CIVIL ENGINEERING

What is Irrigation?
Water is the most important element for the growth of plants.
Different types of plants require different quantities of water at
d i f fe re nt ti m e s d uri ng the i r g rowi ng p e ri od . T he wate r
requirement of plants is naturally fulf il led through the rain.
However, rainwater may not always fulf il the water demand. In
such cases, the water has to be applied artif icially. This process
of applying water artif ic ially to the agricultural f ields is termed
Irrigation.
Importance of Irrigation
• The period of rain is restricted to only four months in a year in India, i.e., June to September when the
monsoon arrives. The other eight months are mostly dry excepting unsure and irregular rainfall
during December and January months. Even during monsoon, the rainfall may be inadequate and
undependable in some parts of the country. Such, insuf ficient, unsure, and irregular rain causes
uncertainty in agriculture. In such cases irrigation system is essential for the satisfactory growth of
crops.

• Some perennial crops like sugarcane, cotton, etc. need water throughout the year. However, the
precipitation is restricted largely to four rainy months in a year. For the remaining duration of the year,
the irrigation becomes vital. Further, the provision of irrigation facilities helps in growing two or three
crops in a year on the same agricultural land.

• Out of the 160 million hectares of cultivated land in India, about 83 million hectares can reliably
water either naturally or through irrigation. About 50% of cultivated land in India is poorly irrigated due
to which the crop yield decrease substantially. The provision of irrigation facilities can increase yields
from such lands. Further, proper irrigation may also bring additional barren lands and desert areas
under cultivable land.
Merits and Demerits of Irrigation
Irrigation has following merits:
● It increases the productivity of the land.
● As crop production improves; irrigation helps in preventing feminine situations in a country.
● Irrigation makes it possible to cultivate crops, pulses, vegetables, etc. throughout the year. Due to
irrigation, the cultivation of cash crops like cotton, jute, grass, f lowers, fruits, etc. becomes prof itable. As
a result, farmers can earn more money and improve their living standards.
● As agriculture becomes prof itable, more people are attracted to it. This, in turn, results in the reduction of
unemployment.
● Taxes are generally levied on the supply of irrigation water. Hence, it is another source of income for the
government.
● Irrigation systems may have some indirect benef its as follows:
Dams, barrages, and canal systems built for irrigation may also be used for f lood control.
Dams may be used for hydroelectric power generation
Irrigation canals may be used for inland navigation and domestic and industrial water supply.
Reservoirs and canals may be utilized for the development of f isheries projects.
• Apart from the above excessive irrigation has certain ill-effects too. Excess water may ruin the crop yield,
result in waterlogging and form marshy lands. Therefore, irrigation should be optimum for effective
cultivation.
Classif ication of Irrigation Projects
Irrigation projects in India are classif ied into three categories such as major, medium and minor according to the area
cultivated.

 Major irrigation project: Major irrigation projects are those which have a culturable command area (CCA) of more
than 10,000 ha. The total area that can be irrigated using the water from the canal system assuming an
unlimited quantity of water is available is called a gross command area (GCA) for the irrigation system. The
culturable command area (CCA) is the area of the cultivable land within the GCA of an irrigation project. The
major irrigation project usually consists of huge multipurpose storage reservoirs and f low diversion structures.

 Medium irrigation project: Medium irrigation projects are those which have a culturable command area (CCA) of
less than 10,000 ha but more than 2,000 Ha. Such projects include medium-sized storage reservoirs and
diversion structures.

 Minor irrigation project: Minor irrigation projects are those which have a culturable command area (CCA) of less
than 2,000. The source of water is either groundwater or surface water lifted by pumps or by gravity f low from
tanks, ponds, or small canals.
Types of Irrigation System
The irrigation system may be classif ied into two categories such as lift irrigation and f low irrigation.
1. Lift Irrigation
Lift irrigation is a method of irrigation in which water instead of being transported by natural f low as in the case of rivers or canals is
lifted from a water source using animal-driven, mechanical or electrical pumps and directly supplied to the cropland.

