CSC 426

COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Comprehensive Study Notes

All 14 Modules Covered · Simple English · Exam-Ready

Modules Input Devices Output Devices Algorithms Transformations

DDA & Translation,

14 7 Types 5 Types Bresenham Rotation...

Prepared for Academic Use · University-Level Computer Science

CSC 426 – Computer Graphics Comprehensive Study Notes

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER GRAPHICS

1.1 Computer Graphics

Definition
Computer Graphics is the branch of computer science that deals with creating, manipulating, storing, and
displaying visual images and pictures using a computer. It covers both the hardware (screens, printers)
and software (programs, algorithms) used to produce visual output.
■ Simple definition: Computer Graphics = Using computers to create and show pictures, drawings, and visual
effects.

History of Computer Graphics

Period Key Development

1950s First graphical display — oscilloscope-style vector displays

1960 Ivan Sutherland created Sketchpad — the first interactive graphics program

1963 First use of computer graphics in engineering design

1970s Introduction of raster scan displays and GUI concepts

1980s AutoCAD launched (1982); personal computers with graphic capabilities

1990s 3D graphics cards; first CGI films (Toy Story, 1995)

2000s High-definition displays, real-time 3D graphics, gaming explosion

2010s 4K resolution, Virtual Reality (VR), Augmented Reality (AR)

2020s AI-generated graphics, 8K displays, real-time ray tracing

■ Ivan Sutherland is called the 'Father of Computer Graphics'.

Evolution of Computer Graphics

• Text-only displays (1950s–1960s): Only characters — no graphics.
• Vector graphics (1960s–1970s): Lines drawn by moving an electron beam.
• Raster graphics (1970s–1980s): Screen divided into pixels; colour became possible.
• 2D Graphics (1980s): Paint programs, flat illustrations, GUI interfaces.
• 3D Graphics (1990s): Depth, shadows, and lighting effects introduced.
• Real-time Graphics (2000s–present): Instant rendering for gaming and VR.
• AI & Procedural Graphics (present): Computers generate realistic images automatically.

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Components of a Graphics System

• Input Devices – Tools to enter data/commands (mouse, keyboard, scanner, joystick).
• Central Processing Unit (CPU) – Processes all computations.
• Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) – Special processor for fast graphics rendering.
• Frame Buffer / Video Memory – Holds the image currently on screen.
• Display System – Shows visual output (CRT, LCD, LED monitor).
• Output Devices – Produce physical copies (printers, plotters).
• Graphics Software – Programs to create and edit images (Photoshop, Blender).

Applications of Computer Graphics

# Application Example

1 Entertainment Movies, animations, video games

2 Engineering & Architecture CAD for buildings and machines

3 Medicine MRI scans, 3D surgical models

4 Education Interactive e-learning, simulations

5 Advertising Digital posters and motion ads

6 Scientific Visualisation Weather maps, molecular structures

7 GIS Digital maps, satellite imagery

8 Virtual & Augmented Reality VR headsets, AR apps

9 Business Presentations Charts, graphs, infographics

10 Military & Defense Flight simulators, battlefield maps

Limitations of Computer Graphics

• High cost of hardware (GPUs, professional monitors).
• Expensive software licenses (Adobe, Autodesk).
• High processing power required for complex 3D scenes.
• Large storage needed for high-resolution images and videos.
• High power consumption by graphics workstations.
• Compatibility issues across different operating systems.
• Long learning curve for professional tools.

EXAM QUESTIONS
Q1: Define Computer Graphics.
Q2: State five applications of Computer Graphics.

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1.2 Career Opportunities in Computer Graphics

Career Description

Graphic Designer Creates logos, flyers, posters for print and digital media.

Animator Produces 2D/3D animation for movies, TV, games, and ads.

Game Developer Designs and builds interactive video games.

UI/UX Designer Designs the look and user experience of apps and websites.

Motion Graphics Designer Creates animated text and graphics for video content.

CAD Designer Technical drawings for buildings and products using AutoCAD.

Web Designer Designs the visual layout and flow of websites.

VFX Artist Creates special effects for films that are impossible to film.

Multimedia Specialist Combines text, images, audio, and video into interactive media.

