CULTURAL RELATIVISM HUMAN ACT OR ACT OF HUMAN
I. Cultural Relativism I. Distinction of Acts
• Definition: The view that ethical and social standards are derived • Acts of Man: Biological, natural actions without conscious
from one's own culture . choice.
• Core Tenet: Cultural context is critical to understanding values o Examples: Breathing, heart beating, stuttering
and beliefs. It is associated with tolerance and respect for (nervousness), blinking, shivering .
differences. • Human Acts: Actions done with knowledge, freedom, and
• Moral Relativism vs. Cultural Relativism: Cultural relativism voluntariness .
acknowledges difference; Moral Relativism claims no moral o Examples: Choosing a degree, voting, telling the truth,
absolutes exist at all ("Everything is relative"). apologizing .
II. Ethnocentrism • The Objective Standard (Law): Moral norms must be
• Definition: The opinion that one's own way of life is natural or harmonious with the Eternal Law. This serves as the ultimate
correct. Seeing one's own culture as the correct way of living. foundation, which flows down into:
o Natural Law: Inherent human moral sense.
• Example: Judging food choices (like eating crickets or bats) based
o Divine Positive Law: Laws given by God (e.g., Ten
on one's own cultural norms.
Commandments).
o Human Laws: Civil or societal laws .
III. Moral Skepticism
• The Subjective Application (Conscience): These laws must be
• Definition: The theory that no one has (or can have) moral applied to specific, real-life situations through Conscience,
knowledge. defined here as the "judgment of human reason".
• Types: • Types of Conscience: The list numbered 1–7 represents the
o Pyrrhonian: Doubts moral knowledge is even possible. different states or qualities of the human conscience :
o Dogmatic: Claims no one ever knows moral truth or is 1. True: Correctly judges right and wrong.
justified in believing it. 2. Erroneous: Judges falsely (mistakes good for evil or vice
o Practical: Denies there is enough reason for moral action. versa).
3. Certain: Judges without doubt.
4. Doubtful: Unsure of the morality of an act.
IV. Roots of Morality
5. Lax: Takes sin lightly; not strict enough.
• The roots of ethics are found in man's freedom and ability to 6. Scrupulous: Sees sin where there is none; overly fearful.
pursue values from choices. 7. Delicate: Highly sensitive to even small moral infractions.
• Epicureanism: An ancient philosophy that defines "good" as
the absence of pain and fear. It advocates for seeking simple,
modest pleasures to attain a state of tranquility and freedom
from anxiety.
• Utilitarianism: An ethical theory holding that the best action
is the one that produces the greatest happiness for the
greatest number of people. It focuses on the quantity of
happiness rather than moral rights or justice. It is a form of
consequentialism.
• Stoicism: A philosophy that teaches self-control and fortitude
as a means of overcoming destructive emotions. It
emphasizes that virtue (wisdom) is the only good and that we
should accept what we cannot change.
• Subjectivism: The theory that moral truths are determined on
an individual level. It suggests that morality is "subject to your
opinion" or feelings, rather than objective facts.
• Fundamental Option: A concept (often in moral theology)
referring to the basic, deep-seated direction of a person’s
life—either towards good/God or away from it. It suggests
that a person's moral character is determined by this core
orientation rather than just individual, isolated acts.
• Consequentialism: The class of normative ethical theories
holding that the consequences of one's conduct are the
ultimate basis for any judgment about the rightness or
wrongness of that conduct. Unlike Deontology, which looks at
duty, this looks at the results.
II. Modifiers of Human Acts PRINCIPLES BEHIND MORAL DISPOSITIONS
Factors that influence mental/emotional states, affecting
voluntariness. I. Ancient Philosophers
1. Ignorance (Absence of Knowledge): • Socrates: "Know Thyself".
o Vincible Ignorance: Can be cured/corrected. It lessens • Plato:
voluntariness but does not destroy it. o Allegory of the Cave: Illustrates enlightenment and reality.
o Invincible Ignorance: Cannot be cured. It destroys o The Soul: Composed of
voluntariness (agent is not liable). pReason (Logos): The rational part of the soul. Its function is
2. Concupiscence (Passions/Appetites): to seek truth, wisdom, and to rule over the other parts of the
o Antecedent: Happens before the will acts. Lessens soul.
voluntariness but does not destroy it . ▪ Spirit (Thumos): The emotional or spirited part. It is
o Consequent: Willfully fostered. Does not lessen associated with courage, honor, indignation, and the
voluntariness. drive for victory. It should ideally align with reason.
