Electric Motors- BEE401

2023-24

[Link] C S
Asst. Professor
Department of EEE,SJBIT
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14.08.2023
ELECTRIC MOTORS Semester IV
Course Code BEE401 CIE Marks 50
Teaching Hours/Week (L:T:P: S) 3:0:0:0 SEE Marks 50
Total Hours of Pedagogy 40 Total Marks 100
Credits 03 Exam Hours 03
Examination nature (SEE) Theory

Course objectives:
1 To study the constructional features of Motors and select a suitable drive for specific
Application.
2 To study the constructional features of Three Phase and Single phase induction Motors.
3 To study different test to be conducted for the assessment of the performance
characteristics of motors.
4 To study the speed control of motor by a different methods.
5 Explain the construction and operation of Synchronous motor and special motors.

Module-1
DC Motors: Construction and working principle. Back E.M.F and its significance, Torque
equation, Classification, Characteristics of shunt, series & compound motors, Speed control of
shunt motor, Application of motors.
Losses and Efficiency- Losses in DC motors, power flow diagram, efficiency, condition for
maximum efficiency.
Testing of DC Motors: Direct & indirect methods of testing of DC motors- Swinburne’s test,
Field’s test, merits and demerits of tests. (numerical as applicable)
Module-2
Three Phase Induction Motors: Concept and generation of rotating magnetic field, Principle of
operation, construction, classification and types; squirrel-cage, slip-ring. Slip and its significance,
Torque equation, torque-slip characteristic covering motoring, generating and braking regions
of operation, Maximum torque, (numerical as applicable)
Module-3
Performance of Three-Phase Induction Motor: Phasor diagram of induction motor on no-load
and on load, equivalent circuit, losses, efficiency, No-load and blocked rotor tests. Performance
of the motor from the equivalent circuit. Cogging and crawling. High torque rotors-double cage
and deep rotor bars. Induction motor working as induction generator, construction and working
of doubly fed induction generator. (numerical as applicable)
Module-4
Starting and Speed Control of Three-Phase Induction Motors: Necessity of starter. Direct on
line, Star-Delta, and autotransformer starting. Rotor resistance starting. Speed control by
frequency.
Single-Phase Induction Motor: Double revolving field theory and principle of operation.
Construction and operation of split-phase, capacitor start and capacitor run and shaded pole
motors. Comparison of single phase motors and applications. (numerical as applicable)
Module-5
Synchronous Motor: Principle of operation, phasor diagrams, torque and torque angle, effect of
change in load, effect of change in excitation. V and inverted V curves. Synchronous condenser,
Other Motors: Construction and operation of Universal motor, AC servomotor, Linear induction
motor, PMSM, SRM and BLDC.
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Assessment Details (both CIE and SEE)

The weightage of Continuous Internal Evaluation (CIE) is 50% and for Semester End Exam
(SEE) is 50%. The minimum passing mark for the CIE is 40% of the maximum marks (20 marks
out of 50) and for the SEE minimum passing mark is 35% of the maximum marks (18 out of 50
marks). A student shall be deemed to have satisfied the academic requirements and earned the
credits allotted to each subject/ course if the student secures a minimum of 40% (40 marks out of
100) in the sum total of the CIE (Continuous Internal Evaluation) and SEE (Semester End
Examination) taken together.
Continuous Internal Evaluation:
 For the Assignment component of the CIE, there are 25 marks and for the Internal
Assessment Test component, there are 25 marks.
 The first test will be administered after 40-50% of the syllabus has been covered, and the
second test will be administered after 85-90% of the syllabus has been covered
 Any two assignment methods mentioned in the 22OB2.4, if an assignment is project-based
then only one assignment for the course shall be planned. The teacher should not conduct two
assignments at the end of the semester if two assignments are planned.
 For the course, CIE marks will be based on a scaled-down sum of two tests and other methods
of assessment.
Internal Assessment Test question paper is designed to attain the different levels of Bloom’s
taxonomy as per the outcome defined for the course.
Semester-End Examination:
Theory SEE will be conducted by University as per the scheduled timetable, with common
question papers for the course (duration 03 hours).
1. The question paper will have ten questions. Each question is set for 20 marks.
2. There will be 2 questions from each module. Each of the two questions under a module (with
a maximum of 3 sub-questions), should have a mix of topics under that module.