AR/VR Developer Builds augmented and virtual reality experiences.

1.3 Challenges of Computer Graphics

Challenge Explanation

Cost of Hardware High-end GPUs and professional monitors are very expensive.

Cost of Software Adobe CC, Autodesk and similar tools require costly licenses.

Processing Complexity Complex 3D rendering requires millions of calculations per second.

Memory Requirements High-resolution images demand large RAM and storage.

Power Consumption Graphics workstations and gaming rigs use a lot of electricity.

Security Issues Software piracy and AI deepfakes are growing concerns.

Compatibility Some formats or tools do not work on all systems.

Learning Curve Tools like Blender and AutoCAD take significant time to master.

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MODULE 2: DISPLAY SYSTEMS

2.1 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

A Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) is an older display technology that uses an electron gun to fire electrons at a
phosphor-coated screen to produce images. CRT monitors were standard from the 1950s to the early
2000s.

Components of CRT
• Electron Gun – Produces and fires a beam of electrons.
• Deflection Plates – Steer the electron beam left/right and up/down.
• Phosphor Screen – Glows when hit by electrons, creating visible light.
• Vacuum Tube (Glass Envelope) – Sealed glass with no air inside.
• Shadow Mask / Aperture Grille – Separates red, green, and blue phosphor dots.

Working Principle
A heated cathode releases electrons → electrons are accelerated by high voltage → deflection plates
steer the beam across the screen → the beam hits the phosphor coating which glows → the beam scans
left-to-right and top-to-bottom, refreshing 60+ times per second.

Advantages & Disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages

Accurate colour reproduction Bulky and very heavy

No input lag (fast response) High power consumption

Wide viewing angles Produces small amounts of radiation

Works at multiple resolutions Eye strain at low refresh rates

Historically inexpensive Now largely obsolete

2.2 Raster Scan Display

A Raster Scan Display divides the screen into a grid of pixels. The electron beam scans row by row (left
to right, top to bottom) to illuminate each pixel. This is the technology in modern TVs, monitors, and
phones.
• Refresh Buffer (Frame Buffer): Memory storing every pixel's colour for the current image.
• Pixels are arranged in a 2D grid; more pixels = higher resolution.

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• Advantages: Supports colour images, video, and text.

• Disadvantages: Large memory needed; jagged diagonal lines (aliasing).

2.3 Random Scan Display

A Random Scan (Vector) Display moves the electron beam only to specific positions needed for the
drawing — like a pen drawing lines — instead of scanning every row.

Raster Scan vs Random Scan Comparison

Feature Raster Scan Random Scan

Scanning method Row by row, all pixels Point to point only

Image type Photos, video, colour Line drawings only

Memory use Large (all pixels) Small (coordinates)

Line quality Jagged (aliased) Smooth and sharp

Colour support Full colour Limited

Modern use All modern screens Oscilloscopes, old CAD

2.4 Plasma Display

A Plasma Display uses tiny cells of ionised gas (plasma). When electricity passes through the cells, they
emit UV light, which causes a phosphor coating to produce red, green, or blue visible light.

Advantages Disadvantages

Excellent colour and contrast High power consumption

Very wide viewing angles Risk of screen burn-in

Good for large screens (40+ in.) Heavy and fragile

Fast response time Replaced by LCD and OLED

2.5 LCD Display

An LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) uses liquid crystals to control how much backlight passes through each
pixel. Liquid crystals twist or untwist under electric fields to block or allow light.

Advantages Disadvantages

Thin and lightweight Narrower viewing angles

Low power consumption Slower response (motion blur)

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Advantages Disadvantages

No harmful radiation Backlight bleeding at edges

Sharp image quality Blacks appear as dark grey, not true black

2.6 LED Display

An LED Display is essentially an LCD with LED backlighting. OLED displays have each pixel produce its
own light — giving true black and infinite contrast.

