Cambridge (CIE) A Level Your notes

Biology
Classification
Contents
Definitions of Species
The Three Domains: Archaea, Bacteria & Eukarya
Eukarya
Kingdoms
Viruses

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 Definitions of Species
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Definitions of species
Biological species concept
Scientists have been classifying organisms into species for hundreds of years, in order
to investigate the diversity of life that exists today and in the past
There is difficulty in determining whether new organisms discovered belong to an
existing species, or a new one
This is because the most widely accepted definition of a species is:
A group of organisms with similar morphological and physiological features that
able to breed together and produce fertile offspring
This is the biological species concept, and is reliant on determining whether
interbreeding produces fertile offspring - this is difficult and time-consuming to
determine in practice
However there are other discriminating factors that scientists can use to group similar
organisms together

Morphological species concept

In the past, most scientists described organisms by their physical features
(morphology) as these can be more easily observed
They group together organisms that share many physical features that distinguish
them from other species
This is the morphological species concept

Ecological species concept

When there is a population of similar organisms living in the same area at the same time,
they can be described as an ecological species
This is the ecological species concept

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The Three Domains: Archaea, Bacteria & Eukarya
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The three domains: Archaea, Bacteria &

Eukarya
Taxonomy is the practice of biological classification
It involves placing organisms into a series of categories or taxa
By grouping organisms into taxa it can make it easier to see evolutionary relationships
between organisms
There are several different ranks or levels within the hierarchical classification system
used in biology
The highest rank is the domain
Cell type has a major role in the classification of organisms into the three domains; but
do not confuse cell types and domain
Prokaryotic cells are easily distinguishable in that they lack a nucleus
Eukaryotic cells have compartmentalised structures, with at least their genetic
material segregated from the rest of the cell in a nucleus
Based upon molecular analysis of RNA genes in particular, scientists have realised that
using cell type to classify organisms is insufficient, and that prokaryotes could be
divided into two separate groups (domains)
The three domains are:
Archaea (prokaryotes)
Bacteria (prokaryotes)
Eukarya (eukaryotes)

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 Your notes

The taxonomic classification system with the three domains

Archaea
Archaea are single-celled (unicellular) organisms
Organisms within this domain are sometimes referred to as the extremophile
prokaryotes
Archaea were first discovered living in extreme environments, but not all archaea
do
Archael cells have no nucleus (and so are prokaryotic)
They were initially classified as bacteria until several unique properties were discovered
that separated them from known bacteria, including:
Unique lipids being found in the membranes of their cells
No peptidoglycan in their cell walls
Ribosomal structure (particularly that of the small subunit) are more similar to the
eukaryotic ribosome than that of the bacteria
Archaea have a similar size range as bacteria (and in many ways metabolism is similar
between the two groups)
DNA transcription is more similar to that of eukaryotes
Example: Halobacterium salinarum are a species of the archaea domain that can be
found in environments with high salt concentrations like the Dead Sea

Bacteria
Bacteria are single-celled (unicellular) organisms
These are organisms that have prokaryotic cells which contain no nucleus

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 They vary in size over a wide range: the smallest are bigger than the largest known-
viruses and the largest are smaller that the smallest known single-celled eukaryotes
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Bacterial cells divide by binary fission
Example: Streptococcus pneumoniae is a bacterial species that causes pneumonia

Streptococcus pneumoniae (Janice Haney Carr, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons)

Eukarya
Organisms that have eukaryotic cells with nuclei and membrane-bound organelles are
placed in this domain
They vary massively in size from single-celled organisms several micrometres across to
large multicellular organisms many-metres in size, such as blue whales
Eukaryotic cells divide by mitosis
Eukaryotes can reproduce sexually or asexually
Example: Canis lupus also known as wolves

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 Your notes

Canis lupus, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Examiner Tips and Tricks

It might be worth refreshing your knowledge on the defining features of prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cells before tackling this new topic!