For a viable lift irrigation scheme, the prime necessities are the availability of a stable water source for the entire crop season and the
feasibility of lifting water to the intended crop f ield. The source is mainly groundwater, river streams, contour canals, ponds, and
lakes. The source is primarily groundwater, river streams, contour canals, ponds, and lakes. Lift irrigation f ir st lifts water using
pumps from the water source to the main distribution chamber, located at the topmost point in the command area. Then they are
distributed to the lands of the benef iciary farmers through a suitable and right distribution system.
2. Flow Irrigation
Flow irrigation or gravity irrigation is a system of irrigation where the water f lows from its source to the crop f ield due to gravity force.
In this system, the head of the canal is at a higher elevation than the land to be irrigated. Flow irrigation is further classif ied into two
categories such as direct irrigation and storage irrigation.

A. Direct Irrigation: In direct irrigation methods, the river water is directly diverted into the canal without attempting to store water.
This method is practised where the river has an adequate perennial supply to feed the canal system at the times of crop periods. The
direct irrigation method can be achieved in two methods as follows:
Construction of diversion headworks: In this method, the river water is directly diverted
into the canal by constructing a diversion structure like a weir or barrage across the river
to raise the water level on the upstream side and to take care of diurnal variations. It
also results in raising the water level in the river to a certain limit due to which it into the
off-taking channel by gravity. The f lo w in the channel is usually controlled by a gated
structure which is known as a head regulator. The entire set of hydraulic structures
including the gated structures constructed at the head of the irrigation system is known
as diversion headworks. Such an irrigation system is called a perennial irrigation system
if water from such headwork is available throughout the crop period.

Inundation system of irrigation: In this system, the canal takes off from the bank of an
inundation river that overf lo ws in the rainy seasons and nearly dries in the remaining
seasons. The bed level of the canal is kept at such a level that, the water can f lo w
through the canal during the rainy seasons when the water level rises in the river.
Similarly, the f low of water through the canal automatically stops once, the water level in
the river falls below the canal bed level. An inundation canal usually doesn’t have any
head regulators to control the f lo w of water. As a result, there might be over-irrigation
resulting in damage to crops.
B. Storage irrigation: In this type of irrigation system, a dam is
constructed across a river to form a storage reservoir on the
upstream side. This reservoir stores a part of the excess water
f lowing during monsoon which otherwise would have passed down
to the ocean even occasionally f lo oding a vast area in the
downstream side. Apart from irrigation, the stored water can be used
for multiple purposes including water supply for domestic and
industrial uses, hydroelectric power generation, and f ishery, etc.
Typical storage irrigation system
Methods of Field Water Distribution

Different methods of f ield water distribution systems may be classif ied as follows:
1. Surface Irrigation
In surface irrigation or f looding, method water is distributed to the croplands through the small
channels that f lood the land up to a required depth. No irrigation pump is involved in this method and
water f lows simply by gravity. Surface irrigation is of the following types:

A. Border Irrigation: Border irrigation method, the agricultural area is divided into a series of long narrow
strips (known as Border strips) by small bunds known as levees. The strips are aligned along the
slope of the land. Water is introduced at the upper end of the strip and f lows throughout the area
and down the strip. This method is suitable when the f ie ld is even with a gentle slope. Border
irrigation is suited to all crops that are not damaged by inundation for short periods.

B. Basin Irrigation: Basins are f la t areas of land surrounded by low bunds. The bunds prevent the
water from f lowing to the adjacent f ie lds. There are two types of basins namely check basin and
ring basin. The basins are f illed to the desired depth and the water is retained until it inf iltrates into
the soil. This method is employed for watering orchards and paddy f ie lds where water needs to be
maintained for considerable periods.
[Link] Irrigation: In this method, narrow channels or furrows are dug between
crops at regular intervals. The water is supplied through the furrows that
inf il trate into the soil and recharge the soil water. Flow to each furrow is
separately controlled. Furrow irrigation is suitable for crops that grow in trees
and that are planted in rows such as plantation of vegetables. As water does
not directly contact the plants it will not damage the crops.

[Link] levee Irrigation: This method is adopted in hilly areas where the land
has a steep slope. Here, the land is divided into a series of horizontal strips
which are known as terraces. The procedure of irrigation is more or less similar
to the border irrigation method. The shapes of the strips or terrace are not
rectangular, rather they follow the contour lines of the hill. Small bunds are
provided at the end of each terrace to hold water up to a required depth
Different surface irrigation systems
2. Drip Irrigation:

In drip irrigation or, subsurface irrigation method the water is directly applied at the root zone of
the plants through an underground network of perforated pipes. The perforated pipes permit
the water to drip slowly, moist the soil beneath the root zone which is then ingested by the
crops directly. Water is applied close to the plants so that only part of the soil in which the
roots grow is wetted as a result a lot of saving in water is achieved. Further saving is achieved
as the water evaporation rate is the minimum in the drip irrigation system. This method is
suitable for permeable soil like sandy soil.
3. Sprinkler Irrigation

In this method, the water is applied to the land in the form of spray similar to natural rainfall but spread
over the land surface and at a time when required. The sprinkling of water is achieved by distributing
water through a system of pipes usually by pumping which is then sprayed into the air through sprinklers
so that it breaks up into small water drops that fall to the ground. The rate of sprinkling is such that, all
the water applied to the f ie ld gets inf iltrated and does not result in surface runoff. The system of
irrigation is suitable for undulating lands, with poor water availability, sandy or shallow soils, or where the
uniform application of water is desired. No land levelling is required as with the surface irrigation methods.
The water that is pumped through the pump pipe sprinkler system must be free of suspended sediments.
As otherwise there would be chances of blockage of the sprinkler nozzles. The following are different
types of sprinklers used for irrigation purposes:
▪ Perforation on lateral pipes

▪ Fixed nozzles on lateral pipes

▪ Rotating sprinklers.
Multipurpose River Valley Projects

• As the name implies Multi-purpose river valley projects are carried on to serve more than
one requirement such as irrigation, electricity generation, water supply for domestic and
industrial uses, f lood control, recreation, inland navigation, and f ish breeding. For example,
the Bhakra Nangal Project was constructed with the prime objective of irrigation and power
generation. Similarly, the Hirakud project was intended for f lood control, irrigation, and
power generation.

• After the independence of India, several multipurpose river valley projects were launched.
Those projects are not only serving as the vehicle to lead the development of agriculture
and the village economy but also acting as a catalyst for rapid industrialization and growth
of the urban economy.
 Dams
A dam is an impervious barrier constructed across a river or natural watercourse to stop or restrict the f low of water in it. Dams and
reservoirs normally go together. When the barrier is constructed across the river it forms a reservoir or artif icial lake that stores
water for future use. The dam is the central structure in a multipurpose river valley project. Multipurpose dams hold special
importance in developing countries, where a single dam may bring signif icant benef its related to hydroelectric power production,
agricultural development, and industrial growth.

Purpose of Dam Construction

 Flood control: Dams can impound the f lo odwaters into the reservoir behind it, allowing it to be released under control or stored
for future use.

 Irrigation and water supply: The water stored in the dam can be used for irrigation, domestic use, and industrial use.

 Power generation: Dams provide a source of clean and renewable energy in the form of hydroelectric power.
 Inland water navigation: Dams help to raise and maintain a stable water level on the rivers this facilitates inland water
transportation.

 Fishery: The Lake formed behind the dam may be used for f ishery farming.

 Recreational activities: The Lake that formed behind the dam can be used for recreational such as water sports and pleasure
activities. Moreover, large dams are on their own become a major tourist attraction.
 Types of Dams
The dams can be classif ied according to their size, intended purpose, or structural behaviour in the
following ways:

A. Based on size: Based on their height measured from the lowest portion of its foundation to the crest the
dams can be classif ied into three categories namely: major dams, large dams, and small dams.
 Major dams: Major dams have a height of over 150 m.

 Large dams: Large dams have a height above 15 m. A dam between 10 m to 15 m in height may be
classif ie d as a large dam if it satisf ie s at least one of the following conditions: (a) the length of the
crest is not less than 500 m; (b) The capacity of the storage reservoir formed by the dam is not less
than 1 million cubic meters; (c) The maximum f lood discharge dealt with by the dam is not less than
2000 cumec (cubic meter per second); (d) The dam has special dif ficult foundation problems; and (e)
The dam is of unusual design.

 Small Dam: A dam less than 15 m in height and which does not fulf il any of the conditions of a large
dam.
B. Based on intended purpose: Based on their intended purpose the dams can be divided into the following major
types:
 Storage dams: This dam impounds water in periods of surplus supply for use in periods of def icient supply.
These periods may be seasonal, annual, or longer.

 Detention Dam: A dam whose principal purpose is to temporarily detain all or part of the runoff and enable its
release at controlled rates, as and when required to prevent the downstream area from sudden f looding.

 Diversion Dam: A f ixed dam built to divert parts or all of the water from a stream out of and away from its
course for irrigation, water supply, power generation, etc.