Suggested Learning Resources:

Text Books
1. Electric Machines, D. P. Kothari, I. J. Nagrath, McGraw Hill, 4th edition, 2011.
2. Theory of Alternating Current Machines, Alexander Langsdorf, McGraw Hill, 2nd
Edition, 2001.
3. Electric Machines, AshfaqHussain, DhanpatRai& Co, 2nd Edition, 2013.

Reference Books
1. Electrical Machines, Drives and Power systems, Theodore Wildi, Pearson, 6th Edition,
2014
2. Electrical Machines, M.V. Deshpande, PHI Learning, 2013
3. Electric Machinery and Transformers, Bhag S. Guru at el, Oxford University Press, 3rd
Edition, 2012
4. Electric Machinery and Transformers, Irving Kosow, Pearson, 2nd Edition, 2012
5. Principles of Electric Machines and power Electronic, [Link], Wiley, 2nd Edition, 2013
6. Electrical Machines, R.K. Srivastava, Cengage Learning, 2nd Edition, 2013

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Module 2: Testing Of Dc Motors & Three Phase Induction Motors

Table of Contents

Sl. No Topics Page No

1 Brake Test on DC Shunt Motor 7
2 Swinburne’s Test 8
3 Hopkinson’s test 11
4 Field Test on DC series Motor 15

5 Retardation Test 16
6 Three phase Rotating Magnetic Field 18
7 Slip 19
8 Torque Equation 19
9 References 26

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Module-2
TESTING OF DC MOTORS & THREE PHASE INDUCTION
MOTORS

Testing of DC Motors are classified as follows

 Direct Testing of DC motor
1) Brake Test
 Indirect Test on DC Motors
1) Swinburne’s Test
2) Hopkinson’s Test
3) Field Test
4) Retardation Test
Brake Test on DC Shunt Motor

DC Machines can be tested by three different methods namely Direct Method, Indirect Method
and Regenerative Method. Direct Method of testing of DC Machine, also known as Brake Test (if
carried out for a DC Motor) will be discussed in this post.
Direct method is suitable for small DC machines. In Direct Method, the DC machine is
subjected to rated load and the entire output power is wasted. The ratio of output power to the input
power gives the Efficiency of DC Machine. For a DC Generator the output power is wastedin
resistor.
Direct Method of testing when conducted on a motor is also known as Brake Test. Brake Test of
DC Motor is carried out as shown in figure below.

A belt around the air cooled pulley has its end attached to the spring balance S1 and S2.
Using belt tightening hand wheels H1 and H2, the load of motor is adjusted to its rated value.
Assuming the spring balance to be calibrated in kilogram, then rated load on the DC motor is given
as

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Motor Output Power = Torque x Angular Speed

= (Force x Radius) x Angular Speed

Fig: Brake Test on DC shunt Motor

As the torque because of force F1 and F2 are opposing each other, therefore net torque will be
subtraction of torque because of F1 and F2.
Therefore,
Motor Output = ω (S1 – S2) x r x9.8 Watt
Now assuming the terminal voltage of DC Motor to be Vt and IL to be the load current then,
Power input to the DC Motor = VtIL
Thus the efficiency of DC Motor can be calculated as below.
Efficiency = Output / Input
= [ω (S1 – S2) x r x9.8 Watt] / VtIL

Swinburne’s Test

For a d.c shunt motor change of speed from no load to full load is quite small. Therefore,
mechanical loss can be assumed to remain same from no load to full load. Also if field current is
held constant during loading, the core loss too can be assumed to remain same.

