vegetation due to the increase of salinity of the soil

Toxic dust (such as silica dust) can cause respiratory problems or even lung cancer

Noise pollution

Even though humans can't see or smell noise pollution, regardless it influences the earth.
Noise pollution happens when the sound coming from planes, industry or other sources
reaches harmful levels. Research has shown that there are direct links between noise
and health, including stress-related illnesses, high blood pressure, speech interference,
hearing loss. For example, a study by the WHO Noise Environmental Burden on Disease
working group found that noise pollution may contribute to hundreds of thousands of
deaths per year by increasing the rates of coronary heart disease. Under the Clean Air
Act, the EPA can regulate machine and plane noise.

Underwater noise pollution coming from ships has been shown to upset whales'
navigation systems and kill other species that depend on the natural underwater world.
Noise also makes wild species communicate louder, which can shorten their lifespan. It is
caused when a noise which is of higher intensity than 85 db reaches our bare ears. It
may lead to psychological problems like stress & hypertension. It can also lead to
permanent hearing impairment, which is worse. It is mainly caused by loud pumps and
compressors in the chemical industries. Even marriage functions and rock music concerts
are often ignored contributors to this type of pollution.

Noise pollution has several contributors, which include:

Industry-oriented noises such as heavy machines, mills, factories, etc.

Transportation noises from vehicles, aeroplanes, etc.

Construction noises

Noise from social events (loudspeakers, firecrackers, etc.)

Household noises (such as mixers, TV, washing machines, etc.)

Noise pollution has now become very common due to dense urbanisation and
industrialisation. Noise pollution can bring about adverse effects such as:

Hearing loss

Tinnitus

Sleeping disorders

Hypertension (high BP)

Communication problems

Other pollution facts:

· According to the WHO, ambient air pollution contributes to 6.7 percent of all
deaths worldwide.

· The Mississippi River drains the lands of nearly 40 percent of the continental
United Sates. It also carries an estimated 1.5 million metric tons of nitrogen pollution into
the Gulf of Mexico each year, resulting in a dead zone each summer about the size of
New Jersey.

· Pollution in China can change weather patterns in the United States. It takes just
five days for the jet stream to carry heavy air pollution from China to the United States,
where it stops clouds from producing rain and snow.

· About 7 million premature deaths annually linked to air pollution, according to

WHO. That is one in eight deaths worldwide.

Nuclear hazards and human health risks

Nuclear hazards and human health risks

Nuclear hazards

When we consider radiation we may promptly consider just unsafe and destructive
things. As a general rule, the word radiation alludes to any transfer of energy through
through space from a source. A few instances of radiation incorporate daylight, radio
waves, x-beams, heat, alpha, beta, gamma ionizing radiation, and infrared, just to give
some examples. Not all of these types of radiation are harmful, in fact, in moderation,
most radiation will not pose a health risk. Certain types of radiation, however, can be
dangerous, even in small doses. Risk or danger to human health or
the environment posed by radiation emanating from the atomic nuclei of a given
substance, or the possibility of an uncontrolled explosion originating from a fusion or
fission reaction of atomic nuclei.

A nuclear reaction in which atomic nuclei of low atomic number fuse to form a heavier
nucleus with the release of energy. A nuclear reaction in which a heavy nucleus splits
spontaneously or on impact with another particle, with the release of energy.

· Nuclear power is being used worldwide for the generations of electricity.

· 17% of electricity energy consumed comes from nuclear power.

· Radioactive substance are present in nature

· They undergo natural radioactive decay in which unstable isotopes spontaneously

give out.

· Fast moving particles, high energy radiation or both, at a fixed rate until a new
stable isotope is formed.

· The isotopes released either in the form of: Gamma rays (High energy
Electromagnetic radiation), Alpha and Beta particles (Ionization particles).

· ALPHA PARTICLES: fast moving positively charged particles.

· BETA PARTICLES: fast moving negatively charged electrons.

· These ionization radiations have variable penetration power.

Source of nuclear radiation

NATURAL SOURCES: Cosmic rays from outer space, Radioactive radon-222, Soil, rocks,
air, water and food

ANTHROPOGENIC SOURCES: Nuclear power plants, Nuclear accidents, X-rays , Diagnostic

kits, Test laboratories

Pathways of Exposure to Man from Release of Radioactive Materials

Natural sources (81%) include radon (55%), external (cosmic, terrestrial), and internal (K-
40, C-14, etc.)

Man-made sources (19%) include medical (diagnostic x-rays- 11%, nuclear medicine-
4%), consumer products, and other (fallout, power plants, air travel, occupational, etc.)

The good the bad and the ugly. How radiation infiltrates your body

The functions of living tissue are carried out by molecules, that is, combinations of
different types of atoms united by chemical bonds. The proper functioning of these
molecules depends upon their composition and also their structure. Altering chemical
bonds may change composition or structure. Ionizing radiation is powerful enough to do
this. There are several ways that radiation physically interacts with your body.

1: Inhalation of radon

As radon itself decays, it produces new radioactive elements called radon daughters or
decay products. Unlike the gaseous radon itself, radon daughters are solids and stick to
surfaces, such as dust particles in the air. If such contaminated dust is inhaled, these
particles can stick to the airways of the lung and increase the risk of developing lung
cancer.

2: Direct action

Keep in mind that ionizing radiation emits small particles that can pass right through
your body, and occasionally collide with one of the particles around an atom in your
body. Ionizing radiation, by definition, "ionizes," that is, it pushes an electron out of its
orbit around an atomic nucleus, causing the formation of electrical charges on atoms or
molecules. If this electron comes from the DNA itself or from a neighboring molecule and
directly strikes and disrupts the DNA molecule, the effect is called direct action.

3: Indirect action

It is currently thought that most damage from radiation comes from indirect action. That
is, instead of string your DNA itself, a particle hits a water molecule and ionizes it
producing what is known as a free radical. A free radical reacts very strongly with other
molecules as it seeks to restore a stable configuration of electrons. This in turn can
damage DNA and lead to mutations and cell death. Mutations in a cell's DNA and
reproductive mechanisms are what can eventually lead to cancer.

Impacts on Human Health:

Radiation is a mutagen, which can lead to cancer. Radiation can kill cells and cause harm
to the DNA inside the cells, which can lead to cancer in the future. When expose to
radiation, high energy particles go through the body. These can collide with molecules in
the body and disturb the nuclear structure. Mostly, replication systems of cells are
altered, so uncontrolled cell division happens which is observed in the case of
cancer. The sources of radiation are nuclear power plant and core and coolant of the
reactors. The fission products of normal functioning of nuclear plant, remain within the
fuel elements and also in the nuclear wastes. The actual problems are about the storing
and disposal of radioactive wastes and accidents which might arise. Radiation is emitted
from radioactive materials such as uranium and radon gas that are found in the earth’s
crust. The radio-active contaminants decay by beta emission. The contamination
happens because of spillage from the reactor. Contamination can also be caused by
coolant leakage and radioactive gas emissions. During the reactor overhaul, radiation
hazards may also occur. Research reactors also pose special health problems during
nuclear experiments and 4 percent of the total radiation is contributed by tests.

No observable effect (< .25 Gy)- .25 Gy is nearly 70 times average annual radiation
exposure White blood cell count drops (.25 to 1 Gy)

Mild radiation sickness (1 to 2 Gy absorbed dose).

· Nausea and vomiting within 24 to 48 hours

• Headache

• Fatigue

• Weakness

Moderate radiation sickness (2 to 3.5 Gy)

• Nausea and vomiting within 12 to 24 hours

• Fever

• Hair loss
• Vomiting blood, bloody stool

• Poor wound healing

• Any of the mild radiation sickness symptoms

• Can be fatal to sensitive individuals

PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Severe radiation sickness (3.5 to 5.5 Gy)

• Nausea and vomiting less than 1 hour after exposure

• Diarrhea

• High fever

• Any symptoms of a lower dose exposure

• About 50% fatality

Very severe radiation sickness (5.5 to 8 Gy)

• Nausea and vomiting less than 30 minutes after exposure

• Dizziness

• Disorientation

• Low blood pressure

• Any symptoms of a lower dose exposure

• > 50% fatality

Long-term or chronic effects of radiation include genetic mutations, tumors, birth defects,
cataracts, etc. Radiation damages DNA, in particular when it is assembled in cells. This
means that tissues containing many dividing cells, such as intestinal lining, skin and
bone marrow, are at greatest risk of damage. Sufficient doses also damage brain cells
and these doses are always fatal.

Prevention or Mitigation:

One thing that can be done to protect against radiation is to reduce exposure to radon.
Radon can enter basement areas of homes which are exposed to underground soils. If a
house is tightly sealed, it can build up radon. If radon is detected, ventilation in homes is
important. Radon detectors can be used to determine the presence of radon in the home.

Solar radiation exposure can be reduced even on cloudy days by wearing a sunscreen.
UV radiation can penetrate clouds and is aggravated by spending time near reflective
surfaces like snow or sand. UV radiation can be reflected, which increases the amount
you receive. Flying often increases your exposure to solar radiation and increases your
background radiation dose significantly.

Control of nuclear hazards

The uses of radioactive materials are so large and active that modern population cannot
go without using them; on the other hand, radiation damage has no cure. Thus the only
possibility against nuclear hazards is to have regular check and avoid
radioactive pollution. For this:
1) Leakages from nuclear reactors, careless handling, transport and use of radioactive
fuels, fission products and radioactive isotopes have to be totally stopped;
2) Safety measures should be enforced strictly;
3) Waste disposal must be careful, efficient and effective;
4) There should be regular monitoring and quantitative analysis through frequent
sampling in the risk areas;
5) Preventive measures should be followed so that background radiation levels do not
exceed the permissible limits;
6) Appropriate steps should be taken against occupational exposure; and
7) Safety measures should be strengthened against nuclear accidents.

Disposal of nuclear wastes

Since nuclear waste can be extremely dangerous and, therefore, the way in which they
are to be disposed of is strictly controlled by international agreement. Since 1983, by
international agreement, the disposal in the Atlantic Ocean and into the atmosphere
have been banned.

After processing, to recover usable material and reducing the radioactivity of the waste,
disposal is made in solid form where possible. The nuclear wastes are usually classified
into three categories:

1) High Level Wastes (HLW): High level wastes have a very high-radioactivity per unit
volume. For example, spent nuclear fuel. HLWs have to be cooled and are, therefore,
stored for several decades by its producer before disposal. Since these wastes are too
dangerous to be released anywhere in the biosphere, therefore, they must be contained
either by converting them into inert solids (ceramics) and then buried deep into earth or
are stored in deep salt mines.

2) Medium level wastes (MLW): Medium level wastes (e.g., filters, reactor
components, etc.,) are solidified and are mixed with concrete in steel drums before being
buried in deep mines or below the sea bed in concrete chambers.

3) Low liquid wastes (LLW): Low liquid wastes (e.g., solids or liquids contaminated
with traces of radioactivity) are disposed of in steel drums in concrete-lined trenches in
designated sites.