Advantages Disadvantages

Slimmer than older LCDs More expensive than LCD

More energy-efficient OLED screens can suffer burn-in

Better contrast and brightness LEDs wear unevenly over time

OLED gives true black Higher manufacturing cost

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MODULE 3: SCREEN CHARACTERISTICS

3.1 Aspect Ratio

Aspect Ratio is the proportional relationship between the width and height of a screen. Formula: Aspect
Ratio = Width : Height

Aspect Ratio Description Common Use

4:3 Almost square Old TVs, older monitors

16:9 Widescreen (standard) Modern TVs, laptops, YouTube

16:10 Slightly taller Professional monitors

21:9 Ultra-wide cinematic Cinema, ultra-wide gaming

3.2 Resolution

Resolution = total number of pixels a screen can display (Width × Height). Higher resolution = sharper,
more detailed image.

Standard Resolution Description

VGA 640 × 480 Old standard; obsolete

SVGA 800 × 600 Slight upgrade from VGA

XGA 1024 × 768 Older projectors and monitors

HD 1280 × 720 High Definition

Full HD 1920 × 1080 Most common laptop/TV standard today

4K (UHD) 3840 × 2160 Ultra High Definition; very sharp

8K 7680 × 4320 Extremely high detail; high-end cinema

3.3 Refresh Rate

Refresh Rate is how many times per second the screen redraws the image. Measured in Hertz (Hz).
Higher Hz = smoother motion.

Refresh Rate Effect

Below 30Hz Visible flicker; causes eye strain

60Hz Standard; fine for regular use

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Refresh Rate Effect

120–144Hz Smooth for gaming and fast motion

240Hz+ Professional gaming; ultra-smooth motion

Interlaced (i): Refreshes odd rows then even rows alternately. Progressive (p): All rows drawn
sequentially — smoother and clearer.

3.4 Frame Buffer

A Frame Buffer is memory that stores the colour values of every pixel on screen. The display hardware
reads it continuously to know what to show.
Memory Requirement Formula: Memory = Width × Height × Bits per pixel
Example: Full HD (1920×1080) at 24-bit colour = 1920 × 1080 × 24 ≈ 6 MB per frame.

3.5 Pixels

A pixel (picture element) is the smallest unit of a digital image. Each pixel has a specific colour. Millions of
pixels together form a complete image.
• Pixel coordinates: (x, y) — x is the column, y is the row. (0,0) = top-left corner.
• PPI (Pixels Per Inch): higher PPI = more pixels per inch = sharper display.
• Apple Retina Display: 264+ PPI for very sharp, smooth text.

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MODULE 4: GRAPHICS INPUT DEVICES

4.1 Mouse

A mouse is a pointing device for moving the cursor and selecting objects on screen. Types: Mechanical,
Optical, Wireless, 3D Mouse.

4.2 Light Pen

A light pen detects light from a CRT screen when pressed against it. The photodetector senses the
electron beam timing and calculates position. Only works with CRT screens, not modern LCD/LED.

4.3 Joystick

A joystick has a vertical stick moved in multiple directions to control movement on screen. Used in
games, flight simulators, and robotics.

4.4 Trackball

A trackball is like an upside-down mouse. The user rolls a large ball with their fingers while the device
stays still. Used in CAD workstations and as accessibility devices.

4.5 Scanner

A scanner converts physical documents or photos into digital image files. Types: Flatbed, Drum,
Handheld, 3D Scanner.

4.6 Graphics Tablet

A graphics tablet is a flat surface with a stylus. Artists draw on the surface and movements appear on
screen. Used for digital art, photo editing, and animation.

4.7 Touch Screen

Type Working Principle Use Case

Resistive Two layers pressed together at touch point; detects pressure ATMs, kiosks

Capacitive Detects electrical charge of finger; very accurate Smartphones, tablets

Infrared Touch breaks an infrared beam grid Large public displays

SAW Touch disrupts ultrasonic waves across the surface Industrial displays

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MODULE 5: GRAPHICS OUTPUT DEVICES

5.1 Printers — Overview

Category Types

Impact Printers Dot Matrix, Daisy Wheel, Line Printer

Non-Impact Printers Inkjet, Thermal Bubble Jet, Laser Printer

Impact Printers

Dot Matrix Printer

Pins in a print head strike an ink ribbon against paper to form characters from dots. Very cheap to run; can
print carbon copies. But noisy, slow, and low quality.

Daisy Wheel Printer

A rotating disc with pre-formed characters on petals. A hammer strikes the correct petal against the ribbon.
Produces clear typewriter-quality text but cannot print graphics and is now obsolete.

