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CONTENTS

Determinants of personality: Biological and socio-cultural

Approaches to the study of personality: Psychoanalytical, Neo-Freudian, Social learning, Trait and
Type, Cognitive, Humanistic, Existential, Transpersonal psychology.
Other theories: Rotter's Locus of Control, Seligman's Explanatory styles, Kohlberg’s theory of
Moral development.

Basic motivational concepts: Instincts, Needs, Drives, Arousal, Incentives, Motivational Cycle.
Approaches to the study of motivation: Psychoanalytical, Ethological, S-R Cognitive, Humanistic

Exploratory behavior and curiosity

Zuckerman's Sensation seeking

Achievement, Affiliation and Power

Motivational Competence

Self-regulation

Flow

Emotions: Physiological correlates

Theories of emotions: James-Lange, Canon-Bard, Schachter and Singer, Lazarus,
Lindsley. Emotion regulation

Conflicts: Sources and types

Stress and Coping: Concept, Models, Type A, B, C, D behaviors, Stress management strategies
[Biofeedback, Music therapy, Breathing exercises, Progressive Muscular Relaxation, Guided Imagery,
Mindfulness, Meditation, Yogasana, Stress Inoculation Training].

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PERSONALITY,
Chapter MOTIVATION,
EMOTION, STRESS
7 AND COPING

PERSONALITY
Personality is a concept to be used to Personality is : ...a person’s unique pattern of
traits (Guilford, 1959, p.5) ...the most adequate
recognize stability and consistency of
conceptualization of a person’s behavior in all its
behaviour across different situations,
detail.” (Mcclelland, 1951, p. 69). - 10 –
uniqueness of the person and
individual differences. There are “Personality consists of the distinctive
controversies among psychologists to patterns of behavior including thoughts
define personality. Among the and emotions that characterize each
numerous definitions of personality, the individual’s adaption to the situations of
most commonly accepted definition is his or her life” - Walter Mischel (1976)
given by Allport (1937). The word
personality has been derived from the “Personality is the sum of activities that
can be discovered by actual observations
Latin word ‘Persona.’ At first this word
over a long enough period of time to
was used for the mask worn by the give reliable information.” - Watson
actors (Roman and Greek) in ancient
times, - 8 - to indicate to the audiences “Personality refers to deeply ingrained
whether they played the villain’s or the patterns of behavior, which include the
hero’s role in a drama. Thus the mask way one relates to, perceives and thinks
gave the actor his characteristic features. about the environment and one self.” -
American Psychiatric Association-
1987
DEFINITIONS
“An individual’s pattern of
He defines personality as; “Personality psychological processes arising from
is the dynamic organization within the motives, feelings, thoughts, and other
individual of those psychophysical major psychological function.
system that determine his unique Personality is expressed through its
adjustment to the environment.” influences on the body, in conscious
(Allport-1947) Later on, Allport (1965) mental life, through the individual’s
revised his definition of personality. The social behavior.” - Mayer, 2005
revised definition of personality is
‘personality is a dynamic organization “Personality refers to individuals’
within the individual of those characteristic patterns of thought,
psychophysical systems that determine emotion and behavior together with the
his characteristic behaviour and psychological mechanisms hidden or
thought.” (Allport-1965) not-behind those patterns this definition
means that among their colleagues in
other subfields of psychology, those
psychologists who study personality
have a unique mandate: to explain whole
persons.” - Funder, D. C., 1997

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“The more or less stable and enduring have an impact on the total personality
organization of a person’s character, of an individual.
temperament, Intellect, and physique
that determines his unique adjustment to The thyroid gland secretes a hormone
his environment.” - H. called thyroxin, and the main function of
this hormone is regulation of body
Eysenck metabolism. If the thyroid gland is under
“That which permits a prediction of what a person active, the result is usually mental
will do in a given situation.” - R. B. Cattell dullness, inactivity, depression, fatigue
and poor appetite. Hyper secretion of
these glands leads to extreme over
activity.
DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY
Factors Influencing Personality The The parathyroid gland regulates calcium
factors affecting personality can be metabolism excitability of the nervous
divided into - two classes - biological system is directly dependent on the
and environmental. amount of calcium in the blood. Deficient
working of this gland leads to the
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS development of an irritable, quick
The biological factors affecting the reactive, distracted, nervous and a tense
development of personality are heredity,
[Link] other glands like
endocrine glands, physique and
nervous system. pituitary, the adrenal and the gonads
have their tremendous impact on various
Heredity: The principal raw materials of personality traits.
personality - physique, intelligence and
temperament are the result of heredity. Nervous System : Entire behavior is
How they will develop will depend on effectively managed and controlled by
environmental influences. Many aspects the coordination and functioning of the
of human behavior and development nervous system. How we will behave in
ranging from physical characteristics a particular situation depends upon the
such as height, weight, eye and skin judgment of our brain. The sense
color, hair, the complex patterns of impressions, which are received through
sense organs, do not bear any
social and intellectual behavior, are
significance unless they are given a
influenced by a person’s genetic
meaning by the nervous system.
endowment.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Endocrine Glands
The secretions of endocrine glands Family : Among environmental factors,
affect physical growth, emotional the most important is the family
growth and mental growth. environment. The reaction of the family
environment towards an individual, and
the role of parents, are very These will
important in the molding of personality,
parents serve as a model whom the child
imitates, and their influence is
considerable on the child. Parents
influence the development of child’s
personality in a wide variety of ways.