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In this test, the motor is run at rated speed under no load condition at rated voltage. The current
drawn from the supply I and the field current I are recorded. Now we note that:
L0 f

Fig: Motor under No load

Since the motor is operating under no load condition, net mechanical output power is zero.
Hence the gross power developed by the armature must supply the core loss and friction & windage
losses of the motor. Therefore,

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Since, both P and P for a shunt motor remains practically constant from no load to full
core friction

load, the sum of these losses is called constant rotational loss i.e.,

In the Swinburne's test, the constant rotational loss comprising of core and friction loss is estimated
from the above equation.

After knowing the value of Prot from the Swinburne's test, we can fairly estimate the efficiency of

the motor at any loading condition. Let the motor be loaded such that new current drawn from
the supply is IL and the new armature current is Ia as shown in figure 40.4. To estimate the

efficiency of the loaded motor we proceed as follows;

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The estimated value of P obtained from Swinburne’s test can also be used to estimate the
rot

efficiency of the shunt machine operating as a generator. In figure 40.5 is shown to deliver a load
current I to a load resistor R . In this case output power being known, it is easier to add the
L L

losses to estimate the input mechanical power.

Output power

Fig : Loaded Dc Generator

The biggest advantage of Swinburne's test is that the shunt machine is to be run as motor
under no load condition requiring little power to be drawn from the supply; based on the no load
reading, efficiency can be predicted for any load current. However, this test is not sufficient if we
want to know more about its performance (effect of armature reaction, temperature rise,
commutation etc.) when it is actually loaded. Obviously the solution is to load the machine by
connecting mechanical load directly on the shaft for motor or by connecting loading rheostat across
the terminals for generator operation. This although sounds simple but difficult to implement in
the laboratory for high rating machines (say above 20 kW), Thus the laboratory

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must have proper supply to deliver such a large power corresponding to the rating of the
machine. Secondly, one should have loads to absorb this power.

Hopkinson’s test :

This as an elegant method of testing d.c machines. Here it will be shown that while power
drawn from the supply only corresponds to no load losses of the machines, the armature physically
carries any amount of current (which can be controlled with ease). Such a scenariocan be created
using two similar mechanically coupled shunt machines. Electrically these two machines are
eventually connected in parallel and controlled in such a way that one machine actsas a generator
and the other as motor. In other words two similar machines are required to carry out this testing
which is not a bad proposition for manufacturer as large numbers of similar machines are
manufactured.

Procedure

Connect the two similar (same rating) coupled machines as shown in figure 40.6. With
switch S opened, the first machine is run as a shunt motor at rated speed. It may be noted that the
second machine is operating as a separately excited generator because its field winding is excited
and it is driven by the first machine. Now the question is what will be the reading of the voltmeter
connected across the opened switch S? The reading may be (i) either close to twice supply voltage
or (ii) small voltage. In fact the voltmeter practically reads the difference of the induced voltages
in the armature of the machines. The upper armature terminal of the generator may have either +
ve or negative polarity. If it happens to be +ve, then voltmeter reading will be small otherwise it
will be almost double the supply voltage

Fig: Hopkinsons Test: Before Paralleling

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Since the goal is to connect the two machines in parallel, we must first ensure voltmeter reading is
small. In case we find voltmeter reading is high, we should switch off the supply, reverse the
armature connection of the generator and start afresh. Now voltmeter is found to read small
although time is still not ripe enough to close S for paralleling the machines. Any attempt to
close the switch may result into large circulating current as the armature resistances are small.
Now by adjusting the field current I of the generator the voltmeter reading may be adjusted to
fg

zero (E ≈ E ) and S is now closed. Both the machines are now connected in parallel as shown in
g b

figure.