Line Printer
Prints one full line at a time using a rotating drum or chain. Very fast for large volumes (bank statements).
Poor quality; cannot print graphics.

Non-Impact Printers

Inkjet Printer
Tiny nozzles spray microscopic ink drops onto paper. Good colour quality; quiet; cheap to buy. Ink
cartridges are expensive; ink can smear; nozzles can clog.

Laser Printer — Working Principle

• A laser beam draws the image on a photosensitive drum by changing its charge.
• Toner (fine charged powder) sticks to charged areas on the drum.
• Paper passes over the drum — toner transfers to the paper.
• The fuser unit uses heat to permanently bond toner to paper.
Advantages: Very fast; sharp text; low cost per page at high volume. Disadvantages: Expensive initially;
toner costly; not ideal for photos.

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5.2 Plotters

A plotter uses pens to draw continuous lines on paper, producing large, precise diagrams.

Type Description Used For

Flatbed Plotter Paper held flat; pen arm moves X/Y Small technical drawings

Drum Plotter Paper on rotating drum; pen moves left/right Large engineering drawings

5.3 Printer vs Plotter Comparison

Feature Printer Plotter

Output type Text and images Vector drawings

Speed Fast Very slow

Line quality Pixel-based (dots) Smooth continuous lines

Paper size A4 / A3 Very large (A0, A1)

Cost Lower Higher

Best use Documents, photos Engineering drawings, maps

Precision Moderate Very high

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CSC 426 – Computer Graphics Comprehensive Study Notes

MODULE 6: COLOR THEORY

6.1 Color Fundamentals

• Light is electromagnetic radiation visible to the human eye (380nm – 700nm).

• Visible spectrum: Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet (ROYGBIV).
• Primary colours (Additive/Light): Red, Green, Blue.
• Primary colours (Subtractive/Pigment): Cyan, Magenta, Yellow.
• Complementary colours are opposite on the colour wheel and neutralise each other.

6.2 RGB Color Model

RGB is an additive colour model used by screens. Adding Red + Green + Blue light at full intensity =
White. Absence of all light = Black. Each channel: 0–255. Total colours = 256 × 256 × 256 = 16,777,216.
• Red + Green = Yellow
• Green + Blue = Cyan
• Red + Blue = Magenta
• Red + Green + Blue = White
■ RGB is used in monitors, phones, web design, and digital photography.

6.3 CMYK Color Model

CMYK is a subtractive colour model used in printing. Inks absorb (subtract) certain light wavelengths from
white paper. K (Black) is added because CMY together produce muddy dark brown, not true black.

Ink Absorbs Reflects

Cyan (C) Red light Green + Blue → Cyan

Magenta (M) Green light Red + Blue → Magenta

Yellow (Y) Blue light Red + Green → Yellow

Black (K) All light Nothing — pure black

6.4 RGB vs CMYK

Feature RGB CMYK

Type Additive Subtractive

Medium Screens / light Printing / ink

Start Black (no light) White (paper)

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Feature RGB CMYK

Components Red, Green, Blue Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, Black

Colour range Wider (more vivid) Narrower

Use Monitors, web Printers, magazines

■ Tip: Design for screens → RGB. Design for printing → CMYK. Converting can cause colour shifts.

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MODULE 7: GRAPHICS DATA STRUCTURES

7.1 Quad Tree

A Quad Tree is a tree structure where each node has exactly four children. It partitions 2D space by
repeatedly dividing a region into four equal quadrants (NW, NE, SW, SE) until each region is uniform.

Construction
• Start with the full 2D image as the root.
• If a region is uniform (all one colour) → it becomes a leaf node (no subdivision).
• If not uniform → split into 4 equal quadrants and repeat.

Applications, Advantages & Disadvantages

Applications Advantages Disadvantages

Image compression Efficient for large uniform areas Complex to implement

Collision detection Fast spatial searches Overhead for detailed images

Spatial indexing Saves memory for sparse images Less efficient for dense detail

7.2 Octree

An Octree is the 3D equivalent of a Quad Tree. Each node has exactly eight children. It partitions 3D
space by dividing a cube into eight equal sub-cubes (octants).
• Root = entire 3D space (cube).
• If cube is uniform → leaf node (stop subdividing).
• If not uniform → divide into 8 octants and repeat.
• Applications: 3D modelling, volume rendering (MRI/CT), game collision detection.