Children learn the moral values, code

of conduct, social norms and methods
of interacting with others from
parents.

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On the whole friendly and tolerant School : The children spend much of
fathers help their children to have their time in the schools and hence it can
greater emotional stability, self-esteem play a very significant part in the
And self-confidence. Domineering and formation of the personality of the child.
rigid fathers will only foster the
development of submissive and Teacher : A teacher is the most
frightened, dependent children. important person in the school who can
Over protective mothers will influence help in modifying the children’s
their children in the direction of personalities. He or she is the most
dependence and a total disregard for powerful source of stimulation for the
others. Nagging mothers will cause child. If he/she possess desirable
their children to be shy, submissive and personal and - 15 - social modes or
emotionally unstable. reactions he/she will inculcate them
Besides the role of the parents, the among his/her student or the other hand,
atmosphere in the family is greatly effects of prejudicial treatment on the
influencing. A peaceful and loving part of teachers can make the child
atmosphere results in children being lose self-confidence and develop low
orderly, peace-loving and very self-esteem.
affectionate. Without undue strain they
develop nature and pleasant personalities. Peer Group : From their peers children
In a family where there is learn many forms of behavior, some
tension, anxiety, constant quarrels and socially appropriate and others socially
incompatibility among parents, the undesirable. For example, by striving to
child is likely to develop strong feelings be accepted and like by their peers,
of insecurity and inferiority. they gain new insights into the
Birth Order : This is another familial meaning of friendship. Through give
factor that can have an important and take with friends, they learn the
influence on the personality importance of sharing, reciprocity
development. All children has a unique and cooperation. By trying to get peers
position in the family, such as the eldest, to understand their thoughts and
youngest, second or third. This position feelings, they learn to communicate
has a definite influence on personality. more effectively. Within the friend’s
The eldest child is very often group, child also learn sex-role norms. In
overburdened with responsibility, general, boys become rougher,
hence, he or she grows up to be very boisterous, more compulsive, and from
independent, while the youngest being larger groups, while girls tend to form
the baby of the family is petted and more intimate and exclusive groups.
spoilt. The common view of an only Feelings of
child would be that he or she will be
pampered and spoilt.

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masculine superiority, sex bias environment in shaping our personality.

and other attitudes and behaviors Individuals of certain cultures are
develop with gender more generous, open-hearted and
identification. warm where as individuals of some
other cultures are suspicious,
Sibling Relationships : The number of introverted and self-centered. It has
sibling as well as their sex and age has a also been found that certain cultural
considerable influence on the communities are more prone to
development of both favorable and
develop certain abnormal behaviors
unfavorable personality traits like as compared to others, probably due to
cooperativeness, sharing, the influence of geographical, dietary,
aggressiveness, jealousy, etc. Although hormonal or genetic influences within
sibling rivalry is common, older sibling the community.
invariably teach the infant a great deal
and they can even function as a source
of security. On the other hand, unhealthy
comparisons can also develop, for
instance, an athletic child who is APPROACHES TO
favored by an athletic father over a
less active sibling, may suffer from an PERSONALITY
inferiority complex or develop low self
esteem & self confidence. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