Fig:Hopkinsons Test: machines Paralled

Loading the machines

After the machines are successfully connected in parallel, we go for loading the machines i.e.,
increasing the armature currents. Just after paralleling the ammeter reading A will be close to
zero as Eg ≈ Eb. Now if Ifg is increased (by decreasing Rfg), then Eg becomes greater than Eb and

both Iag and Iam increase, Thus by increasing field current of generator (alternatively decreasing

field current of motor) one can make Eg > Eb so as to make the second machine act as generator

and first machine as motor. In practice, it is also required to control the field current of the motor
Ifm to maintain speed constant at rated value. The interesting point to be noted here is that Iag and

Iam do not reflect in the supply side line. Thus current drawn from supply remains small

(corresponding to losses of both the machines). The loading is sustained by the output power of

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the generator running the motor and vice versa. The machines can be loaded to full load current
without the need of any loading arrangement.

Calculation of efficiency

Let field currents of the machines be are so adjusted that the second machine is acting as
generator with armature current I and the first machine is acting as motor with armature current
ag

I as shown in figure 40.7. Also let us assume the current drawn from the supply be I . Total
am 1

power drawn from supply is VI which goes to supply all the losses (namely Cu losses in
1

armature & field and rotational losses) of both the machines,

Now:

Since speed of both the machines are same, it is reasonable to assume the rotational losses of
both the machines are equal; which is strictly not correct as the field current of the generator will
be a bit more than the field current of the motor, Thus,

Once Prot is estimated for each machine we can proceed to calculate the efficiency of the
machines as follows

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Field Test on DC series Motor

A field test uses two similar dc series motors, which are mainly used for electric traction works.
In fields test, two similar dc series motors with their field windings connected in series are used to
determine losses and efficiency. The two machines are coupled mechanically in which one runs as
a motor and the other as a generator driven by the motor. The electrical output from the generator
is passed through variable load resistance R and dissipated as heat. The circuit diagramfor fields
test on dc series motor is shown below.

Fig: Field Test on DC series Motor

As they are rotating they have frictional losses and constant losses. The iron and frictional losses
of the two are made equal by,

1) Exciting the machines equally, which is achieved by joining the series field winding of
the generator with the motor armature circuit?

2) Synchronizing the machines by running them at equal speed.

Copper and iron losses depend upon Bm and frequency which in turn depends upon Bm flux and
speed. Thus the iron losses can be maintained constant by satisfying the above two conditions.
Load resistance R is varied till the armature connected in the motor armature circuit

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reads the full-load value. After this adjustment, different ammeter and voltmeter readings are
noted.

Let,
Supply voltage = reading of voltmeter, V = V1 volts
Motor input current = reading of ammeter, A1 = I1
Terminal voltage of generator = readings of voltmeter, V2 = V2
Loading current of generator = reading of ammeter, A2 = I2
Armature resistance of each machine = Ra
Series field of each machine = Rse
Input to the whole set = V1 I1
Output of the whole set = V2 I2
Total losses of the set = P1 = V1 I1 - V2 I2
Series field and armature copper loss of motor = (R a + Rse) I12
Series field and armature copper loss of generator = I22 Ra + I12 Rse

Total copper losses of the set,

Pcu = I12 Ra + I12 Rse + I 22 Ra + I 12 Rse
Pcu = I 12 (Ra + 2Rse) + I22 Ra

Stray losses for the set = PT - Pcu

Stray losses for each machine = (PT - Pcu) / 2 = Ps

Retardation Test
Retardation or Running down Test

This is the best and simplest method to find the efficiency of a constant-speed d.c. machine (e.g.,
shunt generator and motor). In this method, we find the mechanical (friction and windage) and
iron losses of the machine. Then knowing the armature and shunt Cu losses at any load, the
efficiency of the machine can be calculated at that load.

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Principle
Consider a DC. shunt motor running at no-load.

(i) If the supply to the armature is cut off but field remains normally excited, the motor slows
down gradually and finally stops. The kinetic energy of the armature is used up to overcome
friction, windage and iron losses.
(ii) If the supply to the armature as well as field excitation is cut off, the motor again slows
down and finally stops. Now the kinetic energy of the armature is used up to overcome
only the friction and windage losses. This is expected because in the absence of flux, there
will be no iron losses.

By carrying out the first test, we can find out the friction, windage and iron losses and hence
the efficiency of the machine. However, if we perform the second test also, we can separate
friction and windage losses from the iron losses.