 Levee: An earthen embankment extending generally parallel to the river channel and designed to protect the
area, behind it from overf low by f loodwaters.

 Check Dam: A check dam is a small, sometimes temporary, dam constructed across a shallow, drainage
ditch, or waterway to counteract erosion by reducing water f low velocity. A check dam may also be
constructed to retain debris. It is generally built of inexpensive and temporary materials such as brush, logs,
timber, loose rock, masonry, concrete, etc.

 Coffer Dam: It is a temporary structure built with sheet piles to exclude water during the construction of a
foundation in a waterlogged area such as a river bed.
C. Based on the materials of construction: Based on the materials of construction the dams can be
classif ied into earthen dams, masonry dams, concrete dams, steel dams, timber dams or rockf il l
dams, etc.

D. Based on the structural behaviour: Based on the structural behaviour the dams are the following main
types:

 Gravity dam: A gravity dam is a solid concrete or masonry dam that is designed and shaped in such
a way that its weight is suf ficient to resist all forces acting on it.
 Arch Dam: A curved solid masonry or concrete dam, convex upstream, that depends principally on
arch action to resist the forces acting on it.

 Buttress Dam: A dam consisting of water supporting upstream face or deck, usually reinforced
concrete slab, supported by buttresses generally in the form of equally spaced triangular reinforced
concrete or masonry walls or counterforts. The buttress transmits the water load and weight of the
deck to the foundation.
Selection of Suitable Dam Sites
There are several factors that affect the selection of a suitable site for a dam. These are:

● Topography: The river valley should be deep, narrow, and well- def ined so that the capacity of the storage shall be large
with minimum surface area and length of the dam.

● Geological and foundation conditions: A good rocky foundation such as granite having strong bearing capacity is
suitable for dam construction. The basin should be free from cracks, f issures, etc. to avoid percolation. If unavoidable,
the area should be located and necessary measures should be taken to make it leakproof. Further, if the site is located
in a seismic-prone area then its design must be capable of resisting additional forces for the earthquake.

● Availability of materials: For the economy, the materials required for dam construction must be available locally or at
short distances from the construction site.

● Accessibility of the site: Further, the site should be easily accessible by road or railways for the transport of
construction materials, equipment, etc.

● Settlement: The dam site should be selected in such a way that, after its construction, the submersion of valuable
property, or lands shall be as less as possible.
● Sedimentation: The River at the dam site should not carry large quantities of sediment. The necessary measures must
be taken to reduce the sedimentation before the water reaches the dam site.
 Problems Caused by Dam Construction
 The dam itself blocks f ish migrations, which for some species engender the spawning habitats. Similarly, due to the regulation of the natural
f low; dams trap sediments resulting in rockier stream beds and poorer habitats for aquatic life even on the downstream side.

 Irrigation has also changed the cropping pattern of many regions with farmers shifting to water-intensive and commercial crops. It may
cause great ecological consequences like the salinization of the soil.

 The reservoir created by the construction of dams submerges a very large area. This destroys its natural environment, fauna, and f lora.
Construction of the dam also results in rising water table levels and dampness. This results in the salinisation of soil and damage to
structures and monuments.

 The construction of large dams can cause serious geological troubles. For example, the building of the Hoover Dam, USA, and Koyna Dam,
India triggered earthquakes.

 A vast land area is required for the construction of dams, storage reservoirs, canals, and other hydraulic structures. It results in large- scale
displacement of local peoples who often had to give up their land, and livelihood for the greater benef it of the nation.
 The dams may create conf licts between people: farmers, industrialists, local villagers, and urbanites. It is because their need and uses are
different, simultaneously they try to derive the maximum benef its for them from the same water resources.

 Dams block the f low of water from one state to another or from one country to another. This means that the water supply from the same
river in the following state or country is reduced. This can lead to serious Interstate and inter-country disputes between them.
 The breaching of a dam may cause f looding and damage in a vast area on the downstream side. This makes the dam a soft target for
attracts by the enemy or terrorists.
Canal Irrigation
• Canal irrigation is one of the signif icant techniques adopted throughout the world. In India, it is the second
most important source of irrigation following wells and tube wells. The main canal-irrigated areas are in the
northern plains of India where Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Bihar account for about 60
percent of the canal-irrigated area of the country.
• The canal irrigation involves:
Construction of diversion head work
The excavation of a network of canal systems.
Diversion Head Works
Diversion head works consist of structures constructed across a river so that the water level in the river may
be raised and diverted into the off- taking canals. The objectives of the diversion headworks are:

● Raising the water level at the upstream side of the river

A. Weir/ Anicut: Weir is an impervious barrier made up of masonry, concrete, or rocks, which is constructed across a
river to raise the water level to a required height and the surplus water f lows over its crest. It is aligned at right angles
to the direction of f low in the river and is primarily built to divert the water into a canal, make the river navigable, or
measure f low in the river.