Introduction
Mass Media : Mass media includes
films, television, radio, printed It revolutionized the concept of
literature, etc. Mass media has a treatment for psychological disturbances
considerable impact on attitudes, values, by proposing a method of psychological
beliefs and behavior patterns. Baron treatment based on psychological
and Bryne (1986) have shown that concepts such as understanding of the
individuals, especially child, imitate unconscious, instincts, free association,
specific aggressive acts of models. dream interpretation, and so on. The
history of modern psychotherapy in fact
They have proposed that human
begins with the work of Sigmund Freud.
personality formation is a result of
Third, psychoanalysis is both a theory of
modeling and imitating the behavior of personality as well as a system of
significant others. Many abnormal forms psychotherapy. As a theory of
of behavior can be learned by imitating personality, it aims at providing
models from the mass media. explanations of human behavior and
experience by revealing the underlying
Culture : Culture influences mental forces. As a system of
personality because every culture has a psychotherapy its basic goal is to bring
set of ethical and moral values, beliefs to consciousness the unconscious
and norms which considerably shapes impulses causing neurotic conflict and
behavior. Cross-cultural studies have thereby help the person gain greater self-
pointed out the importance of cultural knowledge and self-control.

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Theory of personality sick because of frustrating early

The psychoanalytic theory of personality can be experiences which become part of the
considered from three points of view: inner states. These experiences are
physiological, social, and psychological. internalized by the individual and are
difficult to dislodge, making the person
Physiological view inaccessible to others’ influences. Covert
anxiety, which can only be inferred from
Physiological structures present in an
a total picture of the personality, has
organism are referred to as instincts,
been given enormous importance, and
drives, instinctual drives, sexuality,
studied extensively by psychoanalytic
psychosexuality or libido in the
theory.
psychoanalytic theory. According to
Freud, the physiological drives are more
important in childhood than in later life Concepts of Psychoanalysis
as they exert a significant influence in The psychoanalytic theory of personality
the formative years. However, Freud explains any human event or experience
was aware of the dichotomy present with reference to a number of different
between drive and control of the points of view. These views are: (1)
instincts – expressed in the form of topographic, (2) genetic, (3) dynamic, (4)
defenses against anxiety, growing from economic, (5) structural, (6) interpersonal,
the pleasure principle to the reality (7) cultural, and (8) adaptive.
principle, and as the conflict between
ego and id. The topographic point of view explains
the concept of the unconscious.
Social view According to this view, a mental event
The impact of social influences has can be unconscious, preconscious, or
received due importance in conscious. The unconscious consists of
psychoanalysis. Society is seen as a wishes which are repressed because of
collection of individuals, in which the anxiety. The presence of the
unconscious is felt only when these
family is the core of the social structure.
repressed wishes are expressed in the
Every culture has specific socialization
form of fantasies and dreams, neurotic
procedures which give rise to conflicts
symptoms, or overt active behavior.
between parents and children over
appropriate behavior. These interactions
may either be gratifying or frustrating The genetic-developmental view is one
depending on the love or hate within the of the fundamental bases for the
family structure. understanding of the individual. The
development process is described in
Psychological view Freud’s psychosexual stages of
development. Sexuality is divided into
Inner psychological states begin to
three main periods: from birth to the
develop at a very early stage. These
ages of three to five, from age five to
inner psychological states manifest puberty, and puberty, when sexuality
themselves in behavior, fantasy and life. reaches its adult form.
A person may become psychologically

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The dynamic point of view understands to adapt to other people – the

the human psyche as an interplay interpersonal and cultural aspect of
between dynamic emotional forces while adaptation is considered the real
the economic point of view stresses problem.
upon the quantitative factor in mental
functioning. It was originally View of the individual
hypothesized that mental energy could
be quantified. A major tenet of psychoanalysis, which
Freud developed, is the principle of
The structural or tripartite view sees the psychic determinism. According to this
personality as divided into three parts – principle, the human being is seen as an
the id, ego and superego. The id is the organism driven by unconscious, innate
source of all drives, and is the reservoir of forces. Behavior is determined by
instincts. The ego is the executive of the previous behavior and by the biological
personality, and is the mediator between drives. Freud believed that nothing
the demands of the id and the external happens by chance or at random and all
environment. The superego consists of behavior is meaningful if the person has
moral and social values, and is the internal sufficient insight to understand it.
representative of parents. It acts as the According to Freud, the basic
mediator between the individual and the personality pattern is established by the
environment. age of five.