Note: In India, a Waste Immobilization Plant (WIP) was commissioned in 1985 at

Tarapore. It verifies HLWs.

Precautions after the disposal of nuclear waste

The careful, efficient and effective treatment/disposal of radioactive waste, just do not
complete the task. A regular supervision of the disposal sites is must. The essential
precautions, at the disposal sites, that have to be taken include:

1) Monitoring radioactivity around the disposal sites.

2) Prevention of erosion of radioactive waste disposal sites.
3) Prevention of any drilling activity in and around the waste disposal site.
4) Periodic and long-term monitoring of such disposal sites and areas of naturally
occurring uranium rich rocks.

Solid Waste Management

Solid Waste Management

Solid Waste

Solid waste refers to an unwanted and useless range of waste resulting from animal and
human activities. Industrial, residential and commercial activities generate solid waste.
Deposits are typically classified as sanitary, municipal, building and demolition sites or
industrial waste sites. Waste can be classified according to materials such as plastic,
paper, glass, metal, and organic waste. Categorization may also be based on hazard
potential, including radioactive, flammable, infectious, toxic, or non-toxic. Categories
may also pertain to the origin of waste, such as industrial, domestic, commercial,
institutional or construction and demolition.

Types of waste:

i. Organic waste: kitchen waste, vegetables, flowers, leaves, fruits.

ii. Toxic waste: old medicines, paints, chemicals, bulbs, spray cans, fertilizer and
pesticide containers, batteries, shoe polish.

iii. Recyclable: paper, glass, metals, and plastics.

iv. Hospital waste such as cloth with blood

Solid Waste Management

Solid waste management is a polite term for waste management. As long as people lived
in settled communities, solid waste or waste was a problem and modern societies
generated much more solid waste than early humans ever did. For residential and
industrial producers, urban and rural areas, and developed and developing countries,
solid waste management practices can differ. The administration of non-hazardous waste
in metropolitan areas is the job of local government authorities. On the other hand, the
management of hazardous waste materials is typically the job of the generator, subject
to local, national and even international authorities.

There are six functional components of the waste management system as outlined
below:

Waste generation refers to activities involved in identifying materials which are no

longer usable and are either gathered for systematic disposal or thrown away.

Onsite handling, storage, and processing are the activities at the point of waste
generation which facilitate easier collection. For example, waste bins are placed at the
sites which generate sufficient waste.

Waste collection is a crucial phase of waste management, includes activities such as

placing waste collection bins, collecting waste from those bins and accumulating trash in
the location where the collection vehicles are emptied. Although the collection phase
involves transportation, this is typically not the main stage of waste transportation.

4. Waste transfer and transport are the activities involved in moving waste from
the local waste collection locations to the regional waste disposal site in large waste
transport vehicles.
Waste processing and recovery refer to the facilities, equipment, and techniques
employed both to recover reusable or recyclable materials from the waste stream and to
improve the effectiveness of other functional elements of waste management.

Disposal is the final stage of waste management. It involves the activities aimed at the
systematic disposal of waste materials in locations such as landfills or waste-to-energy
facilities.

Control measures of urban and industrial wastes:

An integrated waste management strategy includes six main components

1. Source reduction

2. Recycling

3. Disposal

4. Landfills

5. Incineration

6. Vermicomposting

Source reduction is one of the key ways of reducing waste. This can be done by using
less material in order to produce a product, reuse products on site, design products or
packaging to reduce their quantity. We can reduce the use of unnecessary items during
shopping at an individual level, buy items with minimal packaging, avoid buying
disposable items and also avoid asking for plastic carry bags.

Recycling reuses some waste components that can have some economic value.
Recycling has easily seen advantages such as reducing the use of energy during
production and reducing pollution levels. Some materials can be recycled many times,
such as aluminum and steel. Metal, paper, glass and plastics are recyclable. Mining of
new aluminum is expensive and hence recycled aluminum has a strong market and plays
a significant role in the aluminum industry. Paper recycling can also help preserve forests
as it takes about 17 trees to make one ton of paper. Crushed glass (cullet) reduces the
energy required to manufacture new glass by 50 percent. Cullet lowers the temperature
requirement of the glassmaking process thus conserving energy and reducing
air pollution.

Even if recycling is a viable alternative, however, there are several problems. Recycling
problems are either technical or economical. Due to the various types of polymer resins
used in their production, plastics are difficult to recycle. Since each type has its own
chemical makeup, it is impossible to recycle different plastics together. Thus separation
of different plastics before recycling is necessary. Similarly in recycled paper the fibers
are weakened and it is difficult to control the colour of the recycled product. The use of
recycled paper in food containers is prohibited in order to prevent contamination. It very
often costs less to transport raw paper pulp than scrap paper. Collection, sorting and
transport account for about 90 percent of the cost of paper recycling.

The processes of pulping, deinking and screening wastepaper are generally more
expensive than making paper from virgin wood or cellulose fibers. Very often thus
recycled paper is more expensive than virgin paper. However as technology improves
the cost will come down.

Solid waste disposal is most commonly carried out by means of sanitary landfill or
incineration. A modern sanitary dump is a depression lined with an impermeable
membrane in an impermeable layer of soil. The three key characteristics of a municipal
sanitary landfill that distinguish it from an open dump are:
• Solid waste is placed in a suitably selected and prepared landfill site in a carefully
prescribed manner.

• The waste material is spread out and compacted with appropriate heavy machinery.

• The waste is covered each day with a layer of compacted soil. The problem with older
landfills are associated with groundwater pollution. Pollutants seeping out from the
bottom of a sanitary landfill (leachates) very often percolate down to the groundwater
aquifer no matter how thick the underlying soil layer.

Landfills: The organic material in the buried solid waste will decompose due to the
action of microorganisms. At first the waste decomposes aerobically until the oxygen
that was present in the freshly placed fill is used up by the aerobic microorganisms. The
anerobes take over producing methane which is poisonous and highly explosive when
mixed with air in concentrations between 5 and 15 percent. The movement of gas can be
controlled by providing impermeable barriers in the landfill. A venting system to collect
the blocked gas and vent it to the surface where it can be safely diluted and dispersed
into the atmosphere is thus a necessary component of the design of sanitary landfills.

Even though landfilling is an economic alternative for solid waste disposal, it has become
increasingly difficult to find suitable landfilling sites that are within economic hauling
distance and very often citizens do not want landfills in their vicinity. Another reason is
that no matter how well engineered the design and operation may be, there is always the
danger of some environmental damage in the form of leakage of leachates. Incineration
is the process of burning municipal solid waste in a properly designed furnace under
suitable temperature and operating conditions. Incineration is a chemical process in
which the combustible portion of the waste is combined with oxygen forming carbon
dioxide and water, which are released into the atmosphere.

This chemical reaction called oxidation results in the release of heat. For complete
oxidation the waste must be mixed with appropriate volumes of air at a temperature of
about 815o C for about one hour.

Incineration can reduce the municipal solid waste by about 90 percent in volume and
75 percent in weight. The risks of incineration however involve air quality problems and
toxicity and disposal of the fly and bottom ash produced during the incineration process.
Fly ash consists of finely divided particulate matter, including cinders, mineral dust and
soot. Most of the incinerator ash is bottom ash while the remainder is fly ash. The
possible presence of heavy metals in incinerator ash can be harmful. Thus toxic products
and materials containing heavy metals (for example batteries and plastics) should be
segregated.

Thus extensive air pollution control equipment and high-level technical supervision and
skilled employees for proper operation and maintenance is required. Thus while sanitary
landfills and incinerators have their own advantages and disadvantages, the most
effective method of solid waste management is source reduction and recycling.

Vermicomposting

If left undisturbed, nature has perfect solutions to manage the waste it creates. The
biogeochemical cycles are designed to clear animal and plant waste material. We can
imitate the same methods in nature. All dead and dry leaves and branches are
decomposed and broken down by organisms such as worms and insects, and finally
broken down by bacteria and fungi to form a dark rich soil-like compost material. These
organisms in the soil use the organic material as food, which provides them with
nutrients for their growth and activities. These nutrients are returned to the soil to be
used again by trees and other plants. This process recycles nutrients in nature. This soil
can be used as a manure for farms and gardens.
Pollution Case Studies

Pollution Case Studies

1. Effluents Treatment at MRL, Chennai:

MRL (Madras Refinery Limited) has taken steps in managing the effluents discharging
efficiently. The MRL has two treatment plants designed to meet IS2490 quality control
standards. New plant for treatment facilities consist of Cooling Water Treatment, treating
sour and merox water, treating floor wash and stream water to remove oil. Contaminants
from above treatment facilities

1) Processes and utility stream: oil & Grease, Hydrogen sulphide, Phenols, Acids &
Alkalis 2

2) ) Strom and wash water stream: Oil & Grease, General purpose stream, Waste
water

Bold initiatives & water management taken by MRL: MRL installed non-chromate type
treatment to avoid chromium mixing with effluent. MRL also install tertiary treatment to
treat secondary treated sewage of Madras water supply and Sewage board.

2. Taj Trapezium case:

Taj Mahal is the “King of Emperor” amongst world wonder. It is one of the most priceless
national monuments and also a glorious reputation to the men’s achievements in
architecture and “Engineering”. The chemical industries and refinery at Mathura are
source of damage “Taj Mahal”. SO3 came from the industry react with moisture in
atmosphere and form the “Acid Rain”. This will make corroding effect on clean white
marble. The judgment vigorously applied the “precautionary principle” and in May 1999,
the Central Government constituted the Taj Trapezium Pollution Authority.

3. Bhopal Gas Tragedy:

Bhopal Gas Leakage is the world’s worst industrial accident occurred in Bhopal city, M.P.
on midnight of 3 Dec 1984. Who manufactures some carbonate pesticides, using Methyl
isocyanate (MIC). The reactor exploded due to the failure of the cooling system.

Effects: lower amount of MIC it affects lungs, eyes and cause irritation on skin.

Higher amount of MIC cause O2 remove from lungs and cause death. MIC spread over 40
[Link] area, 5000 persons were killed, 65000 people suffer from eye & reparatory
disorder, and 1000 person became blind.

4. Arsenic pollution in ground water:

The excessive use of Lead & copper arsenate as pesticides cause the toxic heavy metal
“Arsenic Pollution”. Effects: The people were ingesting low does for 10-14 years were
affect by white & black spots in skin called melanosis. Long exposure lead to bladder &
lung cancer. Children are more badly affect by arsenicosis.

5. Soft drink bottling unit (Coca- Cola):

The coca-cola bottling unit in plachimada, Palakkad district, Kerala, discharged large
amount of sludges. Analysis of sludges contains the toxic metals like “Cadmium & Lead”.
It will pollute the land & local water supplies.
6. Palar River-pollution:

Palar river flows for 350 km through Karnataka, A.P & T.N & supplies drinking water for
several village & town in Vellore district in T.N. it affect by the various leather industries
in turn affecting the 40,000 hectares cropland. Types of pollutants: Chromium, Calcium,
Ammonium salts, Organic dyes, acids.

