Electric Motors- BEE401

2023-24

Mrs. Vimala C S
Asst. Professor
Department of EEE,
SJBIT
 2
14.08.2023

ELECTRIC MOTORS Semester IV

Course Code BEE401 CIE Marks 50
Teaching Hours/Week (L:T:P: S) 3:0:0:0 SEE Marks 50
Total Hours of Pedagogy 40 Total Marks 100
Credits 03 Exam Hours 03
Examination nature (SEE) Theory

Course objectives:
1 To study the constructional features of Motors and select a suitable drive for specific
Application.
2 To study the constructional features of Three Phase and Single phase induction Motors.
3 To study different test to be conducted for the assessment of the performance
characteristics of motors.
4 To study the speed control of motor by a different methods.
5 Explain the construction and operation of Synchronous motor and special motors.

Module-1
DC Motors: Construction and working principle. Back E.M.F and its significance, Torque
equation, Classification, Characteristics of shunt, series & compound motors, Speed control of
shunt motor, Application of motors.
Losses and Efficiency- Losses in DC motors, power flow diagram, efficiency, condition for
maximum efficiency.
Testing of DC Motors: Direct & indirect methods of testing of DC motors- Swinburne’s test,
Field’s test, merits and demerits of tests. (numerical as applicable)
Module-2
Three Phase Induction Motors: Concept and generation of rotating magnetic field, Principle of
operation, construction, classification and types; squirrel-cage, slip-ring. Slip and its significance,
Torque equation, torque-slip characteristic covering motoring, generating and braking regions
of operation, Maximum torque, (numerical as applicable)
Module-3
Performance of Three-Phase Induction Motor: Phasor diagram of induction motor on no-load
and on load, equivalent circuit, losses, efficiency, No-load and blocked rotor tests. Performance
of the motor from the equivalent circuit. Cogging and crawling. High torque rotors-double cage
and deep rotor bars. Induction motor working as induction generator, construction and working
of doubly fed induction generator. (numerical as applicable)
Module-4
Starting and Speed Control of Three-Phase Induction Motors: Necessity of starter. Direct on
line, Star-Delta, and autotransformer starting. Rotor resistance starting. Speed control by
frequency.
Single-Phase Induction Motor: Double revolving field theory and principle of operation.
Construction and operation of split-phase, capacitor start and capacitor run and shaded pole
motors. Comparison of single phase motors and applications. (numerical as applicable)
Module-5
Synchronous Motor: Principle of operation, phasor diagrams, torque and torque angle, effect of
change in load, effect of change in excitation. V and inverted V curves. Synchronous condenser,
Other Motors: Construction and operation of Universal motor, AC servomotor, Linear induction
motor, PMSM, SRM and BLDC.
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Assessment Details (both CIE and SEE)

The weightage of Continuous Internal Evaluation (CIE) is 50% and for Semester End Exam
(SEE) is 50%. The minimum passing mark for the CIE is 40% of the maximum marks (20 marks
out of 50) and for the SEE minimum passing mark is 35% of the maximum marks (18 out of 50
marks). A student shall be deemed to have satisfied the academic requirements and earned the
credits allotted to each subject/ course if the student secures a minimum of 40% (40 marks out of
100) in the sum total of the CIE (Continuous Internal Evaluation) and SEE (Semester End
Examination) taken together.
Continuous Internal Evaluation:
 For the Assignment component of the CIE, there are 25 marks and for the Internal
Assessment Test component, there are 25 marks.
 The first test will be administered after 40-50% of the syllabus has been covered, and the
second test will be administered after 85-90% of the syllabus has been covered
 Any two assignment methods mentioned in the 22OB2.4, if an assignment is project-based
then only one assignment for the course shall be planned. The teacher should not conduct two
assignments at the end of the semester if two assignments are planned.
 For the course, CIE marks will be based on a scaled-down sum of two tests and other methods
of assessment.
Internal Assessment Test question paper is designed to attain the different levels of Bloom’s
taxonomy as per the outcome defined for the course.
Semester-End Examination:
Theory SEE will be conducted by University as per the scheduled timetable, with common
question papers for the course (duration 03 hours).
1. The question paper will have ten questions. Each question is set for 20 marks.
2. There will be 2 questions from each module. Each of the two questions under a module (with
a maximum of 3 sub-questions), should have a mix of topics under that module.

