System error subject to many errors which can make it, at times, a rather
unreliable means of navigation. However, as a back-up aid it will more
than serve its purpose if it is used within its limits and one is aware of the
potential problems.
Direct wave limitations
The direct wave follows the line of sight. Its range can be determined
using the line of sight formula. In most cases, the direct wave range is
considerably less than that of the ground wave. Height may become
significant when it is desirable to receive the direct wave, to minimise the
risk of ADF error, when flying in mountainous areas or when using coastal
NDBs.
SKY WAVW LIMITATIONS
At some frequencies there will be a gap in coverage betweeen the ground
wave and the return of the first sky wave. The ground wave converage
might extend out to 300 miles, while the firrst sky wave returns at 1000
miles. The name for this gap is the dead space
The exact length of the dead space depends on frequency and the state of
inoisation of the atmosphere, i.e the skip distance. At frequencies in the
lower MF and the LF bands, intense ionisation levels fall and returning sky
waves can be detected,
NIGHT EFFECT
At short range (30 to 80miles) , the sky waves mix with ground wave
signal (there is no dead space). Because the returning sky waves travel
over a different path, they have a different phase from the ground wave.
This has the effect of supressing or displaycing the aerial null signal, in a
random manner. The needle on the indicator will start wandering. The
indication will be most erractic during twilight at dusk and dawn
A further effect occurs due to the design of the loop aerial system. The
loop uses a vertically polarised signal. As the radio wave travels through
ionosphere, the vertical polarisation changes as the wave refracts back
toward the earth, so the sky waves have a horizontal polarisation
component
This means that a current may be induced in the loop even if it is aligned
directly with the path of the signal. This alters the null position of the
antenna which again will result in an arroneous indication if the ADF
recerves the sky wave instead of the ground wave from the NDB
QUADRANTIAL ERROR
The metak componets of the aircraft’s structure behave as an aerial. They
absorrb signals with any frequency, but more readily the frequencies in
the MF band. ONCE absorbed, they will reradiate as weak signals but,
beiing close to the ADF aerial, are strong enouh to detect.
The effect of this signal is to display the measured null toward the major
electrical axis of the aircraft creating an error which is maximum on
relative bearings 045 degree, 135 degree, 225 degree, 315 degree (the
quandrantals). Calibration and electro-mechanical compensation at
installation minimises this error as it can be measured during testing of
the ADF installation in a particular aircraft
DIP (BANK) ERROR
During turns, the horizontal part of the loop aerial will no longer be
horizntal and detect a signal. This causes displayment of the nulll in a way
similar to the night effect giving an erroneous reading on the indicator
which means that the polot should not obtain a bearing unlesss the
aircraft is wingss level.
COASTAL REFRACTION
When flying over the sea and using a land based beacon, the changes in
propagation properties of the signal as it passes from land to sea causes
displayment of the wave front. This result in a bearing error which will be
greater the further away the aircraft is from the point where the waves
cross the coast at right angles,. This errr is eliminated by using NDBs
situated on the coase (if possible) when flying over water.
MULti-PATH SIGNALS
When flying in mountainous regions, signals may refract (bend) around
and/or reflect from mountains. Such multi-path signals may affect the
ADF, making the bearings unreliable
NOISE
The definition of noise is any signal detected at the receiver other than
the designed signal. It is usually identified by the needle on the indicator
starting to wander. Also, a good way of telling is a weak ident with lots of
background noise (either white noise or things like music, speech and so
on). If there is a lot of noise in the area where the aircraft is the ADF may
become very unreliable even if well within the published range of the
NDB. The best way of verying the quality of the bearing is by listening to
the clarity of the ident.
MAN MADE NOISE
Each published NDB has an associated published range. If use of that NDB
is restricted to that range, the desired signal is protected from the harmful
interference of ground waves from other known transmitters on the same
or adjacent frequencies. Remember that, from sunset to sunrise, sky wave
propagation of signals in the LF and MF bands idd possible. This causes
the signla to noise radio to decrease and results in errors as null
displacement occurs. Usually randomly
Another localised source of man-made noise is overhead power cables.
Many of these cables carry noy only electrical power but also modulated
signals for communication. These modulated signals radiate from the
power cables and can mix with and deflect the signal from the NDB or
may even act like a phantom NDB station. Such emisssions should be
monitored but in some states monitoring may not occur
LIGHTNING
There are an average of 44 000 thunderstorms over the earth’s surface in
every 24 hour period and more than half of these occur over or near land
surfaces within 30 degree latitude of the equator
Each thunderstorm generates electro-magnetic signals and these radiate
in all directions from that storm. If the high static elctritricity that may
exist completely overpowera the signal from the NDB it can be impossible
to obtain a bearing from any NDB whilst flying in the vicinity of the cloud
CHARGED water droplets
Water droplets held in a cloud have an electrical charge. Ass an aircraft
flies through the cloud, the water droplets that contact the aircraft
discharge on the metal surface. The collective effort of the water droplet
discharge can distort and blur the polar diagram enough to displace the
null position in the same fashion as the quadrantal effect
SYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION
Where two or more beacon are transmitting on the same frequency, the
measured bearing becoms the resultant of the two received signals
As long as the NDB is used wwithin its promulgated range, the effects of
synchronous transmission shoul be minimal