Module 5: Introduction to chip industry & IC design

Module Overview

The semiconductor industry encompasses the design, manufacturing, and

distribution of semiconductor materials and devices, which form the backbone of
modern electronics. It spans a wide range of applications, including computing,
telecommunications, automotive, consumer electronics, and industrial automation.
The industry's scope is vast, with companies ranging from large multinational
corporations to smaller specialized firms, contributing to a global market worth
hundreds of billions of dollars annually.

A chip, also known as an integrated circuit (IC), is a small electronic device made of
semiconductor material that contains a large number of interconnected electronic
components, such as transistors and resistors, fabricated onto a single chip.

The production process of chips involves several stages, starting from design and
ending with fabrication. Logic and circuit design involve creating the architecture
and layout of the integrated circuits, including the arrangement of transistors and
interconnections to perform specific functions.

Digital IC design focuses on the creation of integrated circuits that process digital
signals, such as those used in computers and digital communication systems.
Analog IC design involves circuits that process continuous analog signals, commonly
found in audio amplifiers, sensors, and power management systems.

The task of a chip designer involves conceptualizing, designing, and optimizing

integrated circuits to meet specific performance, power, and cost targets.

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Lesson : 3 Producing Chips

Lesson Overview

The production of Chips and ICs is a remarkable journey that involves the
collaboration of interdisciplinary teams and cutting-edge technologies. From the
initial design phase to the final testing, each stage plays a crucial role in delivering
the high-performance and reliable electronic components that power our
interconnected world. The continuous innovation in chip manufacturing processes
is a testament to the dynamic nature of the semiconductor industry. We will learn
the process of chip production at factories in this lesson.

Lesson Objectives

 Overview of Industrial Semiconductor Manufacturing process.

 Understanding each sept of chip manufacturing in detail.

Topics to be covered

1. Introduction to semiconductor manufacturing

2. IC Fabrication Process Overview

1. Introduction to semiconductor manufacturing

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Semiconductor Manufacturing is a critical industrial process that leads to mankind’s
easy tech-based lifestyle through consumer electronics, appliances, electrical
vehicles, IoT, and many more applications.

The process of producing semiconductor devices from wafers is called

semiconductor manufacturing. The ultimate goal of semiconductor manufacturing is
to produce highly reliable, low-cost cost, and high-quality semiconducting devices or
chips.

In previous lessons we have gone through the overview of chip designing. Once the
design is finalized and approved the commercial production of chips comes in
picture. Semiconductor manufacturing processes have mainly 6 to 10 steps.
However, similar processes add up to a broader category. A manufacturing unit,
referred to as a “foundry”, is the place where semiconductors are produced. It must
be noted that not all foundries do follow the listed steps rigidly in the sequence.
These processes may vary from company to company.

Let's first discuss fabrication and its requirements in the semiconductor field.

Fabrication is the process of constructing an industrial product. We can also define

it as a set of methods to manufacture an electronic device or product. For example,
silicon semiconductor chips, etc. In the case of metals, fabrication is a process used
to convert the raw materials into the finished product.

The smaller components manufactured by the fabrication process can be further

used to make large electronic components.

The basic fabrication processes of the Integrated Circuits are as follows:

i. Wafer Preparation
ii. Oxidation
iii. Diffusion
iv. Ion Implantation
v. Chemical-Vapor Deposition
vi. Photolithography
vii. Metallization
viii. Packaging

IC Fabrication Process Overview:

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i. Wafer Preparation: Thin crystalline silicon wafers serve as the base material.
The wafer is prepared by cutting, shaping, and polishing, ensuring suitability
for subsequent fabrication.
Highly pure single crystalline silicon (Mono-silicon) with a purity of 99.9999%
serves as the primary material in IC fabrication. The foundational material for
IC production is referred to as a wafer, characterized by a rounded shape with
varying diameters and commercially accessible.

The CZ Method is employed to derive mono-silicon from polycrystalline

silicon, which, in turn, is extracted from abundant silica sources such as sand
found on the Earth's surface. Within a quartz crucible, the molten polysilicon
undergoes a transformation into single-crystal silicon. This process involves
immersing a piece of mono-silicon, affixed at the bottom of the CZ crystal
puller (illustrated in the figure), into the molten polysilicon. The pulling rod is
then gradually drawn at a constant speed, resulting in the deposition of a
single crystal of silicon over the seed crystal (the initial mono-crystalline
silicon piece attached at the bottom of the crystal puller). Ultimately, a round-
shaped single crystalline silicon piece is formed, referred to as a "silicon
ingot." This ingot undergoes polishing and precision cutting to attain a silicon
wafer with specific thickness characteristics.