Differences between Archaea & Bacteria

Domains are the highest taxonomic rank that exist within the hierarchical classification
system of organisms
Initially, all organisms within the Archaea domain were classified as Bacteria
Then several unique features possessed by Archaea were discovered that separated
them from both Bacteria and Eukarya
The main differences between Archaea and Bacteria are seen in:
Membrane lipids
Ribosomal RNA
Cell wall composition

Membrane lipids

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 The membrane lipids found in the cells of Archaea organisms are completely unique
They are not found in any bacterial or eukaryotic cells Your notes
The membrane lipids of Archaea consist of branched hydrocarbon chains bonded to
glycerol by ether linkages
The membrane lipids of Bacteria consist of unbranched hydrocarbon chains bonded to
glycerol by ester linkages

Ribosomal RNA
Both Archaea and Bacteria possess 70S ribosomes
The 70S ribosomes in Archaea possess a smaller subunit that is more similar to the
subunit found in Eukaryotic ribosomes than subunits in Bacterial ribosomes
The base sequences of ribosomal RNA in Archaea show more similarity to the rRNA
of Eukarya than Bacteria
The primary structure of ribosome proteins in Archaea show more similarity to the
ribosome proteins in Eukarya than Bacteria

Composition of cell walls

Organisms from the Bacteria domain have cells that always possess cell walls with
peptidoglycan
Organisms from the Archaea domain also have cells that always possess cell walls,
however these do not contain peptidoglycan

Archaea Bacteria Eukaryotes

Cell type Prokaryotic Prokaryotic Eukaryotic

Chromosome Circular Circular Linear chromosomes +

circular mtDNA and
cpDNA

Cell Glycerol - ether lipids Glycerol - ester Glycerol - ester lipids

membrane lipids
lipids

Ribosomes 70S ribosomes but 70S ribosomes Large 80S ribosomes in

small subunit is more the cytosol and 70S
similar to eukaryotic ribosomes in
ribosomes mitochondria and
chloroplasts

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Cell walls Always present Always present Sometimes present
(without (with (without peptidoglycan)
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peptidoglycan) peptidoglycan)

Histones Yes No Yes

Introns Sometimes Rarely Yes

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Eukarya
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Eukarya
The hierarchical classification system of organisms in biology is used to organise and
group similar organisms together so that evolutionary relationships between organisms
can be more easily understood
There are several taxonomic ranks that exist
Species is the lowest taxonomic rank in the system
Similar species can be grouped in a genus
Similar genuses can be grouped in a family
Similar families can be grouped into an order
Similar orders can be grouped into a class
Similar classes can be grouped into a phylum
Similar phyla can be grouped into a kingdom
Similar kingdoms can be grouped into a domain
Domains are the highest taxonomic rank in the system
There are a few different mnemonics that exist to help you remember the different ranks
in the taxonomic classification system. You can always make up your own but the one
below is super helpful!
The first letters of all the different ranks below the domains can be remembered as:
Kings Play Chess On Fancy Gold Squares
Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species

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The hierarchical classification system. The higher ranks contain more organisms with less
similarity between them. The lower ranks contain fewer organisms with more similarity
between them Your notes

Classification of an organism in the Eukarya domain

Just like the other domains, Eukarya contains the taxonomic hierarchy of kingdom,
phylum, class, order, family, genus and species

The classification system is organised within the Eukarya domain—note there are missing
groups at each rank

A wolf is an example of an organism in the Eukarya domain

It can be classified further into its kingdom, phylum, class, order, genus and species
A wolf belongs to the following taxonomic groups:
Domain: Eukarya
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Canidae
Genus: Canis

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 Species: lupus

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The classification of a wolf (Canis lupus)

The Hibiscus rosa-sinensis is another example of of an organism in the Eukarya domain

It is a colourful flowering plant
It belongs to the following taxonomic groups:
Domain: Eukarya
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Angiospermae
Class: Dicotyledonae
Order: Malvales
Family: Malvaceae
Genus: Hibiscus
Species: rosa-sinensis

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 Your notes

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (Dinkun Chen, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons)

Taxonomic rank Wolf Hibiscus

Domain Eukarya Eukarya

Kingdom Animalia Plantae

Phylum Chordata Angiospermae

Class Mammalia Dicotyledonae

Order Carnivora Malvales

Family Canidae Malvaceae

Genus Canis Hibiscus

Species lupus rosa-sinensis

Examiner Tips and Tricks

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The Latinised name of a species always consists of two words: the genus and
species. This means when provided with the Latin name of a species you are
automatically provided with information about the last two taxonomic ranks that the Your notes
organism belongs to. Remember this when being asked to show or explain the
classification of an organism in the exam.