7. MiniaMatta Epidemic (1953):

MiniaMatta is a small coastal village in japan. The “Chisso Chemical Company” which
produce “vinyl polymer” The industry released the effluent into the Minia Matta sea, the
effluent contain “Mercury ion” it convert into “Methyl Mercury” which is highly toxic.

Effects: The effluent was absorbed by sea plants and it transferd to human by the food
chain. Loss of vision and hearing, loss of muscular co-ordination, severe headache and
nervous disorder.

8. Chernobyl Nuclear disaster (Nuclear pollution):

In Apr 26, 1986 the melt down of Nuclear reactor, in Russia, has leaked out the
radioactive rays & radioactive materials.

Effects: Nearly 2000 person were killed by the accident, people suffered due to illness
such as degeneration of the cells, severe bleeding, anemia, skin cancer, animals & plants
were also affected by the radiation.

Environmental Protection

Environment Protection Act; Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act; Water (Prevention
and control of Pollution) Act; Wildlife Protection Act; Forest Conservation Act.
International agreements: Montreal and Kyoto protocols and Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD).

Environmental Protection- Laws and practices & Nature Reserves

The Environment Protection Act, 1986

(No. 29 of 1986) An Act to provide for the protection and improvement

of environment and for matters connected therewith. Whereas decisions were taken at
the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held at Stokholm in June
1972, in which India participated, to take appropriate steps for the protection and
improvement of human environment;

Short Title, Extent and Commencement

1. This Act may be called the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

2. It extends to the whole of India.

3. It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by notification
in the Official Gazette, appoint and different dates may be appointed for different
provisions of this Act and for different areas.

The Act clearly states and explains each and every term very precisely like environment,
environmental pollutants, environmental pollution, handling, hazardous substance,
occupier, prescribed.

General Powers of the Central Government

Power of Central Government to take measures to protect and improve environment.

Subject to the provisions of this Act, the Central Government shall have the power to
take all such measures, as it deems necessary or expedient for the purpose of protecting
and improving the quality of the environment.

Planning and execution of a nationwide programme for the prevention, control and
abatement of environmental pollution;

Laying down standards for the quality of environment in its various aspects;

Laying down standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from

various sources.

Restriction of areas in which any industries, operations or processes or class of

industries, operations or processes shall not be carried out or shall be carried out subject
to certain safeguards;

Laying down procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances;

Examination of such manufacturing processes, materials and substances as are likely to

cause environmental pollution;

Carrying out and sponsoring investigations and research relating to problems of

environmental pollution;

Inspection of any premises, plant, equipment, machinery, manufacturing or other

processes, materials or substances and giving, by order, of such directions touch
authorities, officers or persons as if may consider necessary to take steps for the
prevention, control and abatement of environmental pollution;

Preparation of manuals, codes or guides relating to the prevention,

control and abatement of environmental pollution.

Air Pollution Act, 1981

An Act to provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution, for the
establishment, with a view to carrying out the aforesaid purposes, of Boards, for
conferring on and assigning to such Boards powers and functions relating thereto and for
matters’ connected therewith. Whereas decisions were taken at the United Nations
Conference on the Human Environment hold in Stockholm in June, 1972, in which India
participated, to take appropriate steps for the preservation of the natural resources of
the earth which, among other things, include the preservation of the quality of air and
control of air pollution and whereas it is considered necessary to implement the decisions
aforesaid in so far as they relate to the preservation of the quality of air and control of
air pollution.

1. This Act may be called the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.

2. It extends to the whole of India.

3. It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by notification
in the official Gazette, appoint.

The Act clearly states and explain each and every term very precisely air pollutant,
air pollution, approved appliances, approved fuel, automobile, central board, chimney,
control equipment, emission, industrial plant, member, occupier, prescribed, state board.

Water Pollution Act, 1974

An Act to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution and the maintaining or
restoring of wholesomeness of water, for the establishment, with a view to carrying out
the purposes aforesaid, of Boards for the prevention and control of water pollution, for
conferring on and assigning to such Board powers and functions relating thereto and for
matters connected therewith. Whereas it is expedient to provide for the prevention and
control of water pollution and the maintaining or restoring of wholesomeness of water,
for the establishment, with a view to carrying out the purposes aforesaid, of Boards for
the prevention and control of water pollution and for conferring on and assigning to such
Boards powers and functions relating thereto.

1. This Act may be called the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974,

2. It applies in the first instance to the whole of the States of Assam, Bihar, Gujarat,
Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and. Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Tripura and West Bengal and the Union Territories; and it

shall apply to such other State which adopts this Act by resolution passed in that behalf
under clause (1) of the article 252 of the Constitution.

3. It shall come into force, at once in the States of Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana,
Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Kamataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Tripura and West Bengal and in the Union Territories; and in any other State which
adopted this Act under clause (1) of article 252 of the Constitution on the date of such
adoption and any reference in this Act to the commencement of this Act shall, in relation
to any State or Union Territory, mean the date on which this Act comes into force in such
State of Union territory.

The Act clearly states and explain each and every term very precisely like board,
central board, member, outlet, pollution, prescribed, sewage effluent, sewer, state board,
state government, trade effluent etc.

The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972

An Act to provide for the protection of wild animals and birds and for matters connected
therewith or ancillary or incidental thereto.
Short title, extent and commencement

1 This Act may be called the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972

2 It extends, in the first instance, to the whole of the States of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar,
Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar
Pradesh and West Bengal and to all the Union territories; and it shall also extend to such
other State as may adopt this Act by resolution passed in that behalf in pursuance of
CI. (1) of Art. 252 of the Constitution.

It shall come into force in a State of Union territory to which it extends, or may become
extended in future, on such date as the Central Government may, by notification,
appoint, and different dates may be appointed for different provisions of this Act or for
different States or Union territories.

The Act clearly states and explains each and every term very precisely like animal,
animal article, big game, board, captive animal, cattle, chief wild life warden, closed
area, collector, commencement of this act, dealer, director, game reserve, government
property, habitat, hunting, land, license, manufacturer, meat, national park, notification,
permit person, prescribed, sanctuary, small game, special game, state government,
taxidermy, trophy, uncured trophy, vehicle, vermin, weapon, wild animal, wild life, wile
life warden.

Forest Conservation Act

India’s Forest Policies

Development of forest is guided by the policies adopted by a nation to manage them.

Scientific forestry was adopted in India since over a century back. Country’s first forest
policy was enunciated in 1894. After the Independence Indian Republic therefore
formulated her National Forest Policy in 1952. The National Commission on Agriculture
established in 1970 went into the forestry situation in the country and suggested a need
for a new forest policy, in their Report of 1976. The Constitution of the Independent India
placed forests under the State List of the Seventh Schedule in 1950. The States were
vested with the administration of the forests.

It is stipulated in Article 48-A, that the State shall endeavourer to protect and improve
the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country.

The period between 1950 and today has witnessed large-scale depletion of forests and
attrition of forestlands. Forests lands were cleared and diverted to other uses like
agriculture, industries, hydroelectric projects, settlement of displaced persons and
foreign refugees, etc. This also resulted in diminishing wildlife in the country due to loss
of their habitat. Realizing the importance of forests for the well being of the nation, the
Parliament, by the 42nd Amendment to the Constitution, in 1976, brought Forests and
Wildlife on the concurrent list in Seventh Schedule. In the year 1980, the President of
India promulgated the Forest (Conservation) Ordinance, 1980, which put severe
restrictions on de-reservation of forest or use of forestland for non-forest purposes,
without prior approval of the Central Government.

Forests play three important roles in national economy of any country, they are:
(a) protective, (b) productive, and (c) as a source of accessory benefits. This calls for an
effective legislation. The Indian Forest Act, 1927, is in force today for the same purpose.
Similarly a comprehensive legislation for the protection of wildlife and nature is to be
found in the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

Forest Policy of 1894

Enunciated in 1894 India’s first Forest Policy laid down ‘public benefit’ as the sole
objective of the administration of public forest. The Policy suggested the maintenance of
forests in hilly areas for preservation of climatic and physical conditions and for
protection of cultivated plains below from the divesting action of hill torrents. Forests
with valuable timbers were to be managed on commercial lines. The forests of inferior
quality were to be managed mainly in the interest of local population.

Guiding Principles for Forest Policy

India’s Forest Policy was revised once again in 1988. The main plan of the revised Forest
Policy of 1988 is protection, conservation and development of forests. Its aims are

(i) maintenance of environmental stability through preservation and

restoration of ecological balance, (ii) conservation of natural heritage, (iii) check on soil
erosion and denudation in catchments area of rivers, lakes and reservoir, (iv) check on
extension of sand dunes in desert areas of Rajasthan and along coastal tracts, (v)
substantial increase in forest/tree cover through massive a forestation and social forestry
programmes, (vi) steps to meet requirements of fuel for wood, fodder, minor forest
produce and soil timber of rural and tribal populations, (vii) increase in productivity of
forest to meet the national needs; (viii) encouragement of efficient utilization of forest
produce and optimum substitution of wood, and (ix) steps to create massive people’s
participation with involvement of women to achieve the objectives and minimize
pressure on existing forest.

Forest Conservation

The increasing destruction and degradation of forests and tree lands especially in the
Himalayas and other hill areas, is leading to heavy erosion of topsoil, erratic rainfall and
recurring floods. Another area of concern has been degradation of forests due to biotic
pressure. Guidelines have been framed for preparation of working plans and felling in
forests. Some of the salient features are

(i) working plans should be up-to-date and stress

(ii) preliminary working plan should have a multidisciplinary approach,

(iii) tribal rights and concessions should be high-lighted along with control
mechanisms,

(iv) grazing should be studied in detail and specific prescriptions should cover fodder
propagation, (v) shifting cultivation and encroachments need to be controlled (vi) clear-
felling with artificial regeneration should be avoided as far as possible and clear-felling
blocks should not exceed ten hectare in hills and 25 hectare area in plains, and (vii)
banning all felling above 1,000 meter altitude for a few years should be considered to
allow these areas to recover. Critical areas in hills and catchments areas prone to
landslips, erosion, etc. should be totally protected and quickly afforested.

Montreal Protocol
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (a protocol to
the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer) is an
international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of
numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion. It was agreed on 26
August 1987, and entered into force on 26 August 1989, followed by a first meeting
in Helsinki, May 1989. Since then, it has undergone eight revisions, in 1990 (London),
1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal),
1998 (Australia), 1999 (Beijing) and 2016 (Kigali, adopted, but not in force).