Suggested Learning Resources:

Text Books
1. Electric Machines, D. P. Kothari, I. J. Nagrath, McGraw Hill, 4th edition, 2011.
2. Theory of Alternating Current Machines, Alexander Langsdorf, McGraw Hill, 2nd
Edition, 2001.
3. Electric Machines, AshfaqHussain, DhanpatRai& Co, 2nd Edition, 2013.

Reference Books
1. Electrical Machines, Drives and Power systems, Theodore Wildi, Pearson, 6th Edition,
2014
2. Electrical Machines, M.V. Deshpande, PHI Learning, 2013
3. Electric Machinery and Transformers, Bhag S. Guru at el, Oxford University Press, 3rd
Edition, 2012
4. Electric Machinery and Transformers, Irving Kosow, Pearson, 2nd Edition, 2012
5. Principles of Electric Machines and power Electronic, [Link], Wiley, 2nd Edition, 2013
6. Electrical Machines, R.K. Srivastava, Cengage Learning, 2nd Edition, 2013

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Module 5: Synchronous Motors & Other Motors

Table of Contents

Sl. No Topics Page No

1 Introduction of Synchronous Motor 7
2 Effect of Load on Motor 11
3 Power Output 12
4 STARTING OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR 15

5 V-Curve 18
6 Hunting and Damper Winding 19
7 Synchronous Condenser 20
8 Effect of Constant in Excitation 22
9 Universal Motor 25
10 Servomotor 27
11 Linear Induction Motor 27
12 Stepper Motor 29
13 References 31

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Module-5
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS & OTHER MOTORS

5.1 INTRODUCTION:
A synchronous machine can be used as a generator as well as motor without change in
construction. The synchronous motor has same construction as alternator which was discussed in
this unit Section. In this unit, we will turn our attention to the working principle and starting
methods of synchronous motor. In three phase system, induction and synchronous motors are used.
So we discuss the various similarities and dissimilarities of these motors. In power system, the
over exited synchronous motor is used as a synchronous condenser. So, we discuss the effect of
excitation and V curves before discussing synchronous condenser. Finally, you will consider
hunting or surging in synchronous machines.

SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR:

A Synchronous Motor can run only at synchronous speed,

When the stator of motor is connected to a three-phase supply and driven up to its rated speed, it
continues to run at the constant speed, converting the electrical energy into mechanical energy.
The constructional features of a synchronous motor are same as that of synchronous generator.
Rather, the Alternator can itself be made to run as a synchronous motor.
A synchronous motor works on the principle of magnetic inter-locking between stator and rotor
poles and maintains a constant speed for all loads within its rated capacity. If such a motor is over-
loaded to such an extent that it can no longer continue to maintain its synchronous speed, then it
loses its synchronism and torque at which motor fails to run is called pull-out torque. A
synchronous motor is not a self-starting motor and there are various methods of starting the
synchronous motor. They are:

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(a) Starting as an Alternator, synchronizing it to the Infinite Bus Bar and then prime-mover is
taken off. It starts running as synchronous motor, drawing power from the 3-phase supply of the
Infinite Bus Bar.
(b) Starting it with a D.C. Shunt Motor and energizing the stator field winding by three-phase
supply at synchronous speed.
(c) Constructional features incorporating additional damper windings.

Working Principle:

Why is a synchronous motor not ‘self-starting’?

Figure 5.1 : Synchronous Machine with Round Rotor

Figure 5.1 shows a synchronous machine with a round rotor. The rotor is initially stationary with
fixed North and South poles created by DC excitation. Let the three phase winding of the stator be
connected to a 3-phase supply of fixed voltage V (line) and fixed frequency f (This is knownas
the infinite bus.) As a result, three-phase currents flow in the stator winding creating a rotating
magnetic field rotating at synchronous speed Ns in the counter-clockwise direction. Since the rotor
is stationary and cannot pick-up speed instantaneously because of inertia of rotor, so thetwo fields
move relative to each other, thereby resulting in zero starting torque and hence the motor is not
self-starting.

