Chapter2

Water in chemical industry

 Water is by far the most common liquid on the Earth’s surface, and

its unique properties enable life to exist.

 Water is usually regarded as a public resource a common good

because it is essential for human life and society.

 Water is an essential constituent of all animal and vegetable matter

 Industrially water used as in three categories process water,

cooling, and heating with a shifting emphasis fore each industry

 Industrial water is used for fabricating, processing,

1 washing, diluting, cooling, or transporting a product.

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 The fact that about 80% of the Earth’s surface is covered by water

and only 20% by land makes one wonder whether “Planet Earth”

more properly might be named “Planet Water.,

 as a dilute salt solution in oceans or as nearly pure solid in snow

fields, glaciers and the polar ice caps.

 Water is distributed in nature in different forms such as rain water,

river water, spring water , mineral water ,Wells, streams or lakes,

Surface runoff, Ground water and Municipal.

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 Cont..
Table 1. Distribution of Earth’s water resources

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 Cont..

 Water molecule attracted to each other and to many solutes by

moderately strong “hydrogen bonds.

 The hydrogen bonds in ice and liquid water,∼21 kJ/mol,14 are

much weaker than the O-H bond of water (464 kJ/mol),

 but they are stronger than London-van der Waals forces (<4

kJ/mol).

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 Table 1 Physical properties of water

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 Table 2.2 Important physical and chemical measures of water
quality

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 Dissolved and suspended solid in water

Total dissolved solids (TDS) are inorganic salts and small amounts of

organic matter present in solution in water.

The principal constituents are usually calcium, magnesium, sodium, and

potassium cations and carbonate, hydrogen carbonate, chloride, sulfate,

and nitrate anions.

Generally their permissible limits has been up to 5 to 10 ppm (part per

million) or mg/ liter

It measures the solids remaining in a water sample filtered through a 1.2

μm filter.
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 Cont..
TDS is used to estimate the quality of drinking water, because
it represents the amount of ions in the water.
 Water with high TDS often has a bad taste and/or high water
hardness, and could result in a laxative effect. TDS can be determined
by evaporating a pre-filtered sample to dryness, and then finding the
mass of the dry residue per liter of sample.
A second method uses a Vernier Conductivity Probe to determine
the ability of the dissolved salts and their resulting ions in an
unfiltered sample to conduct an electrical current.
The conductivity is then converted to TDS

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 The relationship of TDS and specific conductance of groundwater

can be approximated by the following equation:

 TDS = keEC

where TDS is expressed in mg/L and EC is the electrical conductivity in

microsiemens per centimeter at 25 °C. The correlation factor ke

varies between 0.55 and 0.8.

 However, the tests described here will not tell you the specific ion responsible

for the increase or decrease in TDS.

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 Total Suspended Solids (TSS) are solids in water that can be

trapped by a filter

 TSS include silt, stirred-up bottom sediment, decaying plant

matter, or sewage-treatment effluent.

 SS will not pass through a filter, where as dissolved solids can pass

 The TSS test indicates whether it is likely that solids suspended in a

wastewater can be removed by settling, floating or filtering

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 Cont….
Over load of TDS and TSS leads to hardness of water
Hard water contains dissolved salts of calcium and magnesium present as
bicarbonates, sulphates and chlorides.
These salts give insoluble precipitates with soap
Sources of the inorganic species in natural waters can be divided into two
broad categories: natural and human derived. In turn, natural sources
can be divided into terrestrial and atmospheric.
The former involve weathering reactions of rocks, minerals, and soils in
the catchment of a water body or solid matrix of an aquifer.
The latter represent a transport mechanism rather than an ultimate source
The human source may be comes from effluent of inorganic chemical
industries, mining and other manufacturing sector.
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 Cont..
Congruent :- solid phase dissolves to form only soluble species, and
no new solid phase is formed. Dissolution of simple salts, including
metal sulfates and carbonates, behaves this way.
Weathering
dissolution For example, limestone (impure calcium carbonate) dissolves to form
of mineral
only calcium and bicarbonate ions:
CaCO3(s)+H2O+CO2(aq)→Ca2+ (aq) +2HCO3-(aq)

Incongruent:- Primary silicate minerals such as feldspars and secondary alumino silicate
clay minerals dissolve incongruently, forming a secondary mineral phase, in addition to
releasing ions to solution.
basic rocks/minerals +acidic rain → base cations+ alkalinity +silica +clay minerals
For example, albite, a sodium feldspar, reacts as follows:
NaAlSi3O8(s)+H2O+CO2(aq)→Na+ +HCO3 + 2Si(OH)4(aq)+Al2Si2O5(OH)4(s)
all in solution kaolinite

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Hardness and alkalinity are usually closely correlated because they are
derived in large part from a common source dissolution of limestone
(CaCO3)
Hard waters tend to be high in total dissolved solids (TDS) and have
relatively high pH (>7).
Waters often are classified according to hardness as follows:
Hardness meq/L mg/L as CaCO3
Soft <1 <50
Moderately hard 1–3 50–150
Hard 3–6 150–300
Very Hard >6 >300
 The process of removing divalent cations from water is softening of water
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 Cont..