• Barrage: Barrage is a permanent barrier provided with a series of gates across the river to regulate water surface level
and pattern of f low upstream and for other purposes. A barrage provides maximum control on the river as the
adjustable gates help to maintain the water surface at different levels at different times of the year.

• The difference between a barrage and a weir is only qualitative. In the former, the gates or shutters provide the
larger part of the ponding, while in the latter the solid crest carries out most of the raising of water level or ponding
and the top shutters are relatively small in height.

A) WEIR B) BARRAGE
C. Divide wall: It is a long wall constructed at a right angle to the axis of the weir or barrage. It is extended
well beyond the main structure of the canal head regulator on the upstream side and up to the launching
apron on the downstream side. In the case of one canal off-take from each bank of the river, one divide
wall is provided in front of each of the head regulators.
The dividing wall separates the under sluices from the weir or barrage proper since the crest level of the
under sluices is lower than that of the weir proper, the two must be separated and this is being done by
the divided wall. Further, it helps in providing a comparatively less turbulent pocket near the canal head
regulator, resulting in the deposition of silt in this pocket and thus helping in the entry of silt- free water
into the canal.

D. Fish ladder: It is the nature of several f ishes to migrate from downstream to upstream during monsoon
and vice versa during winter. This movement is necessary for spawning and survival. Diversion
structures such as barrages and weirs are provided with a device, known as a f ish ladder, which
facilitates the smooth passage of f ish from upstream to downstream and vice versa.
Fish ladders usually consist of an inclined chute from the dam, or diversion works to the downstream
river bed and are divided into compartments by cross walls. Each cross wall has a small hole at its
bottom and in one corner for the f ish to pass through. The holes in the adjacent walls are staggered to
reduce the velocity of water passing through the chute. The difference in water levels between the
upstream and downstream sides is thus divided into water steps by these cross walls.
E. Silt excluder: A silt excluder is a device by which silt is precluded from entering the canal. It usually consists of a series of R.C.C. rectangular
tunnels, known as still pockets, located in front of the intake/head regulator, and at right angles to the axis of the barrage.
The roof slab of the excluder is kept at the same level as the rectangular crest. The bottom layer of water, which is heavily loaded, thus
passes down the tunnel into the river, leaving clear water at the top that passes down in the canal.

F. Under sluices/ scouring sluices: The under sluices are controlled gated openings provided at the base of the dams, barrages, or weirs. As
the velocity of water is less at the upstream side of diversion work, the silt deposition is more there. When silt deposition becomes
appreciable they are loosened with an agitator mounted on a boat and then the gates are opened to wash away the muddy water
containing the silt.

G. Canal head regulators: It is a structure built at the head of the canal to divert, control and regulate water supplies from the pond into the
canal. It consists of several spans separated by piers. Each span consists of several tiers on which adjustable gates are placed that are
operated by a suitable mechanical device. A road is usually provided on the top of the piers.

H. Guide bank: When the f low of water is restricted due to the construction of a weir, barrage, or bridge across an alluvial river it starts
scouring the river banks. It can be prevented by guiding and narrowing down the f low through the waterway. Guide bunds are provided
for this purpose.
The guide banks are the earthen embankments with curved heads on both ends. To prevent erosion of the material from the river-side
surface of the guide bank, the surface is stone-pitched. This pitching is continued up to the rear side of the curved head and the
thickness of stone pitching is more for the curved head region.

I. Marginal Bunds or dikes: They are earthen bonds whose face towards the river is generally pitched. They are constructed parallel to river
banks to protect the surrounding area from inundation caused by f loods. They should be located at the limiting line of meandering of the
river i.e. beyond the meander belt of the river.
 TEST 1

[Link] the crucial factors influencing the structural design of a building.

TEST 2
Q1. Explain the importance of transportation.
[Link] the necessity of public water supply system.
THANK YOU