As a result of the international agreement, the ozone hole in Antarctica is slowly

recovering. Climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels
between 2050 and 2070. Due to its widespread adoption and implementation it has been
hailed as an example of exceptional international co-operation, with Kofi Annan quoted
as saying that "perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date has
been the Montreal Protocol".In comparison, effective burden sharing and solution
proposals mitigating regional conflicts of interest have been among the success factors
for the ozone depletion challenge, where global regulation based on the Kyoto
Protocol has failed to do so/In this case of the ozone depletion challenge, there was
global regulation already being installed before a scientific consensus was established.
Also, overall public opinion was convinced of possible imminent risks.

The two ozone treaties have been ratified by 197 parties, which includes 196 states and
the European Union, making them the first universally ratified treaties in United Nations
history

These truly universal treaties have also been remarkable in the expedience of the policy-
making process at the global scale, where only 14 years lapsed between a basic scientific
research discovery (1973) and the international agreement signed (1985 & 1987).

Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits state parties to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions, based on the scientific consensusthat (part
one) global warming is occurring and (part two) it is extremely likely that human-
made CO2 emissions have predominantly caused it. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted
in Kyoto, Japan on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. There
are currently 192 parties (Canada withdrew from the protocol, effective December 2012)
[4]to the Protocol.

The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to reduce the onset
of global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to "a
level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system"
(Article 2). The Kyoto Protocol applies to the six greenhouse gases listed in Annex A:
Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). [6]

The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities: it

acknowledges that individual countries have different capabilities in combating climate
change, owing to economic development, and ergo puts the obligation to reduce current
emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for
the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

The Protocol's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. A second
commitment period was agreed on in 2012, known as the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto
Protocol, in which 37 countries have binding targets: Australia, the European Union (and
its 28 member
states), Belarus, Iceland, Kazakhstan, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland and Ukraine.
Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Kyoto
Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets.
[7] Japan, New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto's first-round but have not
taken on new targets in the second commitment period. Other developed countries
without second-round targets are Canada (which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in
2012) and the United States (which has not ratified). As of July 2016, 66[8] states have
accepted the Doha Amendment, while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144
states. Of the 37 countries with binding commitments, 7 have ratified.

Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change
Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020.
This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement, which is a separate
instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto Protocol.

Nature Reserves

Nature reserves, tribal populations and rights, and human wildlife conflicts in Indian
context.

Nature reserves, tribal populations and rights, and human wildlife conflicts in Indian

Nature reserve is an area of land that is protected and managed for various
ecological reasons. It could be designated to protect and reserve wildlife, flora, fauna,
geological features or other special interest that plays a part in our ecosystem and
Earth’s biodiversity. Habitats that has its flora and fauna near endangerment are of a
particular concern. They are often protected and conserved in nature reserves to
prevent them from extinction and also to provide study,research and nature appreciation
opportunities.

Nature reserves can be classified into different categories. Many countries have adopted
the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) system of categorization to
classify their protected area in accordance to their management objectives. The
different categories consist of :

§ Strict Nature Reserve

§ Wilderness Area

§ National Park

§ Natural Monument of Feature

§ Habitat/Species Management Area

§ Protected Landscape/ Seascape

§ Protected Area with sustainable use of natural resources

Tribal population and rights

Nearly 250 million people live in and around forests in India, of which the estimated
indigenous Adivasi or tribal population stands at about 100 million India's forests are
governed by two main laws, the Indian Forest Act, 1927 and the Wild Life (Protection)
Act, 1972.

Educational & Cultural Safeguards

Art. 15(4) - Special provisions for advancement of other backward classes (which
includes STs);

Art. 29 - Protection of Interests of Minorities (which includes STs);

Art. 46 - The State shall promote, with special care, the educational and economic
interests of the weaker sections of the people, and in particular, of the Scheduled Castes,
and the Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of
exploitation,

Art. 350 - Right to conserve distinct Language, Script or Culture;

Art. 350 - Instruction in Mother Tongue.

Social Safeguard

Art. 23 - Prohibition of traffic in human beings and beggar and other similar form of
forced labour

Art. 24 - Forbidding Child Labour.

Economic Safeguards

Art.244 - Clause(1) Provisions of Fifth Schedule shall apply to the administration & control
of the Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes in any State other than the states of
Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Tripura which are covered under Sixth Schedule, under
Clause (2) of this Article.

Art. 275 - Grants in-Aid to specified States (STs &SAs) covered under Fifth and Sixth
Schedules of the Constitution.

Political Safeguards

Art.164 (1) - Provides for Tribal Affairs Ministers in Bihar, MP and Orissa

Art. 330 - Reservation of seats for STs in Lok Sabha

Art. 337 - Reservation of seats for STs in State Legislatures

Art. 334 - 10 years period for reservation (Amended several times to extend the period

Art. 243 - Reservation of seats in Panchayats

Art. 371 - Special provisions in respect of NE States and Sikkim

Human Wild Life Conflicts in India

The growing human population,deforestation,loss of habitat and decline in their prey
species are few major reason behind the Human wildlife conflict in India. Natural wildlife
territory is overlaps with the humans existence and various forms of human–wildlife
conflict occur with various negative results.

Leopard Attack

Leopard attacks on humans are regularly reported only in India,The Panthera pardus or
the leopards kill more humans in India than all other carnivores. Human–leopard conflict
regions of the country are West Bengal, Maharashtra and Assam where most of the
deadly leopard attack incident happened.

Elephant Attack

Elephant is one of the holy animal in India,especially in Kerala but due to elephant attack
some 500 people are killed by each year. There are many incident of elephant attacks
occurred in the villages of Kerala and other parts of India.

Reason Behind The Human Interaction

Deforestation
Loss of Habitat
Decline in Prey
Injured or Old Animal
Growing Human Population

Results of Human Wildlife Conflict

Crop Damage
Animal Deaths
Loss of Human Life
Injuries to People
Injuries to Wildlife
Livestock Depredation

Solutions to Reduce Human Interaction and Wildlife Conflict

Fencing
Land-Use Planning
Livestock Protection

Human population growth: Impacts on environment, human health and welfare

Human population growth and its impact on environment, human health and welfare.
Resettlement and rehabilitation of project affected person- case studies.

Human population growth: Impacts on environment, human health and welfare

The major human impact on the environment includes the major changes to the
biophysical environments and biodiversity, ecosystems and the natural resources that
are caused indirectly or directly by humans beings, including global warming. Some
human exercises, which are harmed through overconsumption, over-abuse,
contamination and deforestation, which is an existential hazard to humankind, including
an Earth-wide temperature boost and loss of biodiversity. Water shortage and there is
developing proof that an unnatural weather change, interruptions of agribusiness,
noteworthy augmentation of the scope of creepy crawlies and different vectors of
diseases. Declining Food security, Environmental debasement and uncontrolled scourges
of transferable infections have eased back the statistic change to low passing rates in
some extremely poor nations.

Wealthy nations also provide environments that offer protection against few infectious
diseases through preventive measures, for example, water refinement, sewage transfer ,
immunization, sterile and control of bug vectors

Hence the huge family size and fast population development hamper financial
improvement by propagating the destitution, As well the high development rates maybe
causes and contribute to poor health.

How does population growth affect disease?

Migration, urbanization, Fertility influences the spread of sicknesses including

tuberculosis, intestinal sickness and HIV/AIDS. Expanded population densities and
undesirable living conditions in urban can facilitate the transmission of contaminations.
Migration may in like manner extend weakness to diseases. Changing our economies and
ventures will be in certainty troublesome, costly and monotonous. Measures that will
help moderate population improvement are commonly increasingly reasonable. Our
future success depends upon extended access to family masterminding and conceptive
prosperity organizations in making countries and reduced usage by people in rich
countries. We ought to make and grasp progressively successful development for current
age in all countries. Our organizations, the private fragment and individuals must
participate to devise and grasp new instances of commonsense money related lead and
to help and enable purposeful and able family masterminding

Human Population growth:

The increase in the number of individuals in a population is referred to as population

growth. The global human population is increasing by approximately 83 million people
per year, or 1.1 percent per year. The reduction in the death rate as a result of
improvements in public health and sanitation over the past 200 years has been the
primary driver of the acceleration in the growth rate of humanity. Clean drinking water
and proper sewage disposal have made a significant difference in the health of people in
developed countries. In addition, medical advancements such as the use of antibiotics
and vaccines have reduced the ability of infectious diseases to constrain human
population growth in the past. At one point in history, diseases such as the bubonic
plaque of the fourteenth century killed between 30 and 60 percent of Europe's
population and reduced the world's population by up to one hundred million people. To
be sure, infectious disease continues to have an impact on the growth of the human
population, particularly in developing countries. According to one example, life
expectancy in Sub-Saharan Africa began to decline after 1985, primarily as a result of
HIV/AIDS mortality, after having been steadily increasing from 1950 to 1990. The
reduction in life expectancy caused by HIV/AIDS was estimated to be 7 years in 2005,
according to the World Health Organization.

Implications for the environment, human health, and general well-being: The world's
population is growing at an alarming rate, far outpacing our planet's ability to support it
under current conditions. There are numerous negative environmental and economic
consequences of overpopulation, ranging from over-farming and deforestation to
water pollution and eutrophication, to global warming and eutrophication. All of the
things, living and nonliving, in our environment, which includes the atmosphere (air),
hydrosphere (water), lithosphere (solid earth), biosphere (all living organisms), and
geosphere, are collectively referred to as our "environment" (rocks and regoliths). In
our environment, there are numerous factors that influence it. These factors include
anthropogenic activities such as urbanisation, industrialization, deforestation,
overpopulation, and the use of fossil fuels. The environment can be negatively affected
by natural disasters such as earthquakes, volcanoes, cyclones, landslides, and floods, to
name a few.

Air pollution, improper waste management, increasing water scarcity, declining

groundwater tables, water pollution, forest preservation and quality, biodiversity loss,
and land/soil degradation are just a few of the environmental issues that India is dealing
with right now. Its effects can be felt in the natural environment as well as the
built environment.

I. Waste generation is a problem:

Man has accumulated an increasing amount of waste in the environment as a result of

his destructive activities. Given that man-made waste does not undergo transformation,
it causes degradation and a reduction in the ability of the environment to absorb
additional waste. Furthermore, waste contributes to pollution of the air and water

I. Biodiversity is under threat:

Man has extracted an increasing amount of minerals from the earth as a result

of his destructive activities. Animals have been hunted to extinction, and plants

have been exterminated. There has been a reduction in biodiversity. As a

result, there is an ecological imbalance.

III. Putting a Strain on Forests:

Humans have established new settlements for their needs. Nationwide

highways and hydroelectric power projects have been constructed, and forests

have been decimated. These destructive activities have increased in number

and have resulted in an imbalance in the environment.

IV. Climate Change:

Climate change is becoming more irregular as a result of greenhouse gas

emissions. Human activities are having a greater impact on the thin layer of air

that surrounds the planet than they have ever had before. People living in

urban areas continue to be exposed to toxic pollutants at levels that exceed

acceptable limits. Aside from that, forests continue to be degraded by acid

deposition caused by far-off industries, and greenhouse gases continue to

accumulate in the atmosphere.