The interpersonal point of view stresses Topography of the mind

on the interpersonal context of all human Freud evolved the concept of the
activities. In the early years of a person’s unconscious and defined three
life, the interpersonal context consists constructs of the mind: the conscious,
almost entirely of the family, from which unconscious, and preconscious. The
all later relationships develop. The conscious is all that we are aware of in
essential traits of the personality become ourselves and in our environment. The
fixed by the time the child begins to go to unconscious is the bigger area
school, by which time the superego has consisting of events, wishes, desires, and
formed. impulses that have been repressed or
censored from the conscious mind.
The cultural point of view has stressed These mental events are not accessible
upon the role that the broader culture to the conscious mind. The
plays in the formation and maintenance preconscious is the censor that acts on
of the personality structure. Freud the memories in the unconscious. After a
revealed that the same psychological memory is scrutinized, it is allowed to
mechanisms can be found in all cultures. pass into consciousness; if not, it is
Thus, it can be deduced that the same repressed into the unconscious.
needs exist in human beings in all
cultures, but are moulded in different Structure of personality
ways in different cultures.
According to Freud, the personality is
made up of three major systems: the
The adaptive point of view focuses on id, the ego and the superego. Each of
the need of the human being to adapt these structures has its own functions,
himself to his environment. However, properties, and mechanisms.
psychoanalytic thought is more
concerned with the individual’s ability

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Behavior is almost always the product of an The superego is the moral arm of the
interaction between these three systems. personality – it represents the ideal
rather than the real and strives for
The id consists of all aspects that are perfection rather than pleasure. The
physiological in nature and inherited – superego is our conscience and develops
aspects that are present at birth. It is the as a result of the rewards and
reservoir of psychic energy and punishments given by parents. Whatever
functions to reduce tension. Its sole is taught as improper is incorporated
purpose is to obtain pleasure, and into the conscience and what is
operates on the pleasure principle. The approved of is incorporated into the ego
id functions by two processes: the ideal through introjection. This is the
primary process, present in the process by which parental and societal
unconscious, which seeks to alleviate values are internalized by the individual.
tension immediately and the pleasure The superego functions unconsciously to
principle that makes the organism seek a large extent, and with its formation,
immediate satisfaction of instinctual
needs. Self-control takes over from parental control.
The main functions of the superego can be summed
The ego evolves out of the id as the up as:
child develops. The ego operates on the to inhibit sexual or aggressive impulses of
reality principle through the secondary the id, as the expression of these impulses
process that develops at the conscious is
level of thinking. The reality principle condemned by society,
ensures that pleasure is obtained in to persuade the ego
accordance with the demands of reality. to substitute
The ego is said to be the executive of moralistic goals for
the personality as it decides what needs realistic ones, and,
should be satisfied and to what extent. to strive for
The ego also functions to protect the perfection.
self by employing appropriate Défense
the ego, and function as a whole. The
mechanisms. id may be thought of as the
biological component of personality,
the ego as the psychological and the
superego as the social component.

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ANXIETY repressing a memory is usually

Anxiety is a state of tension. The not aware that something is
external world plays a part in shaping forgotten.
the personality as it can threaten as well
as satisfy. When threatened, the ego Reaction Formation. It is the
becomes anxious. The function of blocking of an impulse that the
anxiety is to warn the person of ego labels dangerous and whose
impending danger and signal the ego that presence causes anxiety. By
appropriate measures are to be taken. strengthening and emphasizing
Freud identified three types of anxieties: the opposite impulse, reaction
reality anxiety, neurotic anxiety, and formation keeps the forbidden
moral anxiety. Reality anxiety is the impulse out of awareness. This
fear of real dangers in the external process is also unconscious. For
world. Neurotic anxiety is the fear that example, hate could appear as a
instincts will get out of control and that reaction formation against love,
the individual will be punished for it. if love was viewed as a threat.
Moral anxiety is fear of the conscience;
people with well-developed superegos Isolation. It is the recollection
often feel moral anxiety. When the ego of memories of the past without
cannot cope with anxiety by rational the accompanying feeling or
methods it has to fall back upon emotion. In other words, the
unrealistic ones called the Défense affect is isolated from the
mechanisms. memory. The affect or the
emotion is repressed, but the
EGO DEFENSE MECHANISMS memory of the wish or incident
remains conscious. In this way,
When the ego is undergoing extreme we block frightening or painful
anxiety, it is forced to take extreme memories of emotion from the
measures called defense mechanisms to consciousness, thereby reducing
relieve the pressure. These defenses are the threat.
used to keep the unacceptable impulses
of the id out of consciousness and Undoing. This is the attempt to
prevent their open expression. All “undo” an act or impulse from
defense mechanisms have two common the id that the ego considers
characteristics: dangerous, such as a hostile or
sexual act. For example, a four-
they deny, falsify, or distort reality, and year-old hits his younger sister
they operate unconsciously so and then hugs her to “undo” the
that the person is not aware of harm.
what is taking place. Some of
the most common defense Denial. When certain
mechanisms are described unpleasant or unwanted aspects
below. of the outside world’s reality are
blocked from the consciousness,
Repression. Repression is the denial is in effect. Thus, a person
ego’s refusal to allow a who believes that he is a bright,
forbidden id impulse or gifted student denies the external
accompanying memories, reality of his poor school grades.
emotions, desires, or wish-
fulfilling fantasies to become
conscious. It is the “forgetting”
of unacceptable thoughts or
impulses - unconscious
forgetting. The person who is

