Chapter 3: Introduction to
Sensors
Eng. Musa Mahdi
Introduction
Sensors and transducers are useful in many industrial applications within the
general area of mechatronics. Numerous examples are found in robotic
manipulation, transit system, digital computers and accessories
Types of sensors:
Analog Sensors and Transducers
An analog transducer is a measuring device that produces an analog output.
Digital Transducers
A digital transducer is a measuring device that produces a digital output.
Sensors may be used in a mechatronic
system in several ways:
To measure the system outputs for feedback control (system monitoring).
To measure system inputs (desirable inputs, unknown inputs, and
disturbances) for feedforward control.
To measure input and output signals for system testing and experimental
modeling (i.e., for system identification).
Analog sensors
Motion Transducers
By motion, we mean the four kinematic variables:
1. Displacement (including position, distance, proximity, and size or gage)
2. Velocity
3. Acceleration
Note that each variable is the time derivative of the preceding one. Motion
measurements are extremely useful in controlling mechanical responses and
interactions in mechatronic systems.
Numerous examples can be cited:
The rotating speed of a work piece and the feed rate of a tool are measured
in controlling machining operations. Displacements and speeds (both angular
and translatory) at joints (revolute and prismatic) of robotic manipulators.
Analog sensors
Potentiometer
The potentiometer, or pot, is a displacement transducer. This active transducer
consists of a uniform coil of wire or a film of high-resistive material—such as
carbon, platinum, or conductive plastic—whose resistance is proportional to its
length.
Analog sensors
Potentiometer
Analog sensors
Piezoelectric Sensors:
Some substances, such as barium titanate, single-crystal quartz, and lead
zirconate-titanate (PZT) can generate an electrical charge and an associated
potential difference when they are subjected to mechanical stress or strain.
Analog sensors
Strain Gages:
The change of electrical resistance in material when mechanically deformed, is
the property used in resistance-type strain gages. The resistance R of a
conductor that has length and area of cross-section A is given by
Analog sensors
Force Sensors:
force sensors are used to monitor impact forces on the vehicles and crash-test
dummies.
Robotic handling and assembly tasks are controlled by measuring the forces
generated at the end effector.
Analog sensors
Gyroscopic Sensors:
Gyroscopic sensors are used for measuring angular orientations and angular
speeds of aircraft, ships, vehicles, and various mechanical devices.
These sensors are commonly used in control systems for stabilizing vehicle
systems.
Analog sensors
Ultrasonic Sensors:
Audible sound waves have frequencies in the range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
Ultrasound waves are pressure waves, just like sound waves, but their frequencies are
higher (“ultra”) than the audible frequencies.
Ultrasonic sensors are used in many applications, including medical imaging, ranging
systems for cameras with autofocusing capability, level sensing, and speed sensing.
A signal processor computes the position of the target object, possibly compensating
for environmental conditions.
The applicable relation is
where,
t = time of flight of the ultrasound pulse (from generator to receiver)
x = distance between the ultrasound generator/receiver and the target object
c = speed of sound in the medium (typically, air).
Analog sensors
Flow Sensors:
The volume flow rate Q of a fluid is related to the mass flow rate Qm through
where ρ is the mass density of the fluid. Also, for a flow across an area A at average
velocity v, we have
Analog sensors
Temperature Sensors:
Thermocouple: When the temperature at the junction formed by joining two unlike
conductors, is changed, its electron configuration changes due to heat transfer.
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD): An RTD is simply a metal element (in a
ceramic tube) whose resistance typically increases with temperature, according to a
known function.
The useful temperature range of an RTD is about –200°C to +800°C. At high
temperatures, an RTD may tend to be less accurate than a thermocouple.
Thermistor :the accuracy provided by a thermistor is usually better than that of an RTD,
the temperature-resistance relation is far more nonlinear, as given by
Analog sensors
Analog sensors
Analog sensors
Temperature Sensors:
Bi-Metal Strip Thermometer :Unequal thermal expansion of different materials is used in
this device. If strips of the two materials (typically metals) are firmly bonded, thermal
expansion causes this element to bend toward the material with lower expansion. This
motion can be measured using a displacement sensor, or indicated using a needle
and scale. Households thermostats commonly use this principle for temperature
sensing and control (on-off).
Digital Sensors
There are several advantages of digital signals (or, digital representation of
information) in comparison to analog signals:
1. Digital signals are less susceptible to noise and disturbances.
2. High reliability in a system can be achieved by minimizing analog hardware
components.
3. Large amounts of data can be stored using data storage methods.
4. Data can be stored or maintained for very long periods of time without any drift or
being affected by adverse environmental conditions.
5. Fast data transmission is possible over long distances without introducing significant
dynamic delays, as in analog systems.
6. Digital signals use low voltages (e.g., 0–12 V DC) and low power.
7. Digital devices typically have low overall cost.
Digital Sensors
Shaft Encoders:
Any transducer that generates a “coded” (digital) reading of a measurement can
be termed an encoder.
Shaft encoders are digital transducers that are used for measuring “angular”
displacements and “angular” velocities.
Applications of these devices include motion measurement in performance
monitoring and control of robotic manipulators, machine tools, industrial processes
Digital Sensors
Hall Effect Sensors:
A Hall effect sensor may be used for motion sensing in many ways—for example,
as an analog proximity sensor, a limit switch (digital), or a shaft encoder.
Digital Sensors
Hall Effect Sensors:
A Hall effect sensor may be used for motion sensing in many ways—for example,
as an analog proximity sensor, a limit switch (digital), or a shaft encoder.
Assignment 3
Talk briefly about the following:
Motion sensors
Potentiometer
Piezoelectric sensors
Strain gages
Ultrasonic sensor
Temperature sensors
Hall effect sensor
What is the difference between analog and digital sensors?
Any Questions ?!
By: Eng. Musa Mahdi
Tele: 770076600