V. Productivity:

II. Biodiversity is under threat: Man has extracted an increasing amount of minerals from
the earth as a result of his destructive activities. Animals have been hunted to extinction,
and plants have been exterminated. There has been a reduction in biodiversity. As a
result, there is an ecological imbalance.

[Link] a Strain on Forests: Humans have established new settlements for their needs.
Nationwide highways and hydroelectric power projects have been constructed, and
forests have been decimated. These destructive activities have increased in number and
have resulted in an imbalance in the environment.

[Link] Change: Climate change is becoming more irregular as a result of greenhouse

gas emissions. Human activities are having a greater impact on the thin layer of air that
surrounds the planet than they have ever had before. People living in urban areas
continue to be exposed to toxic pollutants at levels that exceed acceptable limits. Aside
from that, forests continue to be degraded by acid deposition caused by far-off
industries, and greenhouse gases continue to accumulate in the atmosphere.

[Link]: Environmental degradation not only has a negative impact on human

health, but it also has a negative impact on economic productivity. In developing
countries such as India, filthy water, inadequate sanitation, air pollution, and land
degradation all contribute to the spread of serious diseases on a massive scale.

VI. Urbanization: The rapid increase in population has resulted in urbanisation, which has
had a negative impact on the environment. A result of increased population
pressure,natural resources in urban areas are being depleted at an alarmingly rapid rate.

VII. Degradation of the Land: Excessive use of fertilisers and pesticides, combined with
intensive farming, has resulted in the overexploitation of land and water resources. In the
form of soil erosion, water logging, and salinization, these have resulted in the
degradation of land.
VIII. Industrialisation: Underdeveloped countries are pursuing a policy of heavy
industrialization, which is having a negative impact on the environment. The
establishment of industries such as fertilisers, iron and steel, chemicals, and refineries
has resulted in pollution of the land, the air, and the water.

RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION OF PROJECT AFFECTED PERSONS

Individuals are compelled to move out of their property because of both common and
artificial catastrophes. Catastrophic events like quakes, typhoons, torrent and so forth
render a huge number of individuals destitute and at some point even power them to
move and resettle in different territories. Additionally, formative undertakings like
development of streets, dams, channels and flyovers dislodge individuals from their
home. You should all know about the ongoing atomic spillage in Japan because of which a
huge number of individuals were compelled to leave the zone for their wellbeing. In this
manner, resettlement alludes to the way toward settling again in another region.
Recovery implies reclamation to the previous state. Resettlement builds the destitution
of the inborn because of the loss of land, business, sustenance instability, employments,
and abilities and so on.

Objectives of rehabilitation

· Development of dams, water system waterways, stores and so on.

· Infrastructural ventures like flyovers, spans, streets

· Projects related with the preservation of natural life like national parks

 The displaced people should be given employment opportunities.

 Resettlement should be in the neighborhood of one’s own environment.
 If resettlement is not possible in the neighbor area, priority should be given to the
development of the irrigation facilities and supply of basic inputs for agriculture,
drinking water, wells, grazing ground for the cattle, schools for the children,
primary healthcare units and other amenities.
 Villagers should be taken into every stage of confidence for the implementation of
the displacement and they should be well-educated, by the meetings in public,
legalities discussion and Land Acquisition for the rehabilitation provisions.
 The elderly people of the village should be involved in the decision making.

CASE STUDIES.

Displacement in India is due to constructs of dams and other hydel projects. In the last
50 years, 20 million people have been affected by the construction of such projects. The
Hirakud dam displaced of about 20000 people living in 250 villages. The Bhakra Nangal
dam was constructed at 1950's and displaced lot of people. Some of them still not
rehabilitated even today.
Disaster management: floods, earthquake, cyclones and landslides. Environmental
Movements: Chipko, Silent Valley, Bishnios of Rajasthan

Disaster management: floods, earthquake, cyclones and landslides.

Disaster is a type of sudden, calamitous that brings a great damage, destruction and loss
to life, belongings and properties. This influences the socio-economic, mental, political
and cultural state of the affected area.

Types of Disaster Generally of two types –

Major natural disasters: • Flood • Cyclone • Drought • Earthquake

Minor natural disasters: • Cold wave • Thunderstorms • Heat waves • Mud slides • Storm

Flood

Flooding is the unusual nearness of water ashore to a profundity which influences and
affects normal life. Flooding can emerge from: flooding streams (waterway flooding),
overwhelming precipitation over a brief length (streak surges), or a strange inflow of
ocean water onto arrive (sea flooding). Sea flooding can be caused by tempests, for
example, tropical storms (storm flood), high tides (tidal flooding), seismic occasions (tidal
wave) or vast avalanches.

Earthquake

Earthquake is a sudden and vicious shaking of ground causing extraordinary annihilation

because of development of earth's outside. Quakes can possibly wave or volcanic
eruption. Earthquake of extent 9.2 on the Richter's scale in 2004 in Indonesia is the
second biggest seismic tremor at any point recorded. The deadliest seismic tremor
occurred in Central China, executing more than 800,000 of every 1556. Individuals amid
that time and district lived in caverns and passed on from the caverns falling. Instrument
used to quantify quake is known as seismograph.

Cyclone

Cyclones are a type of spinning storm that occurs over the ocean near the tropics.

The most popular Australian noteworthy violent wind was Cyclone Tracy, December
1974, where around 11 individuals kicked the bucket in Darwin, Northern Territory. The
heading they turn relies upon which side of the equator they are in. In the Southern side
of the equator they turn a clockwise way and Northern side of the equator they turn in an
enemy of clockwise course.

Landslide

Landslip, alludes to a few types of mass squandering that incorporate a wide scope of
ground developments, for example, rockfalls, profound situated incline disappointments,
mudflows and garbage streams. Landslip can happen submerged, in which case they are
called submarine avalanches, and in waterfront and coastal conditions. Despite the fact
that the activity of gravity is the essential main impetus for an avalanche to happen,
there are other contributing variables influencing incline soundness. Commonly, pre-
restrictive elements develop explicit surface or sub-surface conditions that make a slant
inclined to disappointment, while the real avalanche regularly requires a trigger before
being discharged.
Awareness through Mass Media:

Central Sector Scheme for Disaster Management:

Media assumes a critical way in teaching the population about disaster and its
administration in remote regions of the nation.

a. Human resource Development

b. Setting up of National Centre for Disaster Management (NCDM)

c. Setting up of Disaster Management Faculties in States

d. UNDP is a united nation’s global development programs working in 166 countries.

e. Programs for Community Participation and Public Awareness

Environmental Movements: Chipko, Silent Valley, Bishnios of Rajasthan

The ecological and environmental development is a worldwide development, spoken to

by a scope of associations, from the vast to grassroots and shifts from nation to nation.
Because of its extensive enrollment, shifting and solid convictions, and once in a while
theoretical nature, the ecological development isn't constantly joined in its objectives.

Chipko

Chipko development, additionally called Chipko andolan, peaceful social and natural
development by provincial villagers, especially ladies, in India during the 1970s, went for
ensuring trees and backwoods slated for government-upheld logging. The development
started in the Himalayan district of Uttar Pradesh (later Uttarakhand) in 1973 and rapidly
spread all through the Indian Himalayas. The Hindi word chipko signifies "to embrace" or
"to stick to" and mirrors the demonstrators' essential strategy of grasping the trees to
block the lumberjacks.

Chipko Movement

 Chipko Movement started on April 24, 1973, at Mandal of Chamoli district of

Gharwal division of Uttarakhand.
 The Chipko is one of the world-known environmental movements in India.
 The movement was raised out of ecological destabilisation in the hills.
 The fall in the productivity of the forest produces forced the hill dwellers to
depend on the market, which became a central concern for the inhabitants.
 Forest resource exploitation was considered the reason behind natural calamities
like floods, and landslides.
 On March 27 the decision was taken to ‘Chipko” that is ‘to hug’ the trees that
were threatened by the axe and thus the chipko Andolan (movement) was born.
 This form of protest was instrumental in driving away the private companies from
felling the ash trees.

Silent Valley
Silent Valley was a social development gone for the security of Silent Valley, an
evergreen tropical woods in the Palakkad region of Kerala, India. It was begun in 1973 to
spare the Silent Valley Reserve Forest from being overflowed by a hydroelectric venture.
The valley was proclaimed as Silent Valley National Park in 1984.

The Silent Valley Movement

 The silent valley is located in the Palghat district of Kerala.

 It is surrounded by different hills of the State.

 The idea of a dam on the river Kunthipuzha in this hill system was conceived by
the British in 1929.

 The technical feasibility survey was carried out in 1958 and the project was
sanctioned by the Planning Commission of the Government of India in 1973.

 In 1978, the movement against the project from all corners was raised from all
sections of the population.

 The movement was first initiated by the local people and was subsequently taken
over by the Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP).

 Many environmental groups like the Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA), Bombay
Natural History Society (BNHS) and Silent Valley Action Forum participated in the
campaign.

Bishnoi clan of Western Rajasthan

Bishnoi clan of Western Rajasthan has, throughout the hundreds of years, secured
commited to the preservation of backwoods, trees and wild creatures in and around their
towns. Bishnois don't cut trees for fuel and timber; they evacuate just the dead trunks
and twigs. Spotted deer, dark buck and blue bull can be seen scavenging bravely in their
fields. Regardless of whether the harvest is devoured by crowds of deer, the Bishnois
don't pursue away the creatures In 1730 A.D. Maharaja Abhaya Singh of Jodhpur
requested cutting of trees in extensive numbers to give timber to building a stronghold.
He sent troopers to Bishnoi towns to chop down khejari trees developing in the territory.
At the point when warriors connected the hatchet, the Bishnoi villagers argued to save
the trees., When the officers did not yield, they embraced the trees and upwards of 363
of them set out their lives to spare the trees. The Bishnois revere nature in the entirety of
its signs, monitor trees and restorative plants, give sustenance and water to creatures,
and are vegetarians.

Conservation of Biodiversity

Conservation of Biodiversity: In situ and Ex situ conservation of biodiversity.

Conservation of Biodiversity: In situ and Ex situ conservation of biodiversity. Ecosystem

and biodiversity services: ecological, economic, social, ethical, aesthetic and
informational value.
Biodiversity refers to the total diversity that exists at all levels of biological organization.
The word biodiversity was proposed by Edward Wilson and it can be divided into ‘bio’
which means life and ‘diversity’ which means variety. It is considered as there are around
1.7 million species of organisms found on the planet but it is not the exact number of
species as a huge number of organisms are yet to be discovered.

Conservation of Biodiversity

Diversity at genetic, species and ecosystem levels are of special significance, and
conservation efforts are made at these levels. The three main objectives of biodiversity
conservation are:

· Preservation of species diversity.

· Sustainability of species and their ecosystem.

· Maintaining life-supporting and essential ecological processes.