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By auxiliary means, if the rotor is brought upto a speed close to synchronous speed in the direction
of rotation of field, the two fields interlock with each other and the relative speed of therotor field
with respect to stator field will become zero and then motor runs exactly at synchronous speed.
Alternator used as a Motor
If two alternators are running in parallel and the driving force of one is suddenly removed, then
the machine continues to run as a motor, taking the electrical power necessary to drive it from the
other machine, which is thereby loaded to a certain extent on this account. The supply of direct
current to the field system of the motor must be maintained throughout. In addition, as is seen
later, the motor must be brought up to the speed of synchronism and synchronized beforethe
motoring action takes place.
Consider the case of the elementary two-pole, single-phase synchronous motor represented in
Figure 5.2. This machine is supposed to be exactly the same as the corresponding alternator, and
may have a stationary field system and a rotating armature, or vice versa, the current being led into
the rotating element by means of slip rings. Consider the conductor arriving at A at the moment
when the current is zero. The instantaneous value of the torque due to this conductor is also zero,
since it is proportional to the product of the field strength and the armature current.

Figure 5.2: Action of Synchronous Motor

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The field strength is assumed to be constant throughout. A moment later the conductor arrives at
B, the armature having rotated through an angle. Since the speed is assumed to be that of
synchronism, the current has also advanced in phase by the same angle, this current being supposed
to be flowing away from the observer. A torque is produced in a clockwise direction, which rotates
the rotor in same direction. When the conductor reaches C the current has reached its maximum
value, and by the time the conductor reaches D the current has died down to zero. Throughout the
whole of this half-revolution, which has taken places while the current has advanced through half
a cycle, the torque has been in the same direction. A little later the conductor arrives at E, but the
current has now started to grow in the reverse direction. However,since this reverse current is
cutting the magnetic flux in the reverse direction, the torque still tends to produce rotation in a
clockwise direction. By the time the armature has completed one whole revolution the current has
advanced through one whole period. This is the essential condition for the continuance of rotation,
the armature must rotate synchronously with thecurrent, and hence the machine is called a
synchronous motor. The currents in the other armature conductors produce torques which aids one
another. During the first half period of the current they are cutting the field in one direction, and
during the second half-period, when the current reverses, they are cutting the field in the other
direction. The same principle operates in the case of three-phase synchronous motors.

No Load Conditions

When a synchronous motor is run up to synchronous speed and synchronized with an

alternator the two machines act as generators in parallel. Considering the local circuit formed by
the two armatures, these may be regarded as being in series with each other, but with their emfs
in opposition. The armature of the motor, which is beginning run by prime mover and acting as
generator, may therefore be considered as setting up a back emf equal to and opposite in phase
with the applied emf, as shown in Figure 5.3(a). The resultant voltage in this circuit is zero, and so
no current is supplied to the motor armature. Since the latter receives no power in an electrical
form from the supply, it immediately commences to slow down when the mechanical driving
power is removed. But as soon as the motor armature falls behind the position, that it should occupy
if it maintained an absolutely synchronous speed, the back emf and the applied emf no

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longer neutralize each other, for, notwithstanding the fact that they are equal, no two voltage can
completely neutralize each other unless they are in exact phase opposition. The voltage E now
lagging behind V by an angle (180+θ). The applied and the back emfs now produce a resultant
voltage Vr that causes a current to flow through the motor armature, supplying it with a certain
amount of power. If this power is sufficient to maintain the rotation, the motor continues to rotate
synchronously, but always lagging by a constant small space angle . If the power supplied to the
armature in this manner is not sufficient to overcome the losses at this speed, the armature is further
retarded and lags behind by a larger angle. The effect of this is to increase the resultant voltage
and the armature current, and the power supplied to the motor is thereby increased. This retarding
action continues until the lag of the motor is sufficient to cause the required power tobe supplied
to the motor.

5.2 Effect of Load on Motor

When a load is put upon the shaft of the motor, the first tendency is to retard the rotation, but as
soon as the armature commences to drop behind, the back emf lags by a rather larger angle than
before. An increase in the angle of lag of the back emf causes an increase in the resultant voltage
acting on the circuit, and this in turn causes an increased current to flow, with the result that the
motor takes more power from the supply. The motor armature thus drops behind until itsposition,
relative to that of the driving alternator, is such as to produce sufficient power to maintain the
rotation.
An increase of load results in a further increase in the angle θ. This retards the back emf a little
more and further increases Vr. The current is increased and more power is taken from the supply.
Hence, θis called power/load/toque angle. During the transient period that the induced back emf is
falling behind in phase the speed is momentarily less than that of synchronism, but when steady-
state conditions are re-established the speed reverts to its former constant (synchronous) value.