7.3 Block Representation of Octree

The block representation describes how 3D space is divided into blocks (voxels) at different levels of
detail.
• Full block: entirely inside the object (solid).
• Empty block: entirely outside the object (void).
• Partial block: partly inside → subdivide further.
• Used in solid modelling, ray tracing, and medical volume data.

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MODULE 8: TWO-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHICS

8.1 Cartesian Coordinate System

The Cartesian coordinate system uses two perpendicular number lines to define any point in 2D space:
the X-axis (horizontal) and Y-axis (vertical). The origin (0,0) is where they intersect. Any point is
described as (x, y).

8.2 Quadrants

Quadrant X value Y value Example

First (I) Positive (+) Positive (+) (3, 4)

Second (II) Negative (–) Positive (+) (–3, 4)

Third (III) Negative (–) Negative (–) (–3, –4)

Fourth (IV) Positive (+) Negative (–) (3, –4)

8.3 Basic 2D Objects

Object Definition Key Property

Point Single location (x, y) No size — just position

Line Two endpoints: (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) Scan converted using DDA/Bresenham

Circle Centre (cx,cy) and radius r All points at distance r from centre

Ellipse Centre, semi-major axis a, semi-minor axis b (x/a)² + (y/b)² = 1

3+ connected straight edges forming closed

Polygon Triangle, rectangle, hexagon, etc.
shape

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MODULE 9: THREE-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHICS

9.1 Introduction to 3D Graphics

3D graphics represents geometric data in three dimensions (X, Y, Z) to create the illusion of solid objects
and real environments on a flat screen. 2D images cannot convey depth or volume; 3D graphics fill that
gap.

9.2 3D Coordinate System

Three axes: X-axis (Left–Right), Y-axis (Up–Down), Z-axis (Forward–Backward / Depth). Any 3D point:
(x, y, z).

9.3 3D Model Types

Model Type Description Use Case

Wireframe Shows only edges/lines — like a wire cage Early CAD, quick previews

Surface Defines external surfaces of the object Automotive/product design

Engineering simulation,
Solid Full volume including implied interior
manufacturing

9.4 2D vs 3D Graphics Comparison

Feature 2D Graphics 3D Graphics

Dimensions Width & Height (X, Y) Width, Height & Depth (X, Y, Z)

Depth None Yes (perspective, shadows)

Complexity Simpler Much more complex

Processing Less GPU power High GPU power required

Applications Logos, icons, flat art Games, animations, simulations

Tools Photoshop, Illustrator Blender, Maya, Unity

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MODULE 10: SCAN CONVERSION

10.1 What is Scan Conversion?

Scan Conversion (Rasterization) is the process of converting geometric shapes described

mathematically (lines, circles, polygons) into the set of pixels that can be displayed on a raster screen. It
bridges the gap between continuous mathematical descriptions and the discrete pixel grid.

10.2 DDA Line Drawing Algorithm

The DDA (Digital Differential Analyser) calculates intermediate pixel positions along a line using the
slope, incrementally stepping from one endpoint to the other.

Steps
• Calculate: delta_x = x2 - x1, delta_y = y2 - y1
• Steps = max(|delta_x|, |delta_y|)
• x_inc = delta_x / Steps, y_inc = delta_y / Steps
• Start at (x1, y1). Plot Round(x), Round(y).
• Add increments: x = x + x_inc, y = y + y_inc. Repeat for all Steps.

Numerical Example — Line from (2,3) to (6,6)

Step x y Pixel (Rounded)

0 2 3.00 (2, 3)

1 3 3.75 (3, 4)

2 4 4.50 (4, 5)

3 5 5.25 (5, 5)

4 6 6.00 (6, 6)

Advantages Disadvantages

Simple to understand Uses floating-point (slow)

Works for any slope Rounding errors accumulate

10.2 Bresenham's Line Drawing Algorithm

Bresenham's algorithm uses only integer arithmetic — no floating point. At each step a decision
parameter (d) decides whether the next pixel is directly horizontal or diagonal. Much faster than DDA.