Nowadays, we are losing biodiversity at a fast pace. The various reasons for the loss of
biodiversity are:

· Loss of habitat and fragmentation

· Overexploitation of natural resources

· Invasion of alien/non-native species

· Co-extinction: where the extinction of one species leads to the extinction of the
other as they are dependent on each other; for example, plant-pollinator Mutualism

Why should we Conserve Biodiversity?

Biodiversity is vital for the survival of humankind. Apart from the direct benefits (food,
fiber, firewood, products of medicinal importance, etc.), we receive many indirect
benefits from the ecosystem, such as pollination, pest control, climate moderation, flood
control, aesthetic pleasure, etc. We owe to millions of plants, animals, and microbes with
whom we share our planet. So, our moral duty is to care for, protect, and preserve them
and pass them to our future generations in good order.

How to Conserve Biodiversity?

There are two main approaches to conserving our biodiversity- in situ

conservation and ex-situ conservation.

What is in-Situ Conservation of Biodiversity?

When we conserve and protect at all levels of biological organization, that is, the whole
ecosystem, the approach is known as in- situ conservation. In this, the conservation of
species is protected within their natural habitat. In-situ conservation example can be to
save the tiger, we save the whole forest. The protected areas where in situ conservation
takes place are; wildlife sanctuary, national park, biosphere reserve, and sacred groves.

Wild Life Sanctuary

Wildlife sanctuary is a protected area where wild animals and birds are conserved and
protected in their natural habitat. The capturing, killing, and poaching of animals are
strictly prohibited. However, human activities like the collection of firewood, etc. are
allowed up to some extent. Wildlife sanctuaries can be created for particular species—for
example, Gir wildlife sanctuary to protect lions.

National Park

The national park protects the entire plants, animals, and landscape of the region.
Cultivation of land, forestry, and grazing are not allowed at all. Human activities are
strictly prohibited—for example, Corbett National Park.

Biosphere Reserve

Biosphere Reserve is a large protected area for the conservation of wildlife, plant and
animal resources, and traditional tribal life in the area. It contributes to the protection
and preservation of the natural ecosystem and culture of the region. It may also contain
other protected areas like wildlife sanctuaries or national parks. The Biosphere Reserve
example are Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve contains Satpura National Park and Bori and
Pachmarhi Wildlife Sanctuary.

Sacred Groves

Sacred grooves are tracts of forested land that are protected by the community living
around them. The community attaches some religious or cultural significance to the
protected forest land. It helps protect many rare, threatened, and endemic plant and
animal species found in a region—for example, Khasi and Jantia hills in Meghalaya.

Advantages of In-situ Conservation

The advantages of the in-situ conservation approach are:

· The wildlife species are preserved within their natural habitat. They easily adjust
and adapt to their surroundings.

· It conserves the entire ecosystem, not just one particular species.

· It is a more economical and convenient method.

· Useful in conserving large populations of a species

· The chances of recovery are high.

Disadvantages of In-situ Conservation

The disadvantages of the in-situ approaches are:

· Conditions that threaten the survival of the organism will still be present.

· The genetic diversity of the region may already have decreased.

· Endangered habitats may be fragmented and may affect the survival of the
species.
What is Ex-situ Conservation of Biodiversity?

In ex-situ conservation, threatened animals and plants are taken out of their natural
habitat and placed in a unique and ideal setting where they can be protected and given
special care. Zoological parks, botanical gardens, gene banks, and cryopreservation
serve the above purpose.

Zoological Park

A zoological park is a facility where animals are kept within enclosures for public display
and are often bred for conservation purposes. Zoological parks increase the public
interest in the understanding of wildlife and are centers for recreation and education like
the National Zoological Park, Delhi.

Botanical Gardens

A botanical garden is a garden specially meant for the collection, cultivation,

preservation, and display of a wide variety of plants, which are typically labeled with
their botanical names. They serve the purpose of scientific research, conservation,
display, and education like the National Botanical Garden, Lucknow.

Gene Bank

A gene bank is a biorepository that preserves the genetic material. It is a collection of

seeds, plants, tissue cultures, etc., of potentially valuable species. It conserves the
genetic diversity of wild and domesticated plants and animals like the National Animal
Gene Bank, Karnal.

Cryopreservation

Cryopreservation is the long-term process of keeping live cells, tissues, and other
biological samples frozen at sub-zero temperatures for storage and preservation. The
sample is commonly kept at −196°C. It preserves the biological material, and the genetic
integrity of the material is stored like the one present in IARI, New Delhi.

Advantages of Ex-situ Conservation

The advantages of ex-situ conservation are:

· It protects endangered species from external threats like predation and poaching.

· Selective breeding programs can be implemented.

· It is a focused approach, as the health of individual animals can be monitored.

· The genetic diversity of the population is preserved

· It is invaluable for research and public education.

· It has the potential to reintroduce organisms back into their natural habitat.

Disadvantages of Ex-situ Conservation

The disadvantages of the above approach are:

· The individual is living outside its natural habitat.

· Animals may not adjust to the new environment.

· Captive animal populations have limited genetic diversity.

· It is expensive to maintain.

· Animals may not survive reintroduction into the wild.

Ecosystem and biodiversity services; Environmental ethics

Ecosystem and biodiversity services: ecological, economic, social, ethical, aesthetic and
informational value.

Environmental ethics: role of common man, society, religions and cultures in

environmental conservation

Ecosystem and biodiversity services; Environmental ethics, consequences and

prevention of global warming

Ecosystem and biodiversity services: ecological, economic, social, ethical,

aesthetic and informational value

Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems, including many that
are essential for agricultural production and food, such as water supply, pollination, and
climate regulation. Biodiversity is the variety of life at genetic, species, and ecosystem
levels, and plays a key role in ecosystem services. For instance, soil fertility, pollination,
and natural pest control are examples of biodiversity-mediated ecosystem services that
are critical to crop production. How crops and agricultural lands are managed and
maintained can have positive—or negative—effects on ecosystem services and
biodiversity.

Ecosystems contribute to humanity in many ways, and this can be referred to as

ecosystem services (ESS). Ecosystems are multi-functional and provide a series of
services for human well-being either directly, e.g., as food and fibre, or more indirectly by
e.g., providing clean air or pollination.

Ecosystem services can be divided into four categories:

 cultural services e.g., recreation, natural heritage, areas of importance for

indigenous people, experience nature
 provisioning services e.g., food, water, fibre and timber, fuel
 regulating services e.g., sediment retention, protection against weather
extremes (floods, fires, erosion), pollution control, purification of air, soil and
water, pollination, water regulation by wetlands
 supporting services e.g., habitats/ natural spaces for animals and plants to live,
interaction between species, primary production (photosynthesis in plants),
formation of soil, the nutrient cycle.

Environmental ethics: role of common man, society, religions and cultures in

environmental conservation

Environmental ethics may be defined as a set of norms describing how humans should
behave toward nature and its resources. Such norms are often based on a moral attitude
revolving around what is perceived as good or bad. The environmental crisis facing
humanity is deeply rooted in a complex web of economic, social and cultural factors, as
well as belief systems, social attitudes and perceptions. The prevailing unsustainable
patterns of economic growth promoted by modern society are closely linked to belief
systems and social attitudes. The root causes of widespread poverty and environmental
degradation, such as unsustainable lifestyles, food patterns and the depletion of natural
resources, including marine and terrestrial biological diversity, are related to
manifestations of conventional beliefs and unsustainable patterns of production and
consumption.

There is a close relationship between religion and environment. Religion has had major
positive influences on the natural environment. For example, under animism, a view of
the world found among many traditional peoples, a spiritual link is made between
humans and nature. Many traditional approaches to conservation are based on various
kinds of animism, and traditional beliefs have led to the founding of sacred sites.

ANTHROPOCENTRISM

Anthropocentrism is the major position that every humans are the most critical element
in any type of situation given; that the race of human should always be its own primary
concern. All type of the religions and every cultures have something to offer to the
nature, conservation and Protection for the environment. From all religion
exhortations and several injunctions can be brought for the sake of environmentally
sustainable development.

ENVIRONMENT AND HINDUISM

The sanctity of all life on this planet and elsewhere is clearly ingrained in the Hinduism.
The Supreme God has absolute sovereignty over all creatures including humans.
According to Hindu scriptures all lives have the same right to existence. Human beings
have no dominion over other creatures. Different birds and animals are associated with
different Gods and Goddesses and worshipped or the emphasis is on their protection and
preservation. Finally Hindu religion provides a moral guideline for environmental
preservation and conservation. Abuse and exploitation of nature is considered as unjust
and sacrilegious.

Environmental Protection in Vedas Vedic literature (about 1500 BC) clearly speaks that
there is an integral balance in Man, Nature and The God. Natural forces were considered
to be expressions ofthe Lord Himself and are venerable entities. Vedas envisage a
beautiful natural environment on earth and command the man not to pollute. 46 In Rig
Veda it is mentioned that universe consists of five basic elements namely Earth, Water,
Air, Fire and Space. These five elements provide basis for life in everything and man is
ordained to conserve them. Yajur Veda talks about propitiation and peace of all
components of earth. Atharvana Veda considers earth to be the Mother and the creations
are her offsprings. There is a command not to degrade the resources of Mother Earth.
Water is considered to be the milk ofthe Mother Earth which fosters the growth of all its
offsprings and makes them pure in 100 ways. Rivers are the source of power for life and
water is the symbol of dignity. Veda commands the knowledgeable to keep
the environment free from all impurities and that can be done by way ofYagnas or
sacrificial fire. Yagnas have said to be the medium of relation between human and the
Devatas. These Devatas are the natural forces who have to be kept propitiated. The
Yagnas are done to worship the deity and to purify the air and keep
the environment healthy. The ‘vid’ has been commanded to devote his life for the
purpose of yagnas and thus balancing the interests of man and nature.
4.2.2 Environmental Protection in Puranas During the puranic period (320 BC on ward) a
popular belief emerged that each tree had its own deity. People offered water and circled
trees with sacred threads in order to protect them.
ENVIRONMENT AND BUDDHISM

Buddhism is the religion full of love, understanding and compassion committed to the
ideals of non violence. The principle of simplicity based on sustainability teaches that
man should not over exploit the natural resources. The principle of ahimsa or non
violence of not killing the animals shows the love for fauna. In Buddhism the rivers,
forests, mountains are highly respected and regarded as bliss bestowers and buddhists
had great respect for the Sun, Moon and other planets.

ENVIRONMENT AND JAINISM

Jainism places great emphasis on the principle that one should reprise from avoidable
acts that are harmful to one or others. Everyone should be benevolent towards all living
organisms in the environment, compassionate for the weak, tolerant of the insolent and
joyful at the virtuous. This is the Jain way of bringing environmental harmony.

ENVIRONMENT AND SIKHISM

Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikh religion assigned divine attributes to nature. According
to Sikhism people should respect God’s A creations and know the eternal truth regarding
their place in the universe. The history of the gurus contain many stories of their love
and special relationship with the natural environment with animals, birds, vegetation,
earth, rivers, mountains and the sky.