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ii. Oxidation: Oxidation is the chemical process of incorporating oxygen into a
material. In semiconductors, such as silicon, this reaction results in the
formation of silicon dioxide. The oxidation process takes place in furnaces,
often at elevated temperatures of up to 1250 degrees Celsius.
There are two main types of oxidations: wet oxidation and dry oxidation.
Each with its distinct advantages and disadvantages. Wet oxidation is
characterized by its speed, while dry oxidation excels in electrical properties.
The chemical equation involved in dry oxidation is:
Si+O2=SiO2

Wet oxidation is also commonly referred to as steam oxidation. Both forms of

oxidation offer outstanding electrical insulation properties. The deposition of
silicon dioxide onto the silicon wafer serves as a protective layer, shielding
against various impurities. It's important to note that dopants can only be
applied to areas not covered by SiO2. An illustration of an oxide layer on the
substrate is presented below:

Si + 2H2O—–> SiO2+ 2H2

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 The oxidation process holds significant importance in the IC (Integrated
Circuit) fabrication process, playing a crucial role in the production of various
devices, including VLSI (Very Large-Scale Integration) devices.

iii. Diffusion: Diffusion is the process of introducing impurity atoms from an area
of high concentration to a region of low concentration, thereby altering the
resistivity of the silicon semiconductor material. The effectiveness of the
diffusion process is closely tied to temperature, typically performed in high-
temperature furnaces ranging from 1000 to 1200 degrees Celsius. The
dimensions (depth and width) of the impurities are influenced by the
temperature and duration of the process, with higher doping concentrations
enhancing metal conductivity.

Dopants can exist in various states, including solid, liquid, or gas. Preferred
dopants for n-type conductivity are pentavalent impurities like antimony,
phosphorous pentoxide, and arsine (gas). Trivalent impurities such as
gallium, indium, and boron are favoured for p-type conductivity. It's important
to note that diffusion is not suitable for later stages of fabrication because the
increasing number of layers formed in successive stages may not withstand
the high temperatures involved.

For instance, the diffusion of boron or indium (trivalent impurities) onto an n-

type substrate results in the formation of a p-n junction. Additionally, diffusion
plays a role in filling lattice gaps in solids.

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iv. Ion Implantation: Ion implantation is a procedure involving the acceleration of
ions towards a solid target, resulting in alterations to its properties. These
accelerated ions are administered at low temperatures and high energy,
facilitating their operation at room temperature. However, excessive energy
may potentially harm the crystal structure of the solid material.

The ion implantation process introduces impurity atoms into the crystal
lattice of the semiconductor material. As the accelerated ions strike the
surface of the crystal, they become embedded within it. The depth of ion
penetration is determined by the energy and accelerating field voltage. The
precise amount of dopants can be regulated by adjusting the ion
concentration, making ion implantation a highly accurate process due to
controlled current, voltage, and energy.

This technique is particularly advantageous when a precise quantity of

impurity atoms is crucial for the optimal functioning of the device.

v. Chemical-Vapor Deposition (CVD): Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) is a

widely employed technique for the fabrication of high-quality solid materials,
particularly in the semiconductor industry, where it is utilized to produce thin
films. This intricate process occurs under reduced pressure conditions,
commonly referred to as vacuum deposition. During CVD, chemical
compounds and vapours undergo reactions that result in the formation of
solid layers on the surface of a substrate. Various protective layers, including
silicon dioxide, polysilicon, and silicon nitride, can be precisely deposited onto
the substrate through the CVD process.

For instance, when silane gas, comprising silicon atoms, reacts with surface
oxygen on a silicon wafer, it leads to the generation of SiO2, commonly
known as silicon dioxide. While the efficacy of the CVD process may not

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 match that of thermally grown oxide, it serves adequately as an insulating
layer on the substrate. One notable advantage of CVD is its swifter deposition
rate achieved at lower temperatures.

CVD can be executed across a spectrum of pressure conditions, ranging from

very low pressures to low pressures, atmospheric pressures, sub-atomic
pressures, and ultra-high pressures. The choice of pressure is contingent
upon the specific chemical reactions integral to the CVD process. Notably,
Tungsten CVD finds application in the creation of contacts or plugs on
semiconductor devices, showcasing the versatility and significance of this
deposition technique in the realm of materials science and semiconductor
technology.

vi. Photolithography: Photolithography, also referred to as optical lithography,

utilizes light to create patterns for thin films, particularly on substrates like
silicon wafers. This technique safeguards specific areas during subsequent
fabrication steps such as deposition and ion implantation. Various types of
light, including UV light, X-rays, and extreme UV at different frequencies, are
employed to imprint mask patterns on the silicon wafer, with Ultra-Violet light
being the most commonly used.