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 Kingdoms
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Kingdoms
The domain Eukarya can be divided into 4 kingdoms:
Protoctista (protoctists)
Fungi
Plantae (plants)
Animalia (animals)
Organisms from each of the four kingdoms have distinct characteristics and features
Although they share similarities:
They have cells with membrane-bound nuclei separating genetic material from the
cytoplasm
They have compartmentalisation within their cells as a result of the presence of
other organelles

The four kingdoms within the Eukarya domain: protoctista, fungi, plantae and animalia

Kingdom Protoctista
All Protoctista are eukaryotic, and this broad group of cellular life encompasses all
eukaryotic cells that do not belong to the other three eukaryotic kingdoms
Members of this kingdom show great diversity in all aspects of life including structure,
life cycle, feeding and trophic levels and well as modes of locomotion
Protoctists can exist as single-celled organisms or as a group of similar cells
A group of Protoctista known as protozoa possess cells similar to animal cells

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 Their cells have no cell wall
Another group of Protoctista known as algae possess cells similar to plant cells Your notes
Their cells have cellulose cell walls and chloroplasts

Kingdom Fungi
The oldest organism in the world is thought to be a fungus aged somewhere between
1500 - 10,000 years old
All fungi are eukaryotic cells
The cells of fungi:
Possess non-cellulose cell walls (often made of the polysaccharides chitin and
glucans)
Don’t have cilia
Fungi are heterotrophs:
They use organic compounds made by other organisms as their source of energy
and molecules for metabolism
They obtain this energy and carbon by digesting dead/decaying matter
extracellularly or from being parasites on living organisms
Fungi reproduce using spores that disperse onto the ground nearby
Fungi have a simple body form:
They can be unicellular (like the common baker’s yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Some consist of long threads called hyphae that grow from the main fungus body
(mycelium)
Larger fungi possess fruiting bodies that release large numbers of spores

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 Your notes

The structure of a fungus with its hyphae, mycelium and fruiting bodies

Kingdom Plantae
Plants are multicellular eukaryotic organisms
Plant cells:
All have cell walls composed of cellulose
Possess large (and usually permanent) vacuoles that provide structural support
Are able to differentiate into specialised cells to form tissues and organs
Possess chloroplasts that enable photosynthesis (not all plant cells have
chloroplasts)
Can sometimes have flagella
They are autotrophs
This means they can synthesise their organic compounds and molecules for energy
use and building biomass from inorganic compounds
Plants have complex body forms
They have branching systems above and below the ground

Kingdom Animalia
Animals are also multicellular eukaryotic organisms
Animal cells:

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 Are able to differentiate into many different specialised cell types that can form
tissues and organs
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Have small temporary vacuoles (for example, lysosomes)
Have no cell walls
Sometimes have cilia
They are heterotrophs
They have a wide range of feeding mechanisms
They have a wide range of body forms:
Communication within their complex body forms takes place through a nervous
system and chemical signalling

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 Viruses
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Viruses
Viruses are microorganisms that can only be seen using an electron microscope
They have no cellular structure (and so are acellular) and no metabolism
Viruses hijack the DNA replication machinery in host cells
The energy viruses need for replication is provided by respiration in the host cell
Viruses possess none of the characteristic features used for classifying organisms so
they sit outside of the three-domain classification system
There is a wide-ranging debate as to whether viruses should be classified as ‘living’ or
‘non-living’ based on their inability to carry out the defining features of life outside of a
host cell

Classifying viruses by their genetic material

Viruses are classified according to the type of nucleic acid (RNA or DNA) their genome is
made from, and whether it is single-stranded or double-stranded
In cellular organisms like animals and plants, DNA is always double-stranded and RNA
is usually always single-stranded
However, in viruses, DNA and RNA can be either single-stranded or double-stranded
As a result, there are four groups of viruses that exist:
DNA single-stranded viruses
DNA double-stranded viruses
RNA single-stranded viruses (this is the type of genome of SARS-CoV-2, the virus
responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic)
RNA double-stranded viruses

The diversity of viral structures

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 Your notes

Coronavirus structure

Nucleic Single or double Virus Host Disease

acid stranded Organism

DNA Single Canine parvovirus type Dog Canine

2 parvovirus

DNA Double Varicella zoster virus Human Chickenpox &

(VZV) shingles

RNA Single Morbillivirus Human Measles

RNA Double Human Human AIDS

immunodeficiency virus

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