ENVIRONMENT AND ISLAM

In Islam the Holy Qur'an and the supernaturally roused expressions of Prophet
Mohammed shape the establishment of and rule for the protection of nature.7 The
Qur'anic message is one of solidarity, congruity, parity and request. In this manner in
Islam additionally the need of keeping up the concordance among man and nature is
particularly pushed.

ENVIRONMENT AND CHRISTIANITY

The Christianity likewise says that symphonious triadic relationship exists between the
nature and humankind, among people and nature and inability to keep up the
concordance may distance mankind from its maker and furthermore from Nature. This
message of Pope John Paul VI makes it plentifully certain that there is a nearby
connection among Christianity and Environment and the push is for Sustainable
Development. In this way the genuine soul of Christianity to keep the earth in an ideal
condition is especially pushed.

ENVIRONMENT AND INDIAN CULTURE

The cultural heritage of India demonstrate a profound concern for the protection,
assurance and safeguarding of the earth. Indian custom considered the earth as 'Mother'.
Streams are depicted Lokamata. India is a place that is known for rituals and ceremonies.
Indians have verbalized the need to continue and advance the biological adjusts of
nature through consecrated manifestations and systematized 52 ceremonies for the
sustenance of life on the earth. Since all most all the real world religions are spoken to in
the Indian soil and their religions thus understood the closeness of humankind and
nature, they managed lead of humanity in such a path helpful for nature. Indian culture
demonstrates a natural advancement to harmony. Harmony to all components of nature
and humankind and congruity between them. Indians connected the way of life exercises
at two dimensions. First at the dimension of connection among society and nature and
second between individuals inside the general public. The Indian culture was Eco socially
mingled. Inexhaustibility and manageability were the second exercise. It depends on the
acknowledgment that sustenance originates from the backwoods not from the artificial
urban areas: from the fields, not from processing plants. In this way 'environmentalism' is
an integral part of the Indian culture.

Consequences and prevention of global warming; Protection of species

Consequences and prevention of global warming; Protection of species: gene bank

conservation.

Consequences and prevention of global warming; Protection of species: gene bank

conservation.

CONSEQUENCES AND PREVENTION OF GLOBAL WARMING

Global warming, the phenomenon of increasing average air temperatures near the
surface of Earth over the past one to two centuries. Climate scientists have since the
mid-20th century gathered detailed observations of various weather phenomena (such
as temperatures, precipitation, and storms) and of related influences on climate (such
as ocean currents and the atmosphere’s chemical composition). These data indicate that
Earth’s climate has changed over almost every conceivable timescale since the
beginning of geologic time and that human activities since at least the beginning of
the Industrial Revolution have a growing influence over the pace and extent of present-
day climate change.

Global warming has many consequences, including:

· Melting ice sheets: As the ocean warms, it expands in volume, and melting ice
sheets cause sea levels to rise. This threatens coastal and island communities.

· Ocean acidification: As the ocean absorbs carbon dioxide, it becomes more acidic,
which endangers marine life and coral reefs.

· Disease-carrying insects: As the geographic ranges of mosquitoes and ticks

expand, they can carry diseases to new locations.

· More severe storms: Storms are likely to cause more damage in a world
with global warming.

· Drought conditions: Some regions are experiencing longer periods of drought.

· Wildfires: The wildfire season is longer, and there are more frequent wildfires.

· Changes in precipitation patterns: Tropical cyclones bring more wind intensity and
rainfall.

· Habitat loss: Climate change is leading to habitat loss and fragmentation.

· Pollution: Climate change leads to pollution of air, water, and soil.

The causes of global warming include:

 Increase in greenhouse gases and combustion of fossil fuels.

 Exponential increase in population.
 Destruction of ecosystems and deforestation.
 Destruction of marine ecosystems.
The main environmental impacts are the following:

 Melting of polar ice caps and rising sea levels.

 Changes to ecosystems.
 Mass migrations.
 Acidity of our oceans.
 Species extinction.
 Extreme meteorological phenomena.

Some ways to prevent global warming include:

· Replacing regular light bulbs with compact fluorescent light bulbs

· Driving less

· Recycling more

· Using less hot water

· Avoiding products with a lot of packaging

· Adjusting your thermostat

· Planting a tree

· Alter your ways of transportation

· Avoid wasting food

· Manage your energy consumption

· Become informed and educate others

Protection of species: gene bank conservation.

What are the methods of gene conservation?

There are basically two methods used in forest genetic resource conservation,
namely the in situ (on site) and the ex situ (off site) conservation methods. The in situ
conservation method is the protection and maintenance of species populations in the
ecosystem in which they occur.

What is the concept of gene bank?

The vast majority of genebanks contain living things, or parts of them, such as seeds,
which themselves contain the collection of different genes that make each plant variety
or animal breed unique. Genebanks ensure that these genetic materials are safely
conserved and available for people to use.

Genebanks – repositories of genetic material (germplasm) of plants or animals – play a

critical role towards a two-pronged goal: i) making the germplasmavailable for
researchers, plant breeders and farmers in the short term and ii) ensuring that the
genetic material for future food supply are preserved in the long term.

What is the conservation of gene bank?

It is usually preserved in liquid nitrogen at −196 °C (−320.8 °F). By freezing the seeds or
embryos at this temperature they can stay viable for at least a century. This is helpful for
the conservation of species facing extinction. Cryobanks are utilized for the
cryoconservation of animal genetic resources.

What are the methods of gene conservation?

There are basically two methods used in forest genetic resource conservation,
namely the in situ (on site) and the ex situ (off site) conservation methods. The in situ
conservation method is the protection and maintenance of species populations in the
ecosystem in which they occur.

What is the concept of gene bank?

The vast majority of genebanks contain living things, or parts of them, such as seeds,
which themselves contain the collection of different genes that make each plant variety
or animal breed unique. Genebanks ensure that these genetic materials are safely
conserved and available for people to use.

Genebanks – repositories of genetic material (germplasm) of plants or animals – play a

critical role towards a two-pronged goal: i) making the germplasmavailable for
researchers, plant breeders and farmers in the short term and ii) ensuring that the
genetic material for future food supply are preserved in the long term.

What is the conservation of gene bank?

It is usually preserved in liquid nitrogen at −196 °C (−320.8 °F). By freezing the seeds or
embryos at this temperature they can stay viable for at least a century. This is helpful for
the conservation of species facing extinction. Cryobanks are utilized for the
cryoconservation of animal genetic resources.

What is the strategy of genetic conservation?

The long-term conservation of genetic diversity can be accomplished through a variety of

approaches: 1) Populations can be maintained in situ – in parks, ecological reserves, and
other protected areas; 2) Samples of seeds, individuals, or tissues can be collected and
maintained ex situ, for example, in seed banks.

What are the benefits of genetic conservation?

Maintaining high genetic diversity allows species to adapt to future environmental

changes and avoid inbreeding. Inbreeding, which happens when there are small, isolated
populations, can reduce a species' ability to survive and reproduce.

What are the advantages of gene banks?

Field genebanks provide an easy and ready access to the plant genetic resources, for
characterization, evaluation or utilization, while the same material conserved in the form
of seeds, in vitro or cryo must be germinated or regenerated and grown before it can be
used.

Which one is an example of a gene bank?

Examples of field gene banks include the National Fruit Collection in the United Kindgom,
one for cassava at CIAT, Colombia, one for sugarcane at the Centro Nacional de Pesquisa
de Recursos Geneticos e Biotecnologia (CENARGEN), Brazil, and the potato collection at
the Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP) in Peru.

What is the importance of gene bank in plant resource conservation?

Gene banks provide the principal means of storing plant genetic material. This ex situ
system relies on three methods of storing the material: Seed banks provide a
controlled environment where seeds can be dried to low moisture content and stored at
low temperature without losing their viability.

What is another name for a gene bank?

Storehouses of seeds or vegetative tissue, kept in low humidity and temperature, to help
maintain genetic diversity. Sometimes known as seed banks or germ plasm banks.

What type of conservation is gene bank?

Ex situ conservation

It is the type of conservation mostly used in genebanks. It covers a range of methods

suitable for various types of seeds or plant materials. It ranges from cold storage of
seeds or propagules, in vitro (tissue culture or cryopreservation), field, pollen or DNA
conservation.

Types of genebanks

• Seed genebanks

• Field genebanks

• Botanic gardens – over 2,500, in 148 countries, with about 6.13 million accessions

• In vitro storage – slow growth – synthetic seed technique, which aims to use somatic
embryos as true seeds by encapsulating embryos in alginate gel

• Cryopreservation – Storage of living tissues at extremely low temperatures, usually at

196ºC in liquid nitrogen

• Pollen storage – Limited usage on account of low viability in storage

• DNA bank

Sustainability; Three principal dimensions

Sustainability: sustainable management of natural resources, sustainable

agriculture. Three principal dimensions- ecological, economic and social

Sustainability: sustainable management of natural resources, sustainable

agriculture;Three principal dimensions- ecological, economic and social

Sustainability is the practice of using natural resources responsibly, so they can support
both present and future generations. Forests are one natural resource that sustainability
groups are focused on conserving.

Methods of Sustainable Management

We can reduce the environmental pressure by following the concept named 3R's, which
means to Reduce, Recycle, and Reuse.

Reduce

It means to use the natural resources less, which can be done by: like,

· Switching off the electrical appliances when they are not in use.

· Saving fuel by walking or using public transport.

· Saving food by cooking limitedly or not wasting it, and so on.

Recycle

It is defined as the processing or recycling of waste to form new products. Practising the
concept of recycling saves resources, costs, and also reduces the piling of waste
materials.

Reuse

It is defined as using an item more than once like,

· Reuse the envelope.

· The containers of jams and pickles should be reused by storing other food items or
groceries.

· Use cloth/jute bags instead of the polyethene ones, and so on.

Sectors Affected by Depletion of Natural Resources

The depletion of natural resources poses a potential threat on a global level, depletion of
resources like water and fossil fuels may lead to a severe shortage of water and fuel
sources, but the immediate effect of overexploitation is widely suffered by the population
established near the resource. Some of the most common examples of sectors affected
by lack of sustainable management include the stakeholders and the wildlife of the
nearby area. These are briefly explained below.

What are Stakeholders?

They are the individuals and the parties having a binding interest in an asset. The
stakeholders are,

 Locals - Who live around the forests and frequently depend on forest products.

 The Forest Department - A government body that looks after the forest.

 Industrialists - They take raw materials to run their industries.

 Wildlife and Natural Enthusiasts - Those who need to conserve forests.

Three principal dimensions- ecological, economic and social

 The three pillars or principles of environmental, social and economic sustainability, also
known as ESG (Environmental, Social, Governance).

They have been divided into three main areas: environmental, social and governance.
The environmental criterion analyzes ecological impact, such as CO2 emissions and the
use of natural resources. The social criterion considers aspects such as working
conditions, human rights and the inclusion of people. The governance criterion, on the
other hand, evaluates transparency, business ethics and management. The adoption of
ESG criteria helps promote responsible and sustainable practices.