3. Fear: ▪ Appetite (Epithumia): The irrational part driven by
o Shrinking back from danger. desire. It seeks physical pleasures and satisfaction of
o Principle: An act done from fear is simply voluntary (you still bodily needs (like hunger, thirst, and other cravings).
chose to do it), though conditionally involuntary.
• Aristotle:
4. Violence:
o Eudaimonia: Translated as "flourishing" or "success" (like a
o External force compelling a person against their will.
flower blooming) .
o Principle: Internal acts of the will cannot be forced. External
o Ergon: The function or purpose of a human being.
acts caused by violence (where resistance is offered) are not
o The Golden Mean: In medio stat virtus (Virtue stands in the
imputable.
middle).
5. Habit:
o Wisdom & Suffering: Wisdom cannot be attained without
o Lasting readiness from repeated acts.
suffering .
o Principle: Habits do not destroy voluntariness; acts from
habit are voluntary (at least in cause) if the habit is allowed
II. Medieval/Christian Philosophy
to endure.
• St. Thomas Aquinas:
o Discusses the virtuous life and the need for Grace.
o Faculties: Emphasizes the Intellect and the Will.
o Means vs. Ends: Discusses wealth and power as means to a
goal, not ends in themselves .
III. Norms of Morality
• Eternal Law: The ultimate norm.
• Conscience: The application of norms to particular situations.
Types include True, Erroneous, Certain, Doubtful, Lax,
Scrupulous, and Delicate .
BEING GOOD AS KIND • Taoism (Lao Tzu):
o The Tao: "The Way," fundamental principle of the universe.
I. Deontology (Immanuel Kant) o Wu Wei: Non-interference or effortless action; flowing with
• Core Concept: Morality is a matter of duty, not consequences. nature.
Actions are right or wrong in themselves. o Water Metaphor: Be formless like water; yielding preserves
• The Categorical Imperative: An unconditional internal rule wholeness.
performed as a duty. It has three formulations: o Yin and Yang: Balance of opposite forces.
1. Universality: Act only on a maxim that you can will to • Confucianism:
become a universal law (replacing individual preference with o Focuses on social harmony, family, and moral relationships .
universal terms) . o Jen (Ren): Human-heartedness/Benevolence.
2. Humanity: Treat humanity always as an end, never merely as o Emphasis on self-governance to govern society.
a means. Every person has intrinsic value .
3. Kingdom of Ends: Act as a legislating member in a universal
kingdom; consider yourself both a member and a head .
• Categorical vs. Hypothetical:
o Categorical: Act for the sake of duty only (e.g., helping
because it is good).
o Hypothetical: Acting to receive a reward.
• Problems with Kantian Deontology:
o It is abstract and lacks precise instructions.
o It ignores emotions/affections (e.g., a mother's natural love
is seen as less "moral" than duty) .
o It cannot explain why doing good should make us happy.
II. Utilitarianism
• Core Concept: Determining right/wrong depends on the
results/consequences. Focuses on the quantity of happiness.
• Critique/Problems:
o It is "overly basic" and ignores rights and justice .
o It is subjective; happiness is arbitrary.
o It relies on predicting the future (consequences) which is
impossible.
o It could justify evil acts (murder, lying) if they produce
"happiness".
III. Existentialism (Jean-Paul Sartre)
• Existence Precedes Essence: Man exists/appears first, and then
defines himself . Man is initially nothing until he makes himself .
• Freedom & Authenticity:
o If you seek authenticity just for the sake of it, you are no
longer authentic.
o "Life begins on the other side of despair".
o Man is always becoming; without death, he would never end.
IV. Eastern Philosophy
• Hinduism:
o Based on the Vedas. Concepts include Karma (existence
caused by deeds), Reincarnation (transmigration of the soul),
and the Caste System.
o Moksha: Deliverance/salvation.
o Major beliefs: Dharma, Artha, Karma, Moksha .
• Buddhism:
o Refuses divine intervention; salvation is through human
discipline.
o The Four Noble Truths: (1) Life is suffering, (2) There is a
cause (desire), (3) There is an end to suffering, (4) The end is
the Eightfold Path .
o The Eightfold Path: Right view, resolve, speech, action,
livelihood, effort, concentration, contemplation .