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Figure 5.3 : Armature Flux

If by chance, the motor drop too far behind, the power that it takes from the supply will be
greater than the required power and then armature will accelerate until it reaches the correct relative
position and it may even get ahead of its correct relative position. If it happens like that itwill again
get retarded and the action is repeated. Some motors are subject to this overshootingof the mark,
when a motor is constantly retarded and accelerated in this manner, the effect is called hunting or
phase-swinging. If the load is excessive, the momentary reduction in speed maybe such as to bring
the torque down to zero, or even to cause it to reverse in direction. The synchronous motor then
falls out of synchronism and comes to rest.

5.3 POWER OUTPUT

The vector diagrams shown in Figure 5.4(a), by neglecting all losses and reversing E so that Vr
becomes the difference between V and E instead of the sum. This diagram is now applicable to a
cylindrical rotor synchronous motor where the synchronous reactance does not vary when the
position of the rotor is changed with respect to position of the stator. With a lagging current, the
electrical power developed per phase is now −EI cos (f − q) so that the mechanical power output
per phase is + EI cos (f − q) and, if all losses be neglected, this is equal to the power input per
phase, VI cos f. Assume the synchronous reactance to be constant and equal to Xs. Since

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armature resistance is to be neglected, the current I must be in quadrature with I Xs. The angle q is
determined by the load, and the value of E by the excitation. For a particular load and a constant
applied voltage V, therefore, the triangle OEV is defined, so that I Xs is fixed in magnitude and
phase. This, in turn, determines the magnitude and phase of the current I, since Xsis assumed to be
constant.

Figure 5.4 : Vector Diagram of Synchronous Motor Neglected Losses

With constant, applied voltage and excitation, therefore, sinq is proportional to the load, although
when losses are taken into consideration this proportionality, while still approximately true, is no
longer mathematically correct.
Under condition of constant load, q varies slightly for different values of I and cosf. For a salient-
pole synchronous motor, the vector diagram may be modified as shown in Figure 5.4(b) which
makes use of the double-reaction theory. Still neglecting losses the electrical power input per phase
(= mechanical power output per phase) is again.

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5.4 STARTING OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

A synchronous motor is not self-starting, so it is necessary to start it by some auxiliary means.

There are two methods generally in use, those being:
(a) by means of an auto-transformer through tap starting or damping winding starting, and
(b) by means of an auxiliary direct coupled induction motor.
Tap Starting
A three-phase synchronous motor is here provided with a special cage winding fitted
to the field system. This consists of a number of bars fitted into slots or holes in the pole shoes
where salient poles are employed, all the bars being joined at each end by a stout copper end

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ring. This cage winding is thus seen to be a development of the system of damping grids. In a
cylindrical rotor the cage conductors are placed in the rotor slots above the main field winding, a
short-circuiting ring being fitted at each end as before. The stator currents set up a rotating
magnetic flux that cuts the cage winding on the field system and induces currents in it. A torque is
developed and the motor runs up to a speed a little less than that of synchronism, as an induction
motor. The DC exciting current, if obtained from a separate source, is now switchedon, and sets
up definite poles on the rotor (the field system), these poles slowly slipping past the poles due to
the rotating flux set up by the stator (armature) currents. The relative speed of the two sets of poles
is due to slip, and decreases as slip reduces. As the DC field strength is gradually increased, the
two sets of pole suddenly lock with each other, the motor thus pulling into synchronism
automatically. If the synchronous motor has its own exciter, this develops very little emf in the
early stages, but suddenly excites when a certain speed is reached, and thereafter the action
proceeds as before. No synchronizing gear is required, and in addition the cage winding acts as a
damper winding when running, thus serving to prevent hunting. On account of the large starting
current required by this method, it is usual to start on a reduced voltage, as with a cage-type
induction motor. This reduced voltage at starting is derived from tappings on an auto transformer,
and the method is known as tap-starting.

Figure 5.5 : Damper Windings

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Starting by Auxiliary Motor

An alternative method of starting is to use a small auxiliary direct-coupled induction

motor, the stator windings of which are connected in series with the stator windings of the main
synchronous motor. All six ends of the stator windings of the starting induction motor are brought
out, the three front ends being connected to the supply and the three rear ends to the synchronous
motor stator terminals, as shown in Figure 5.6. The rotor of the starting motor is of the short-
circuited type, and is frequently made of a solid steel cylinder without any slots or winding at all.
The eddy currents induced in this rotor set up sufficient torque to enable the motorto start.