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belief that the teachers were not

Projection. This is the act of fair in evaluation.
not being aware of one’s own
wish or attitude and instead, Displacement. It is the
attributing it to some other purposeful and unconscious
person or external object. The shifting from one object to
child who is jealous of a another in order to solve a
classmate might explain to his conflict. Although the object is
friends how that particular changed, the impulse and its aim
classmate is jealous of him remain unchanged. For example,
because of his toys, or his school the individual who has been
grades, etc. reprimanded by his boss in the
office may shout at his wife once
Regression. It occurs when the he reaches home, displacing his
ego is faced with severe conflicts anger toward his boss onto his
with the id impulses. The ego wife.
may regress to a previous stage
where the sense of equilibrium is
maximized and sense of anxiety Intellectualization. This is a
is minimized. The points to systematic manner of thinking
which a person regresses are where the affect is removed from
called points of fixation. the event or situation in order to
defend against anxiety caused by
Sublimation. This is the these unacceptable impulses. By
unconscious procedure of merely thinking about them,
accepting a forbidden impulse instead of experiencing them, the
through the person tries to avoid the negative
secondary process and turning it associations of the impulses.
into a related, yet socially Defenses have further been classified
acceptable activity that gratifies into four types according to the level of
the basic impulse. It is adaptation and use. Narcissistic
commonly believed that many of defenses are used by children and
our aggressive drives are psychotics. Immature defenses are used
sublimated into acceptable by adolescents and are seen in
sporting activities. For example, depression, obsessions, and
a very aggressive person might compulsions. Neurotic defenses are seen
sublimate his aggression and in adults under stress and can be
become a boxer. Sexual drives observed in obsessive-compulsive and
are sublimated into activities hysteric persons. Mature defenses are
such as working, seeking power, normal adult adaptive mechanisms.
influence and money.
PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF
Rationalization. It is the DEVELOPMENT
process of organizing facts, Psychosexual stages of development are
attitudes, and beliefs into an innately determined stages of sexual
explanation for an individual’s development through which all
behavior that is believed to be far individuals pass. According to Freud, the
more acceptable both socially first few years of life are decisive and
and personally. The facts are extremely important for the formation of
usually distorted and organised the personality. Freud introduced the
to support the individual’s concept of infantile sexuality when he
behavior or beliefs. A student, described the five stages of development:
for instance, who has failed may the oral, anal, phallic,
rationalize his failure by his
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latency and genital stages. These stages In this stage of personality development,
are not discrete; as development occurs sexual interests, stimulation and
one stage merges with the other, excitement of the genital area become
producing a smooth transition. primary. The Oedipus complex appears
in this stage. The Oedipus complex is a
Oral Stage sexual attraction for the parent of the
The oral stage occurs at birth and lasts opposite sex and hostile feelings for the
about one and a half years. The mouth is parent of the same sex. Boys experience
center of gratification. The primary castration anxiety – the fear of the
sexual organ is the mouth as it seeks to removal of his genital organs
suck, bite, and put objects in the mouth – and girls experience castration
as its source of pleasure. When complex or penis envy – she does not
gratification is thwarted, the person may have something which the boy has. The
become fixated at the oral stage and may repression of the Oedipus complex
develop into either of two types of causes the superego to undergo the final
personality: oral aggressiveness is development.
shown by sarcasm and
argumentativeness, and biting, chewing LATENCY STAGE
and destroying; and oral eroticism The above mentioned three stages are
where in the person will swallow almost known as the pregenital stages. The
anything, and acquires pleasure in child then goes into a prolonged latency
amassing knowledge or possessions. period, or the quiet years, as there is a
repression of sexual urges. In this
ANAL STAGE period, the child is more involved in
This stage extends from 1-3 years same sex friendships, learning and play
approximately, and the anus becomes the activities, exploring the environment,
central area of sexual tension and and learning how to deal with the adult
pleasure. The child has to learn to world. This is a crucial period for
control the pleasure that follows from developing essential skills
relieving anal tension. If the parents are
very strict and repressive in their GENITAL STAGE
methods, the child may hold back its The genital stage extends from the onset
feces and become constipated and will of puberty till the person reaches young
develop into an obstinate and stingy adulthood. The adolescent begins to love
personality. If the parents plead and others for altruistic purposes and sexual
cajole the child, and praise it on attraction, socialization, group activities,
expulsion of faeces, the child vocational planning, and preparations
understands the importance of bowel for marrying and raising a family begin
movement and may develop into a to appear. The person becomes a reality-
creative and productive adult oriented and socialized adult. The
personality. principal biological function of the
genital stage is that of reproduction. The
PHALLIC STAGE final organization of personality
represents contributions from all stages
of development.