What is environmental sustainability?

Environmental sustainability is the ability to preserve and protect the

natural environment over time through appropriate practices and policies, meeting
present needs without compromising the availability of resources in the future.

Factors influencing environmental sustainability

Environmental sustainability is influenced by several factors that can have a significant

impact on the ecological balance and the planet's ability to sustain life.

Some of the main ones include: air, water and soil pollution;

 climate change, caused by the excessive amount of greenhouse gases released

into the atmosphere due to human activities;
 The loss of biodiversity;
 The overexploitation of natural resources;
 Economic models that involve unsustainable consumption.

What goals should we aim to achieve?

To achieve environmental sustainability, a number of key goals must be achieved,

including:

 Reducing greenhouse gas emissions, especially in crucial sectors such as power

generation, industry, agriculture and transportation.
 Increasing the production and use of energy from renewable sources.
 Implementing policies to conserve biodiversity by addressing its causes.
 Adopting sustainable practices in agriculture and the food chain, such as precision
agriculture strategies, optimizing and increasing soil quality and productivity
through a series of targeted interventions using technology, regenerative
agriculture and agrivoltaics, non-soil cultivation methods such as hydroponic or
aeroponic systems, and reducing food waste.
 Raising awareness and engaging communities on the issue of environmental
sustainability.
 Promoting the circular economy.

Among the practices of great importance for sustainability, it is essential to conserve and
sustainably manage natural resources, including water, soil, forests, wildlife and natural
habitats, to ensure the ecological balance of the planet and the availability of these
resources for future generations.

What is social sustainability?

Social sustainability involves a focus on the well-being of people and

communities.
It’s about promoting equity, human rights, access to education and health care,
and decent work.
Social sustainability aims to create inclusive societies, reduce inequality, and ensure
long-term well-being for all people while preserving social cohesion and justice. To
achieve sustainability, it is necessary to overcome:

 Poverty and socioeconomic inequality.

 Discrimination, prejudice and social exclusion.
 Lack of access to resources.
 Insecurity and conflict, locally, regionally and globally.
 Poor governance, which includes phenomena such as corruption and institutional
inefficiency.

In the path to social sustainability, the promotion of systems and policies that can
reduce social and economic inequalities play a particularly important role in ensuring
equitable access to opportunities and resources for all members of society.
In addition to the fight against inequality, the goals to be achieved in terms of social
sustainability include:

The promotion of policies to respect basic human rights, such as the right to health and
education.

 The adoption of practices that value and include people of diverse backgrounds,
gender, ethnicity, ability, and sexual orientation.
 The creation of safer living environments with more efficient administration of
justice.
 The improvement of people's health and mental and physical well-being through
quality health services.

What is economic sustainability?

Economic sustainability is the approach whereby economic activities are conducted in

such a way as to preserve and promote long-term economic well-being. In practice, it
aims to create a balance between economic growth, resource efficiency, social equity
and financial stability.
Factors influencing economic sustainability include:

 The responsible management of resources.

 The capacity for efficiency and innovation of economic systems and enterprises.
 Financial stability at the macro level.
 States' level of social innovation, that is, each country's commitment to promoting
policies, programs and initiatives that address crucial social issues such as
poverty, gender equality, access to education and health care, environmental
sustainability, and other social issues.
 International cooperation and partnerships between public administration and
private enterprises.
 The level of equity and social inclusion.
 Corporate responsibility.

How an economy becomes sustainable

To make an economic system sustainable, it is necessary to encourage energy

generation from renewable sources, to adopt policies and regulations that encourage
energy efficiency, and the promotion of economic models based on the circular
economy which, as such, are able to reduce waste and contain resource exploitation.
Achieving these goals requires fostering social and economic inclusion, technological
innovation through dedicated investments, promotion of efficient and transparent
governance, as well as public awareness and education.

Responsible management of economic resources is of paramount importance because it

implies and ensures:

· The minimization of environmental impact;

 Social and economic equity;

 A more resilient and challenge-capable economy;
 A more widespread adherence of companies to management based on principles
of responsibility and ethics.

Process and practices, Clean energy

Process and practices- energy efficient appliances; Clean energy: bio-fuels, biogas, wind
& solar energy.

Process and practices, Clean energy

Process and practices- energy efficient appliances

In the era of climate change and environmental consciousness, green homes have
gained significant traction. Green homes, also known as sustainable homes, are designed
to minimise their impact on the environment and maximise energy efficiency. They are
not only beneficial for the planet but can also save homeowners money in the long run.
One of the key elements in creating a green home is the use of energy-efficient
appliances.

This comprehensive guide will explore the importance of energy-efficient appliances in

green homes and how they contribute to sustainable living.

Understanding Green Homes

Green homes are residences designed with a focus on reducing their overall carbon
footprint. These homes are built using sustainable materials, incorporate energy-efficient
technologies, and often feature renewable energy sources like solar panels. The aim is to
create a living space that consumes fewer resources, produces less waste, and relies on
clean energy sources.

The Environmental Impact of Conventional Homes

To truly appreciate the significance of green homes, it's essential to understand the
environmental impact of conventional homes. Traditional homes are notorious for their
resource-intensive construction and energy-hungry operations. They contribute
significantly to greenhouse gas emissions, primarily through energy consumption for
heating, cooling, lighting, and household appliances.
Green homes, on the other hand, are designed to mitigate these impacts. They prioritise
energy efficiency, reduce water consumption, and promote the use of sustainable
materials, all while providing a comfortable living environment.

Energy-Efficient Appliances: The Cornerstone of Green Homes

Energy-efficient appliances play a pivotal role in green homes. These appliances are
engineered to use less energy while delivering the same if not superior, performance
compared to their non-efficient counterparts. From refrigerators to water heaters,
energy-efficient appliances are available for nearly every household need. Let's delve
into why these appliances are considered a cornerstone of green homes.

Reduced Energy Consumption

The primary advantage of energy-efficient appliances is their ability to reduce energy

consumption significantly. They achieve this through advanced technologies such as
improved insulation, better control systems, and optimised components. For instance, an
energy-efficient refrigerator can maintain a lower temperature using less electricity,
saving energy and reducing your utility bills.

Lower Utility Bills

When you install energy-efficient appliances in your home, you'll notice a substantial
decrease in your monthly utility bills. While the initial cost of purchasing these appliances
may be higher than their conventional counterparts, the long-term savings more than
make up for it. Homeowners can allocate the money saved on energy bills to other
essential expenses or investments

Environmental Benefits

Reducing energy consumption has a direct positive impact on the environment. By using
energy-efficient appliances, you are effectively lowering your carbon footprint. This
means fewer greenhouse gas emissions, which contribute to global warming and climate
change. Sustainable living is not just a buzzword; it's a responsibility we all share in
preserving our planet for future generations.

Longer Lifespan

Energy-efficient appliances are often built with higher-quality materials and superior
craftsmanship, resulting in a longer lifespan. While they may cost more upfront, they
tend to require fewer repairs and replacements, further enhancing their economic and
environmental benefits.

Types of energy-efficient products

 Efficient light bulbs.

 Advanced power strips (APS)
 Smart switches.
 Low-flow faucets and shower heads.
 Smart thermostats.
 Energy monitors.
 Electric vehicles and chargers.
 Solar energy systems.

Clean energy: bio-fuels, biogas, wind & solar energy.

BIOMASS: A RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCE

Biomass is a renewable energy resource derived from plant- and algae-based materials
that include:

• Crop wastes
• Forest residues

• Purpose-grown grasses

• Woody energy crops

• Microalgae

• Urban wood waste

• Food waste

Biomass is a versatile renewable energy source. It can be converted into liquid

transportation fuels that are equivalent to fossil-based fuels, such as gasoline, jet, and
diesel fuel. Bioenergy technologies enable the reuse of carbon from biomass and waste
streams into reduced-emissions fuels for cars, trucks, jets and ships; bioproducts; and
renewable power.

BIOFUELS: ENERGY FOR TRANSPORTATION

Biomass is one type of renewable resource that can be converted into liquid fuels—
known as biofuels—for transportation. Biofuels include cellulosic ethanol, biodiesel, and
renewable hydrocarbon "drop-in" fuels. The two most common types of biofuels in use
today are ethanol and biodiesel. Biofuels can be used in airplanes and most vehicles that
are on the road. Renewable transportation fuels that are functionally equivalent to
petroleum fuels lower the carbon intensity of our vehicles and airplanes.

BIOPOWER: ENERGY FOR HEAT AND ELECTRICITY

Biopower technologies convert renewable biomass fuels into heat and electricity using
processes like those used with fossil fuels. There are three ways to harvest the energy
stored in biomass to produce biopower: burning, bacterial decay, and conversion to a gas
or liquid fuel. Biopower can offset the need for carbon fuels burned in power plants, thus
lowering the carbon intensity of electricity generation. Unlike some forms of intermittent
renewable energy, biopower can increase the flexibility of electricity generation and
enhance the reliability of the electric grid.

BIOPRODUCTS: EVERYDAY COMMODITIES MADE FROM BIOMASS

Biomass is a versatile energy resource, much like petroleum. Beyond converting biomass
to biofuels for vehicle use, it can also serve as a renewable alternative to fossil fuels in
the manufacturing of bioproducts such as plastics, lubricants, industrial chemicals, and
many other products currently derived from petroleum or natural gas. Mimicking the
existing petroleum refinery model, integrated biorefineries can produce bioproducts
alongside biofuels. This co-production strategy offers a more efficient, cost-effective, and
integrated approach to the use of U.S. biomass resources. Revenue generated from
bioproducts also offers added value, improving the economics of biorefinery operations
and creating more cost-competitive biofuels.

Biogas: Biogas is a renewable energy source that's produced by breaking down organic
matter like food or animal waste in an oxygen-free environment. It's made up of methane
and carbon dioxide, along with other gases. Biogas is environment friendly and has
various applications in cooking, drying, cooling, heating, etc. It is used in the production
of electricity, methanol, and steam.

Solar Energy: The radiant light and heat energy from the sun is harnessed with the use
of solar collectors. These solar collectors are of various types such as photovoltaics,
concentrator photovoltaics, solar heating, (CSP) concentrated solar power, artificial
photosynthesis, and solar architecture. This collected solar energy is then used to
provide light, heat, and different other forms of electricity.

Wind Energy: The energy we get from winds is known as wind energy. For this,
windmills have been used for hundreds of years to pump out water from the ground. We
use large tall wind turbines that allow winds to generate electricity. The natural airflow
on the surface of the earth is used to run the wind turbines. The modern-day wind
turbines range from about 600 Kilowatt to 5 Megawatts, for commercial purposes these
are rated with an output power of 1.5 to 3 Megawatts. The most preferred locations for
these wind turbines to be installed are the areas which and strong and have constant
airflows on offshore and sites that are at high altitudes. The power generated from wind
energy in 2015 met 4% of global energy consumption.