Figure 5.6 : Starting with Auxiliary Motor

When first switched in, the greater part of the voltage appears across the starting motor on account
of the lower impedance of the synchronous motor stator windings. As the speed rises, however,
these conditions are changed gradually and automatically, until when near synchronism nearly all
the voltage is across the main synchronous motor. The exciter, which is permanently connected to
the synchronous motor field winding, builds up a considerable voltage when near full speed, and
the DC excitation, increasing automatically, suffices to pull the synchronous motor into
synchronism. The auxiliary starting motor now has its stator windings short circuited,

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thus cutting it out of circuit and throwing the whole of the supply voltage on to the synchronous
motor.

5.5 V-Curve

If the excitation is varied, the armature current will vary for constant load. When armature
curve is plotted against exciting current, the resulting curve takes the shape of word V, as shown
in Figure 5.7, and is known as a V-curve. With one particular excitation the armature current is a
minimum for unity power-factor. For smaller exciting currents, the armature mmf,Fa is made
to lag, since the flux, f, and the resultant m.m.f., Fr are the same as before. A lagging armature
mmf, Fa, is only brought about by a lagging armature current, I and motor operates as lagging PF
load. For larger exciting currents, the armature mmf, Fa, is made to lead, in order that Fr shall
again remain unaltered and motor operates as leading PF load. This effect can be seen more clearly
from the approximate vector diagram given in Figure 5.8 A low excitation herecorresponds to a
reduced back emf, giving rise to a resultant voltage that leads the applied voltage by a relatively
small angle, thus causing the current to lag by a considerable angle. Since the power-factor is low,
the current is relatively large. As the exciting current is increased, the back e.m.f. is also increased,
thus swinging the resultant voltage vector round and advancing it inphase. The current is also
advanced in phase, its magnitude decreasing since the power-factor is increasing. When the current
becomes in phase with the applied voltage it reaches a minimum value, the power-factor being
unity. A further increase in exciting current causes an increase in the armature current, which is
now a leading one.

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Figure 5.7 : V-Curves

The excitation corresponding to unity power-factor and minimum current is called the
normal exciting current for that particular load. A smaller exciting current (under-excitation)
results in a lagging armature current and a larger exciting current (over-excitation) in a leading
armature current, due to the reduction and increase in the induced back e.m.f. respectively.

The excitation necessary for unit power-factor goes up as the load increases. On noload the point
on the V-curve is sharply accentuated, but if the machine is loaded the tendency is to round off the
point, this effect being more marked at the higher loads.

5.6 HUNTING AND DAMPERWINDING

Sudden changes of load on synchronous motors sometimes set up oscillations that are
superimposed upon the normal rotation, giving rise to periodic variations of a very low frequency
in speed. This effect is known as hunting or phase-swinging. Occasionally, the trouble is
aggravated by the motor having a natural period of oscillation approximating to the hunting period,
when it is possible for the motor to phase-swing into the unstable region, thus causing itto fall
out of synchronism.

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Figure 5.8 : Hunting Concept

Damper Winding

The tendency to hunt can be minimized by the addition of a mechanical flywheel, but this
practice is rarely adopted, the use of a damper winding being preferred. Assuming that the speed
of rotation of the magnetic flux is constant, there is relative movement between the flux and the
damper bars if the rotation of the field system is also absolutely uniform. No emfs are induced in
the damper bars and no current flows in the damper winding, which is not operative. Whenever
any irregularity takes place in the speed of rotation, however, the polar flux moves from side to
side of the pole, this movement causing the flux to move backwards and forwards across the
damper bars. Emfs are induced in the damper bars forwards across the damper winding. These
tend to damp out the superimposed oscillatory motion by absorbing its energy. The damper
winding, thus, has no effect upon the normal average speed, it merely tend s to damp out the
irregularities in the speed, thus, acting as a kind of electrical flywheel. In the case of a three- phase
synchronous motor the stator currents set up a rotating mmf rotating at uniform speed (except for
certain minor harmonic effects), and if the rotor is rotating at uniform speed, no emfs are induced
in the damper bars.