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Numerical Example — Line from (1,1) to (5,3)

delta_x = 4, delta_y = 2, d_initial = 2(2) - 4 = 0

Step x y d Action

Start 1 1 0 d >= 0 → plot (1,1), y+1

1 2 2 -4 d < 0 → plot (2,2), no y+1

2 3 2 0 d >= 0 → plot (3,2), y+1

3 4 3 -4 d < 0 → plot (4,3), no y+1

4 5 3 — Plot (5,3) — done

Advantages Disadvantages

Integer arithmetic only — fast Slightly more complex than DDA

No rounding errors Standard version handles limited slope range

10.3 Midpoint Circle Algorithm

Uses 8-fold symmetry of circles. Calculates points in one octant and reflects them to all 8 octants. Uses a
decision parameter (p) to choose between two candidate pixels.

Numerical Example — Circle centre (0,0), radius 5

x=0, y=5, p = 1 - 5 = -4

x y p Action

0 5 -4 p < 0 → x=1, p=-1

1 5 -1 p < 0 → x=2, p=4

2 4 4 p >= 0 → x=3, y=3, stop (x >= y)

■ Points (0,5), (1,5), (2,4), (3,3) are reflected to all 8 octants to complete the circle.

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MODULE 11: GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS

11.1 Translation

Translation moves every point of an object by a fixed amount (tx, ty) without changing its shape or size.
Formula: x' = x + tx y' = y + ty
Example: Translate (3, 4) by tx=2, ty=3 → New point: (5, 7)

11.2 Rotation

Rotation turns an object around a fixed point by angle theta.

x' = x·cos(θ) - y·sin(θ) y' = x·sin(θ) + y·cos(θ)
• Anticlockwise: use positive θ.
• Clockwise: use negative θ (or swap signs).
• Example: Rotate (4,0) by 90° anticlockwise → (0, 4)

11.3 Scaling

Scaling changes the size of an object.

x' = x · Sx y' = y · Sy

Type Condition Example

Enlargement Sx > 1 or Sy > 1 Point (3,4) with Sx=Sy=2 → (6,8)

Reduction 0 < Sx < 1 Point (4,6) with Sx=Sy=0.5 → (2,3)

Distortion Sx ≠ Sy Object changes shape

11.4 Reflection

Reflection About Formula Example (3,4)

X-axis x' = x, y' = -y (3, -4)

Y-axis x' = -x, y' = y (-3, 4)

Origin x' = -x, y' = -y (-3, -4)

11.5 Shearing

Shearing tilts an object — like pushing the top of a rectangle sideways to make a parallelogram.

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Type Formula Effect

X-Shear x' = x + Shx·y, y' = y Horizontal tilt (Y unchanged)

Y-Shear x' = x, y' = Shy·x + y Vertical tilt (X unchanged)

11.6 Composite Transformations

A composite transformation combines multiple transformations into a single matrix by multiplying them
together. Example: Rotate then Scale then Translate → M = T3 × T2 × T1. Order matters! A × B ≠ B × A
in matrix multiplication.

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MODULE 12: VIEWING AND CLIPPING

12.1 Windowing

A window is a rectangular area of the world coordinate space that the user wants to view. Defined by
Xmin, Xmax, Ymin, Ymax. Think of it as the frame of a window you look through.

12.2 Viewport

A viewport is the rectangular area on the screen where the window contents are displayed. The
window-to-viewport transformation maps world coordinates to screen coordinates:
Vx = Vxmin + (x - Wxmin) × (Vxmax - Vxmin) / (Wxmax - Wxmin)
Vy = Vymin + (y - Wymin) × (Vymax - Vymin) / (Wymax - Wymin)

12.3 Clipping

Clipping removes parts of objects outside the viewing window. Only portions inside the window are
rendered, improving performance.

12.4 Types of Clipping

Type Description

Point Clipping Check if Xmin≤x≤Xmax and Ymin≤y≤Ymax. Simple accept/reject.

Line Clipping Find portion of a line inside the window; clip at boundaries.

Polygon Clipping Clip all edges of a polygon against window boundaries.

Curve Clipping Clip circles/ellipses/splines; most complex type.