The process begins by coating the silicon wafer or substrate with a layer of
photoresist. Through photolithography, a mask pattern is applied to the
silicon wafer on the photoresist layer. The areas exposed to light become soft
and can be subsequently removed, forming a distinct pattern on the wafer.
The feature size imprinted on the photoresist is determined by the
wavelength of each type of light.

Drawing parallels to photography, photolithography involves patterning the

exposed area with the assistance of light. The incident light can either be
direct or projected through a lens. This process enables precise and

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 controlled patterning, making it a crucial step in the production of integrated
circuits and other semiconductor devices.

UV or Ultra-Violet Light: UV light is applied to the wafer utilizing a mask,

facilitating the transfer of the geometric design from the mask to the surface
of the wafer, which is coated with a photoresist. Upon exposure to UV light,
the photoresist on the substrate either breaks or hardens. Subsequently,
specific solvents are employed to remove the softened parts of the coating.

Widely employed in the production of microprocessors and solid-state

devices, photolithography proves adept at generating patterns with sizes as
minute as nanometres. This method stands out for its swiftness, cost-
effectiveness, and efficiency in creating substrate patterns in a single step.
However, it may not be optimal for irregular surfaces. In the context of
intricate integrated circuit (IC) circuits, the fabrication cycle can extend up to
50 times due to the microscopic structures involved.

The incident light on the substrate can take the form of UV or X-rays, offering
flexibility in the choice of radiation for the photolithographic process. This
versatility enhances the applicability of photolithography in the realm of
semiconductor manufacturing.

vii. Metallization: Metallization refers to the application of a metal layer onto

either a metallic or non-metallic surface. This layer can consist of metals such
as aluminium, zinc, or silver. In the context of CMOS (Complementary Metal-
Oxide-Semiconductor) fabrication, aluminium is commonly used for coating,
serving to safeguard the surface against external environmental elements
such as dust, air, and water. Additionally, metallization plays a crucial role in
establishing connections between different components within an Integrated
Circuit (IC), including resistors, capacitors, transistors, relays, and more.

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 The initial step involves depositing the metal layer onto the silicon wafer's
surface. Subsequently, the desired pattern or area for interconnection is
etched. The metallization process utilizes a chamber to apply the metal layer.
The silicon wafer is positioned inside this chamber, where the metal layer is
uniformly applied across its entire surface. The thickness of the metal layer
can be adjusted based on specific requirements.

viii. Packaging: Square chips, also known as single wafers, are produced on
wafers through preceding processes. The subsequent step involves
obtaining individual chips through cutting. As freshly cut chips are delicate
and cannot exchange electrical signals, a separate processing step is
needed. This process is referred to as packaging, involving the creation of
a protective shell around the semiconductor chip to facilitate electrical
signal exchange with the external environment. The entire packaging
process is divided into five steps: wafer sawing, single wafer attachment,
interconnection, molding, and packaging testing.

Wafer defect inspection system

Wafer defect inspection system detects physical defects (foreign substances

called particles) and pattern defects on wafers and obtains the position
coordinates (X, Y) of the defects. Defects can be divided into random defects and
systematic defects.

Random defects are mainly caused by particles that become attached to a wafer
surface, so their positions cannot be predicted. The major role of a wafer defect
inspection system is to detect defects on a wafer and find out their positions
(position coordinates).

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On the other hand, systematic defects are caused by the conditions of the mask
and exposure process, and will occur in the same position on the circuit pattern
of all the dies projected. They occur in locations where the exposure conditions
are very difficult and require fine adjustment.

The wafer defect inspection system detects defects by comparing the image of
the circuit patterns of the adjacent dies. As a result, systematic defects
sometimes cannot be detected using a conventional wafer defect inspection
system.

Principles of defect detection

• Patterned wafer inspection system:

On a semiconductor wafer, electronic devices of the same pattern are
made side by side. Random defects are often caused by particles such
as dust and occur in random positions, as the name suggests. The
possibility that they will occur repeatedly in a specific position is
extremely low.
Patterned wafer inspection system can therefore detect defects by
comparing the pattern images of adjacent chips (also called dies) and
obtaining the difference.

• Non-patterned wafer inspection system:

To check the cleanliness of equipment, a bare wafer for cleanliness
monitoring is loaded into the equipment and the stage inside the
equipment is then moved to monitor the increase in particles.
Since there is no pattern, defects are detected directly without image
comparison.
A laser beam is projected to the rotating wafer and is moved in the
radial direction so that the laser beam is able to irradiate entire surface
of the wafer.