Alkalinity, which is defined as the sum of the “titratable bases in

water,” may be expressed in milli equivalents per liter (meq/L) or

micro equivalents per liter (µeq/L)

It is the capacity of base to neutralize an acid.

Alkalinity = [OH-] +[HCO3-]+[CO3-]- [H+]

Total inorganic carbon=[H2CO3] + HCO3-] + [CO3-²]

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 Requisites of water for industry

The importance of suitably preparing water for chemical industry is now

well recognized and various processes for purification.

It free from mineral salts ,should be soft water

 because hared water causes the formation CaCO3 on industrial boilers

which is an economic headache, because CaCO3 is a poor heat conductor.

 Fuel efficiency is drastically cut and boilers have been put completely out

of action by local overheating due to boiler scale.

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 Cont..

The fabric fibers adsorb calcium and magnesium salts and this
makes them brittle
Food loses its nutritional value when boiled in hard waters.
The intense corrosion of boilers and heat exchangers takes place
because of the hydrolysis of magnesium salts and the increased
concentration of H+ ions in the solution.
Mg2+ + H2O → Mg(OH)2 + 2H+
Scale deposits on the surfaces of heat exchangers (boilers,
condensers) reduce the efficiency of such equipment.
Scale has low heat conductivity and increases fuel consumption.
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 Cont...
It should not be turbid, Turbidity should be less than 10 ppm on
silica scale.

It should be colorless.

It should be odorless and must have an agreeable taste

Water should be obtained from a source that is free from pollution.

All kinds of bacteria and microorganisms should be absent.

Water supply system should be free from health hazards and

sanitary defects.

pH should be in the neutral region

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 The various important factors which are responsible for
color, odor and taste are :
 Presence of iron and maganese in appreciable concentration impart

colour to water.

 Presence of algae in water during collection, which multiply during

storage.

 Electrolytic corrosion of the metal of the water pipe.

 Presence of bacteria in water being stored. These bacteria reduce

sulphates to sulphides which produce H2S by hydrolysis.

 Presence of organic matter in water.

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 Water treatment

Water treatment transforms raw surface and groundwater into

safe drinking water and for industrial applications.
Water treatment involves two major processes:
 physical removal of solids and
 chemical disinfection.
Surface Water Treatment Plant
Coagulant, pH Adjustment Disinfectant (Cl2, NaOCl)
Ozonation

Raw Water Mixing Flocculation Filtration

Storage Sedimentation
Clear Well

Distribution
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  Sedimentation
 The simplest way to clarify muddy water is to allow the

suspended material in it to settle.

 This process, known as sedimentation, takes place when water

is allowed to stand in a reservoir or to flow through a series of

settling tanks.

 Removal of coarse, dispersed and colloidal impurities from

water is known as clarification.

 The suspended and colloidal impurities are separated in

sedimentation tanks by gravitation

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 Cont…
The main principle of sedimentation is to allow water to rest or
flow at a very slow velocity so that heavier particles settle down
due to gravity.
Sedimentation takes a long time, requires large capacity settling
tanks and can not ensure complete removal of coarse –dispersed
impurities from water

 Filtration of water is done in order to remove colloidal and

suspended matter remaining after sedimentation and to remove

bacterial load.

 The process of filtration usually consists in allowing the water to

pass through thick layers of sand, called media which act as

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 The chemical characteristics of water get altered and the number

of bacteria present in water is considerably reduced.

 Types of Filtration

 Rapid filtration - uses gravity (faster flow).

 Slow filtration - uses gravity [slower flow].

 Pressure sand filters-use water pressure.

 Micro straining - uses fine steel fabric (sometimes used

prior to other filtrations).

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 Cont..

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 Filter media should be:

 coarse enough to retain large quantities of floc

 sufficiently fine to prevent passage of suspended solids

 deep enough to allow relative long filter runs

 May be mesh screens, cartridges with fibrous elements, or

media (sand or carbon or both)

 Removes particles that are too small to be removed in

sedimentation basins
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  Coagulation of water
 Sedimentation alone is not sufficient to remove all the suspended mater.

 The process of coagulation is used to remove colloidal particles from

water.

 The process of consolidation of colloidal particles, terminating in

precipitation of the substance removed from the treated water by settling

or filtration is called coagulation.

 Use reagents so as to remove colloidal and coarse dispersed impurities.

 Since, colloidal particles of a given substance carry same charges, they

are very stable and cannot be easily coagulated or consolidated into

coarse formations.