12.5 Cohen-Sutherland Algorithm

Assigns a 4-bit region code to each endpoint based on its position relative to the window:
Bit 1: Left of window | Bit 2: Right | Bit 3: Below | Bit 4: Above

Condition Action

Both codes = 0000 Both inside window → draw entire line

code1 AND code2 ≠ 0000 Both outside same region → reject line completely

Otherwise Partially visible → find intersection with boundary, clip, recalculate

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12.5 Liang-Barsky Algorithm

Uses parametric representation of a line: x = x1 + t·∆x, y = y1 + t·∆y (t ∈ [0,1]). Finds the range of t
values [t1, t2] where the line is inside the window, then clips to those values. More efficient than
Cohen-Sutherland — intersection points calculated only once.

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MODULE 13: COMPUTER GRAPHICS SOFTWARE

Adobe Photoshop
Category Features Applications

Layers & masks, photo retouching, filters, Photo editing, web mockups,
Raster image editor
compositing digital painting, advertising

CorelDRAW
Category Features Applications

Vector graphics Logo design, brochures, sign

Page layout, vector tracing, colour management
editor making, packaging

Adobe Illustrator
Category Features Applications

Professional vector Logos, brand identity, icons,

Pen tool, gradient meshes, artboards, typography
editor infographics, print media

Blender
Category Features Applications

Free 3D creation 3D modelling, rigging, animation, rendering, video Animated films, game assets,
suite editing architectural viz, VFX

AutoCAD
Category Features Applications

Architecture, mechanical
Precision CAD 2D drafting, 3D modelling, dimensions, industry
engineering, civil engineering,
software toolsets
manufacturing

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MODULE 14: APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Application Area Description

CAD software lets engineers design and test components virtually before
Engineering Design
production.

3D building models and photorealistic renders visualise structures before

Architecture
construction.

MRI/CT scans produce digital images; 3D organ models help surgeons plan
Medical Imaging
procedures.

Displays complex data — molecular structures, weather patterns, climate

Scientific Visualisation
models.

Business Presentations Charts, graphs, and infographics make financial data easier to understand.

Animation 2D/3D animation for movies, TV shows, and advertisements (Disney, Pixar).

Gaming Real-time 3D graphics create interactive virtual worlds (Unity, Unreal Engine).

VFX replaces impossible or dangerous scenes with realistic

Film Production
computer-generated effects.

Advertising Motion graphics, 3D product renders, and striking visuals drive campaigns.

Virtual Reality (VR) Fully immersive virtual environments for gaming, training, tourism, and therapy.

Overlays digital content on the real world (Pokemon GO, IKEA app, surgical
Augmented Reality (AR)
AR).

Education Interactive simulations and virtual labs make complex subjects easier to learn.

Digital maps, satellite imagery, and terrain models for urban planning and
GIS
agriculture.

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QUICK REVISION SUMMARY

Modul
Topic Key Concept
e

1 Intro to CG Computer Graphics = creating/displaying images with computers

2 Display Systems CRT, Raster, Random Scan, Plasma, LCD, LED

3 Screen Characteristics Aspect ratio, Resolution (VGA→8K), Refresh rate, Frame buffer

4 Input Devices Mouse, Light pen, Joystick, Trackball, Scanner, Tablet, Touch

5 Output Devices Impact printers, Non-impact printers, Plotters

6 Colour Theory RGB (additive/screens) vs CMYK (subtractive/printing)

7 Data Structures Quad Tree (2D partitioning), Octree (3D partitioning)

8 2D Graphics Cartesian system, 4 quadrants, basic 2D shapes

9 3D Graphics X,Y,Z axes, Wireframe / Surface / Solid models

10 Scan Conversion Rasterization, DDA algorithm, Bresenham's algorithm

11 Transformations Translation, Rotation, Scaling, Reflection, Shearing

12 Viewing & Clipping Window, Viewport mapping, Cohen-Sutherland, Liang-Barsky

13 CG Software Photoshop, CorelDRAW, Illustrator, Blender, AutoCAD

14 Applications Engineering, Medicine, Games, Film, VR/AR, GIS

End of CSC 426 – Computer Graphics Notes · Prepared for Academic Use · Study Well!

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