Moreover, the electron beam inspection system detects the amount of

the secondary electrons as an image contrast (voltage contrast)
according to the conductivity of the device’s internal wiring. If the
conductivity at the bottom of the contact hole of the high aspect ratio
is detected, the SiO2 residue of ultra-thin thickness can be detected.

Review SEM - What is a Review SEM?

A Defect Review SEM is a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) that is

configured to review defects found on a wafer. A defect detected by a
semiconductor wafer defect inspection system is enlarged using an Review
SEM to a high magnification image so that it can be reviewed and classified.

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 A Defect Review SEM is mainly used together with the inspection systems in
the production lines of electronic devices and other semiconductors.

• ADR function
ADR stands for Automatic Defect Review. The aim of the Defect Review
is to observe, classify and analyze the shape and components of the
defect and particles detected by wafer inspection system in greater
detail.
Automatic Defect Review automatically obtains image of the desired
defect using the defect information (coordinates, etc.) obtained in
defect inspection. The data is stored and arranged into a database.

• ADC function
ADC stands for Automatic Defect Classification. The image information
of the defect stored in the image server is classified according to the
cause of the defect by the classification software based on the
predetermined rules and is then restored in the classification server.
The classified information is sent to Yield Management System (YMS)
and the host computer of the IC manufacturer so that it can be used in
the failure and defect analysis.

Wafer Sawing

To extract numerous densely arranged chips from the wafer, the back of the
wafer is ground until its thickness meets packaging requirements. Following
grinding, cutting along the scribing line on the wafer separates the
semiconductor chip. Three wafer sawing techniques are utilized: blade cutting
with diamond blades, laser cutting with higher precision for thin wafers, and
plasma cutting using plasma etching, suitable for small scribing line pitch.

Single Wafer Attachment

Once all chips are separated, individual chips are attached to the substrate (lead
frame) to protect and enable electrical signal exchange with external circuits.
Liquid or solid tape adhesive is used for chip attachment.
Bonding
After attaching the chip to the substrate, the contact points of the two need to
be connected for electrical signal exchange. Two methods are employed in this
step: wire bonding using thin metal wires and flip chip bonding using spherical
gold or tin blocks. Flip-chip bonding accelerates semiconductor product
manufacturing compared to the traditional wire bonding method.

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Molding
Following the connection of the semiconductor chip, a molding process is used to
add a protective package to shield the integrated circuit from external conditions
like temperature and humidity. After preparing the required packaging mold, the
semiconductor chip and epoxy molding compound (EMC) are placed into the
mold and sealed, resulting in the final packaged chip.

Package Test
Chips in their final form undergo a final defect test. Only finished semiconductor
chips enter this test, undergoing assessments under different conditions such as
voltage, temperature, and humidity for electrical, functional, and speed tests.
Test results are crucial for defect identification, enhancing product quality, and
improving production efficiency.

Key Takeaways from the lesson:

The production of Chips and Integrated Circuits (ICs) is a complex and

intricate process that involves various stages, each contributing to the
creation of the tiny yet powerful components that power our modern
electronic devices. From design part till industrial production, we have
witnessed different stages which transforms a mineral silicon to a powerful
component which drives our present and directing our future.

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 Reference links:
Key Takeaways from the lesson:

 Silicon and germanium are primary materials in semiconductor

industry; other materials include carbon steel, silver, aluminium,
magnesium, copper, wood, thermoplastics, and resins.
 Wafer preparation, oxidation, diffusion, ion implantation, chemical-
vapor deposition, photolithography, metallization, and packaging.
 Sequential processes from wafer preparation to packaging,
emphasizing cutting, shaping, and polishing for substrate readiness.
 Involves obtaining highly pure mono-silicon from polycrystalline silicon,
utilizing the CZ Method for silicon wafer production.
 Chemical process forming silicon dioxide protective layers, crucial for
insulation and shielding against impurities.
 Processes altering semiconductor properties through the introduction
of impurity atoms; ion implantation ensures controlled doping.
 Technique for depositing thin films like silicon dioxide, polysilicon, and
silicon nitride onto substrates, enhancing insulating properties.
 Utilizes light to create patterns for thin films on substrates like silicon
wafers, crucial for controlled patterning in IC fabrication.
 Application of metal layers, often aluminium, for protecting surfaces
and establishing connections between different IC components.
 Involves wafer sawing, single wafer attachment, bonding, molding, and
packaging testing for final defect identification.

Reference links:

1. [Link]
2. [Link]
[Link]
3. Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory 9th Edition by Robert L. Boylestad and
Louis Nashelsky
4. [Link]
room/manufacturing/[Link]

Quiz:

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Quiz Answers

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