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In water treatment technology ferrous sulphate (FeSO4.7H2O),
aluminum sulphate (Al2(SO4)3.18H2O) and ferric chloride (FeCl3) are
used as coagulants.
When a coagulant such as aluminiumsulphate is added to
water, it undergoes hydrolysis according to the equation.
• Al2(SO4)3 + 6H2O ⇌ 2Al(OH)3 + 3H2SO4
The hydrolysis of aluminiumsulphate gives complex ions
whose charge depends on the pH of the medium. The hydrolysis
product [Al2(OH)5Cl] promote coagulation of natural water.
 Ferric chloride is the most important in the iron containing
coagulants.
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 Ferrous iron is used as a coagulant when it is added to chlorine

(Cl2 + FeSO4.7H2O), in the ratio by weight of 1:8.

 6FeSO4 + 3Cl2→2Fe2(SO4)3 + 2FeCl3

 Coagulation is especially effective with subsequent liming.

 FeSO4.7H2O + Ca(OH)2→ Fe(OH)2 + CaSO4 + 7H2O

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 Flocculants

 The process of coagulation can be intensified by adding

special reagents known as flocculants.

 These are the substances, forming colloidal dispersed systems

with water.

 Flocculants work by neutralizing the charge on the colloidal

particles of the coagulant and by destroying the protective

properties of some colloids.

 Flocculants are used to coagulate fine dispersed particles and

reduce the consumption of coagulant 2-3 times.

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 Starch, sodium polyalginate, polyacrylamide, a copolymer of

vinyl acetate and maleic anhydride, activated silica etc are used as
flocculants.

 Polyacrylamide has widely been used as a flocculants. Small

quantities of this additive (upto 1mg/litre) accelerate 10-20 times
coagulation by aluminumsulphate

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Membrane process
 In a membrane separation process, a feed consisting of a mixture of
two or more components is partially separated by means of a semi
permeable barrier through which one or more species move faster
than the other species.
Used as
Desalting seawater
Holding back seawater intrusion
Treating brackish groundwater
Water softening
Waste water recovery
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Removing color, odor, and other organic contaminants
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Reverse osmosis and electro dialysis

 In osmosis, if a semi-permeable membrane separates two solutions,

solvent from the lower concentration passes to the higher

concentration to equalize the concentration of both.
 But in the reverse osmosis, pressure higher than osmotic pressure is applied from the higher

concentration side so that the path of the solvent is reversed, i.e. from higher concentration to
lower concentration.

Figure.3
reverse
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osmosis 2/2/2022
 Cont..

 It removes the ionic and non-ionic substances in the water. It also can remove

suspended colloidal particles

 Both size and charge are effective

 Single charged H ions pass readily

 Large metallic ions with higher + charge cannot pass easily (Ni, Zn, Cu, Cd)

 Lower + charges ions can pass (Na, K)

 Dialysis is a process in which diffusion of smaller particles takes place through

semi permeable membrane.

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 Dialysis (DIA) is driving force is a trans membrane concentration

difference Selective passage of ions and low molecular weight

solutes and rejection of larger colloidal and high-molecular-weight
solutes

 In electro dialysis, two electrodes (anode and cathode) are dipped

in brine, separated by semi permeable membrane.

 When current is passed through electrodes, oppositely charged ions

present in sea water pass through membrane towards electrodes.

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 Cont…
Chloride ions pass towards anode while sodium ions pass through
cathode.

After some time, the water in middle chamber become pure and is
taken out. When outer chambers become more concentrated with
brine, they are also changed.

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Ion exchange process

 Ion exchangers are of two types. Anionic & Cationic.

 These are co-polymers of styrene & divinylbenzene.i.e., long chain

organic polymers with a micro porous structure

 Cation exchange resins: containing acidic functional groups such

as -COOH,-SO3H etc. are capable of exchanging their H+ ions with

other cations are called cation exchange resins, represented as RH+

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Anion exchange resins: The resins containing amino or quaternary ammonium or

quaternaryphosphonium(or) tertiary sulphonium groups, treated with “NaOH
solution becomes capable ofexchanging their OH- ions with other anions. These are
called as Anion exchange resins, represented as R_OH

Cation exchange resin

Anion exchange resin
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 •

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 Sterilization and Disinfection of Water

 Coagulation and filtration of water through sand purify it from

suspended solids and partly decrease its bacteriological

contamination.

 Complete disinfection is attained by chemical reagents which kill

pathogenic bacteria or microorganisms.

 Chlorine gas and chlorine compounds, such as chlorinated lime,

chloramines, chlorine dioxide, hypochlorite's, as well as ozone, and

salts of heavy metals are effective against microorganisms.


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 Cont..
 Ultraviolet radiation, ultrasound and other physical factors also

kill pathogenic organisms.

 But, the most important and common disinfecting agent used to treat

water is chlorine and chlorine compounds

 For chlorination, chlorine may be used directly in the liquid form or as

bleaching powder.

 The chemical action of chlorine is that it reacts with water to form hypochlorous

acid and nascent oxygen. Both these are powerful germicides.

 Cl2 + H2O → HOCl (Hypochlorous acid)+HCl

 HOCl→HCl + [Nascent oxygen]

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