5.7 SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSER

We know that over excited synchronous motor operates at unity or leading power factor.
Generally, in large industrial plants the load power factor is lagging. The specially designed

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synchronous motor which runs at zero load takes leading current approximately near to 90°
leading. When it is connected in parallel with inductive loads to improve power factor, it is known
as synchronous condenser. Compared to static capacitor the power factor can improve easily by
variation of field excitation of motor. Phasor diagram of a synchronous condenser connected in
parallel with an inductive load is given below.

Figure 5.9 : Phasor Diagram

Figure 5.10 : Connection of Synchronous Motor with Connected Load

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5.8 Effect of Constant in Excitation

In the synchronous motor, rotor too has a DC excitation, so it produces a constant flux forming
the electromagnetic poles on rotor which initially are stationary. Even on loading, the
speed is always constant but the torque angle (between stator and rotor magnetic poles) mayvary.

Figure 5.11 : Effect of constant Excitation with change in Load

Effect of change in excitation

In a d.c. motor, the armature current Ia is determined by dividing the difference between V and Eb
by the armature resistance Ra. Similarly, in a synchronous motor, the stator current (Ia) is
determined by dividing voltage-phasor resultant (Er) between V and Eb by the synchronous
impedance Zs. One of the most important features of a synchronous motor is that by changing the
field excitation, it can be made to operate from lagging to leading power factor. Consider a
synchronous motor having a fixed supply voltage and driving a constant mechanical load. Since
the mechanical load as well as the speed is constant, the power input to the motor (=3 V*Ia *cos
ф) is also constant. This means that the in-phase component Ia cos ф drawn from the supply will
remain constant. If the field excitation is changed, back e.m.f Eb also changes. This results in the
change of phase position of Ia w.r.t. V and synchronous motor for different values of field

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excitation. Note that extremities of current phasor Ia lie on the straight line AB. hence the power
factor cos of the motor changes. Fig: shows the phasor diagram of the synchronous motor.

Figure 5.12 : Effect of change in Excitation

(i) Under excitation

The motor is said to be under-excited if the field excitation is such that Eb < V. Under such
conditions, the current Ia lags behind V so that motor power factor is lagging as shown in Fig:
(i). This can . be easily explained. Since Eb < V, the net voltage Er is decreased and turns
clockwise. As angle ( δ δ = 90°) between Er and Ia is constant, therefore, phasor Ia also turns
clockwise i.e., current Ia lags behind the supply voltage. Consequently, the motor has a lagging
power factor.

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(ii) Normal excitation

The motor is said to be normally excited if the field excitation is such that Eb = V. This is shown
in Fig: 2.28 (ii). Note that the effect of increasing excitation (i.e., increasing Eb) is to turn the
phasor Er and hence Ia in the anti-clockwise direction i.e., Ia phasor has come closer to phasor
V. Therefore, p.f. increases though still lagging. Since input power (=3 V*Ia *cos ф) is unchanged,
the stator current Ia must decrease with increase in p.f.
Suppose the field excitation is increased until the current Ia is in phase with the applied voltage V,
making the p.f. of the synchronous motor unity [See Fig: 2.28 (iii)]. For a given load, at unity
p.f. the resultant Er and, therefore, Ia are minimum.

(iii) Over excitation

The motor is said to be overexcited if the field excitation is such that Eb > V. Under-such
conditions, current Ia leads V and the motor power factor is leading as shown in Fig: 2.28 (iv).
Note that Er and hence Ia further turn anti-clockwise from the normal excitation position.
Consequently, Ia leads V. From the above discussion, it is concluded that if the synchronous motor
is under-excited, it has a lagging power factor. As the excitation is increased, the power factor
improves till it becomes unity at normal excitation. Under such conditions, the current drawn from
the supply is minimum. If the excitation is further increased (i.e., over excitation),the motor
power factor becomes leading. Note. The armature current (Ia) is minimum at unity p.f and
increases as the power factor becomes poor, either leading or lagging

Comparison of Induction and Synchronous Motor:

Sl. No. Induction Motor Synchronous Motor

1 It does not need dc excitation and is It’s a doubly-excited machine and
singly-excited machine requires dc and ac both
2 It possesses inherent starting torque Its requires external means for starting
3 Its speed decreases with increase in It operates at synchronous speed
load and never runs at NS
4 Speed control is, therefore, possible Speed control is not possible
5 It can supply only mechanical loads It can supply mechanical loads and can
be used for improving system power