Theory of retardation test: In the retardation test, the d.c. machine is run as a motor at a speed
just above the normal. Then the supply to the armature is cut off while the field is normally excited.
The speed is allowed to fall to some value just below normal. The time taken for this fallof speed
is noted. From these observations, the rotational losses (i.e., friction, windage and iron losses) and
hence the efficiency of the machine can be determined.

Fig: Retardation test

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THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

Three phase Rotating Magnetic Field
Three-phase winding is physically distributed in the stator core in such a manner that winding of
each phase is separated from other by 120o in space.
Although the vector sum of three currents in a balanced three-phase system is zero at any
instant, but the resultant of the magnetic fields produced by the currents is not zero rather it will
have a constant non-zero value rotating in space in respect to time.
The magnetic flux produced by the current in each phase can be represented by the
equations given below. This is a similar representation of current is a three-phase system as the
flux is cophasial with the current.

Where, φR, φY and φB are the instantaneous flux of corresponding Red, Yellow and Blue phase
winding, φm amplitude of the flux wave. The flux wave in the space can be represented as shown
below.

Fig: RMF of 3 phase supply

Now, on the above graphical representation of flux waves, we will first consider the point 0.
Here, the value of φR is

The value of φY is

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The value of φB is

The resultant of these fluxes at that instant (φr) is 1.5φm

Slip
In a 3-Φ Induction motor, the stator of the motor will generate a rotating magnetic field or RMF
because of the phase shift with 120 degrees within the 3- Φ supply input. So the RMF revolves
with the stator of its own speed which is known as synchronous speed and it is denoted with ‘Ns’.
The rotating magnetic field (RMF) converses with the rotor; because the change in flux caninduce
an emf. So the rotor in the motor begins revolving with a speed which is known as actual speed
(N). The main disparity between the synchronous & actual speed is known as the SLIP. The slip
value is equal to ‘1’ as the rotor in the motor is at rest & it will not equivalent to ‘0’. So while
operating the motor, the synchronous speed is not equivalent to ‘N’ i.e, actual speed in a given
time. This article discusses an overview of the slip in an induction motor.
What is Slip in an Induction Motor?

Definition: In Induction Motor, a slip is a speed among the rotary magnetic flux as well as rotor
expressed in terms of for every unit synchronous speed. It can be measured in dimensionless & the
value of this motor cannot be zero.
% Slip = Ns – N x 100
Ns

Torque Equation
Torque of a three phase induction motor is proportional to flux per stator pole, rotor current
and the power factor of the rotor.

T 𝖺 ɸ I2 cosɸ2 OR T = k ɸ I2 cosɸ2.
where, ɸ = flux per stator pole,
I2 = rotor current at standstill,
ɸ2 = angle between rotor emf and rotor current,
k = a constant.

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Now, let E2 = rotor emf at standstill

we know, rotor emf is directly proportional to flux per stator pole, i.e. E2 𝖺 ɸ.
therefore, T 𝖺 E2 I2 cosɸ2 OR T =k1 E2 I2 cosɸ2.

Starting Torque

The torque developed at the instant of starting of a motor is called as starting torque. Starting
torque may be greater than running torque in some cases, or it may be lesser.
We know, T =k1 E2 I2 cosɸ2.

let, R2 = rotor resistance per phase

X2 = standstill rotor reactance
Generally, the stator supply voltage V is constant so that flux per pole f set up by the stator is
also fixed. This in turn means that e.m.f. E2 induced in the rotor will be constant

Condition For Maximum Starting Torque

If supply voltage V is kept constant, then flux ɸ and E2 both remains constant. Hence,

Hence, it can be proved that maximum starting torque is obtained when rotor
resistance is equal to standstill rotor reactance. i.e. R 22 + X 22 =2R 22 .