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factor
6 It operates only at lagging P.F It can operate for both leading and
lagging P.F.
7 Its maximum torque is proportional Its maximum torque is proportional to
to the supply voltage
square of the supply voltage
8 Induction motor with speeds above Synchronous motors with speed below
500 500 RPM and ratings more than 40
RPM and rating below 120 KW are KW or with medium speeds from 500-
cheaper than synchronous motors 1000 rpm and ratings above about 500
KW are costly, i.e. than induction
Motor

5.9 Universal Motor

The universal motor is a type of electric motor that can operate on either AC or DC power and
uses an electromagnet as its stator to create its magnetic field. It is a commutated series- wound
motor where the stator's field coils are connected in series with the rotor windings through a
commutator.
Universal Motors are of two types as mentioned below.
• Concentrated-pole or Non- compensated ( low power rating)
• Distributed- field or compensated type ( High power rating)

Figure 5.13 : Laminated Core

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Figure 5.14 :Universal Motor

A universal motor works as a DC series motor when fed with a DC supply. A magnetic field is
produced when the current flows through the field winding. The same current also flows through
the armature conductors. We know that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in an
electromagnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force. Due to this mechanical force, the rotor
starts to rotate.

Figure 5.15 :Universal Motor with armature

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5.10 Servomotor

A servo motor is a type of motor that can rotate with great precision. Normally this type of
motor consists of a control circuit that provides feedback on the current position ofthe
motor shaft, this feedback allows the servo motors to rotate with great precision.

Two phase Servomotor

Figure 5.16 :Two Phase Servomotor

A typical two-phase AC servo motor has a squirrel-cage rotor and a field consisting of two
windings: 1) a constant-voltage (AC) main winding, and 2) a control-voltage (AC) winding in
quadrature with the main winding so as to produce a rotating magnetic field . The electrical
resistance of the rotor is made high intentionally so that the speed-torque curve is fairly linear.
Two-phase servo motors are inherently high-speed, low-torque devices, heavily geared down to
drive the load.

5.11 Linear Induction Motor

A linear induction motor (LIM) is an alternating current (AC), asynchronous linear motor
that works by the same general principles as other induction motors but is typically designed to
directly produce motion in a straight line.

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Figure 5.17: Linear Induction Motor

5.12 Stepper Motor

• The stepper motor has a rotor movement in discrete steps. The angular rotation is
determined by the number of pulses fed into the control circuit.
• There are three most popular types of rotor arrangements
• Variable Reluctance (VR) types
• Permanent magnet (PM) type
• Hybrid type

The principle of Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor is based on the property of the flux lines
which capture the low reluctance path. The stator and the rotor of the motor are aligned in such
a way that the magnetic reluctance is minimum, Switched reluctance motors operate by
switching currents in the stator windings in response to changes in the magnetic circuit formed by
the rotor and stator. As the stator pole pairs are energized, the rotor turns to align with the
energized stator poles, which minimizes the reluctance of the magnetic circuit.

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Figure 5.17: Variable Reluctance Motor

A permanent magnet stepper motor is a compatible and highly efficient device that has numerous
applications. Since the rotor is made of permanent magnets, it does not need any external excitation
which makes it very useful in applications such as toys, small motors, etc. Because of its design
aspects, the step-angle of each rotation can be easily designed, which makes it usefulin delicate
applications such as medical instruments and aeronautical structures. Due to its small size, it is
highly mobile and easy to use. This article discusses an overview of the permanent magnet stepper
motor.

Figure 5.18: Four pole permanent magnet stepper motor

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Figure 5.19: Basic dive circuit for permanent magnet 4 pole stepper motor

A hybrid stepper motor is a combination of the variable reluctance and permanent magnet
type motors. The rotor of a hybrid stepper motor is axially magnetized like a permanentmagnet
stepper motor, and the stator is electromagnetically energized like a variable reluctance stepper
motor.

Figure 5.20: Hybrid stepper motor

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References
1) D. P. Kothari, I. J. Nagrath, “Electric Machines”, Mc Graw Hill, 4th edition, 2011
2) B L Theraja, Electrical Technology, S Chand & Company Ltd., Volume 2, 2005

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