Maximum Torque Under Running Condition

Torque under running condition is maximum at the value of slip (s) which makes rotor
reactance per phase equal to rotor resistance per phase

Hence starting torque will be maximum when: Rotor resistance/phase = Standstill rotor
reactance/phase Under the condition of maximum starting torque, f2 = 45° and rotor power

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factor is 0.707 lagging [See Fig. (ii))]. Fig. (i) shows the variation of starting torque with rotor
resistance. As the rotor resistance is increased from a relatively low value, the starting torque
increases until it becomes maximum when R2 = X2. If the rotor resistance is increased beyond this
optimum value, the starting torque will decrease.

Starting Torque of 3-Phase Induction Motors

The rotor circuit of an induction motor has low resistance and high inductance. At starting,
the rotor frequency is equal to the stator frequency (i.e., 50 Hz) so that rotor reactance islarge
compared with rotor resistance. Therefore, rotor current lags the rotor e.m.f. by a large angle, the
power factor is low and consequently the starting torque is small. When resistance is added to the
rotor circuit, the rotor power factor is improved which results in improved starting torque. This, of
course, increases the rotor impedance and, therefore, decreases the value of rotor current but the
effect of improved power factor predominates and the starting torque is increased.

(i) Squirrel-cage motors. Since the rotor bars are permanently short circuited, it is not possible to
add any external resistance in the rotor circuit at starting. Consequently, the stalling torque of such
motors is low. Squirrel 196 cage motors have starting torque of 1.5 to 2 times the full-load value
with starting current of 5 to 9 times the full-load current.

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(ii) Wound rotor motors. The resistance of the rotor circuit of such motors can be increased
through the addition of external resistance. By inserting the proper value of external resistance(so
that R2 = X2), maximum starting torque can be obtained. As the motor accelerates, the external
resistance is gradually cut out until the rotor circuit is short-circuited on itself forrunning
conditions.

Torque Under Running Condition

T 𝖺 ɸ Ir cosɸ2 .
where, Er = rotor emf per phase under running condition = sE2. (s=slip)
Ir = rotor current per phase under running condition
reactance per phase under running condition will be = sX2
therefore,

as, ɸ 𝖺 E2.

Maximum Torque under Running Conditions

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It is evident from the above equations that:

(i) The value of rotor resistance does not alter the value of the maximum torque but only the
value of the slip at which it occurs.

(ii) The maximum torque varies inversely as the standstill reactance. Therefore, it should be
kept as small as possible.

(iii) The maximum torque varies directly with the square of the applied voltage.

(iv) To obtain maximum torque at starting (s = 1), the rotor resistance must be made equal to
rotor reactance at standstill.

Torque-Slip Characteristics
The motor torque under running conditions is given by;

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If a curve is drawn between the torque and slip for a particular value of rotor resistance R2,
the graph thus obtained is called torque-slip characteristic. Fig shows a family of torque-slip
characteristics for a slip-range from s = 0 to s = 1 for various values of rotor resistance.

The following points may be noted carefully:

(i) At s = 0, T = 0 so that torque-slip curve starts from the origin.
(ii) At normal speed, slip is small so that s X2 is negligible as compared to R2.

Hence torque slip curve is a straight line from zero slip to a slip that corresponds to full-load.
(iii) As slip increases beyond full-load slip, the torque increases and becomes maximum at s =
R2/X2. This maximum torque in an induction motor is called pull-out torque or break-down torque.
Its value is at least twice the full-load value when the motor is operated at rated voltage and
frequency.

Thus the torque is now inversely proportional to slip. Hence torque-slip curve is a rectangular
hyperbola.

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(v) The maximum torque remains the same and is independent of the value of rotor resistance.
Therefore, the addition of resistance to the rotor circuit does not change the value of maximum
torque but it only changes the value of slip at which maximum torque occurs.

Fig: Torque-slip characteristic covering motoring, Generating and braking regions

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References
1) D. P. Kothari, I. J. Nagrath, “Electric Machines”, Mc Graw Hill, 4th edition, 2011
2) B L Theraja, Electrical Technology, S Chand & Company Ltd., Volume 2, 2005

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