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THEORY OF INSTINCTS turned outward onto substitute objects. A

Freud classified instincts as life instincts person fights with other people and is
(Eros) and death instincts (Thanatos). destructive because the death wish is
An instinct is an inborn psychological blocked by the forces of the life instincts
representation of an internal bodily and other obstacles in the personality.
arousal. The psychological
representation is called a wish and the
physiological arousal arising from it is
called need. According to Freud, these
instincts represent the forces that
underlie the sexual and aggressive
drives.

LIFE INSTINCTS
Hunger, thirst and sex are life instincts
as they serve the purpose of individual
survival. The energy of life instincts is
called libido. Life instinct refers to the
tendency of particles to unite, as in
sexual reproduction.

DEATH INSTINCTS
Freud stated that “the goal of all life is
death”, and defined Thanatos as the
tendency of organisms and their cells to
return to an inanimate state. An example
of the death instinct is the aggressive
drive. Aggressiveness is self-destruction

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JUNG’S ANALYTIC THEORY

INTRODUCTION on the conscious person. The
Carl Jung’s psychoanalytic school, contents of the personal
known as analytical psychology, unconscious are accessible to
includes basic ideas related to Freud’s consciousness, and there is a lot
theories. He expanded on Freud’s of interaction between the ego
concept of the unconscious by and the personal unconscious.
describing the collective unconscious as Complexes. A complex is an
consisting of all humankind’s common organized group of feelings,
and shared mythological and symbolic thoughts, perceptions and
past. Jung felt that modern humans have memories that exist in the
been shaped and moulded into their personal unconscious. The
present form by the cumulative mother complex, for example,
experiences of past generations. An consists of ideas, feelings, and
individual’s Centre for Distance memories related to the mother.
personality is a resultant of inner forces Thus, an individual whose
acting upon outer forces and outer forces personality is dominated by the
acting on inner forces. mother is said to have a strong
mother complex.
STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY
Jung described the total personality or THE COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS
psyche as consisting of a number of It is the most powerful and
different but interacting systems. The influential system of the psyche
main systems are the ego, the personal (personality) and has the ability to
unconscious, and its complexes, the overshadow the ego and the
collective unconscious and its personal unconscious. The
archetypes, the persona, the anima and collective unconscious is made up
animus and the shadow. of latent memory traces inherited
from one’s ancestral past. This
THE EGO unconscious is the remainder of
The ego is the conscious mind. It human evolutionary development
is made up of conscious that has accumulated over many
perceptions, memories, thoughts, generations. It is universal in
and feelings. The ego is nature and is detached from
responsible for one’s feeling of anything personal. All human
identity and continuity, and beings have more or less the same
from the individual’s viewpoint, is collective unconscious.
considered as being at the centre of
consciousness. ARCHETYPES. The structural
component of the collective unconscious,
THE PERSONAL UNCONSCIOUS an archetype is a universal idea that
The personal unconscious contains a large element of emotion.
consists of experiences that were Archetypes are the images that predispose
conscious at one time, but have us to perceive the external world in certain
been repressed, suppressed, ways. For example, the archetype of
mother produces an image of a mother
forgotten or ignored. It also
figure that is then identified with the
consists of the experiences that
actual mother. The baby’s experience is
were too weak to make an impact
the joint product of an inner predisposition
to perceive the world in a

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certain manner and the actual nature of INTROVERSION-EXTRAVERSION

the world. Some of the archetypes we Jung also suggested that we are all born
have in our collective unconscious are with innate tendencies to be concerned
birth, power, death, magic, hero, child, mostly with ourselves or with the
God, etc. Some of the important outside world. The extravert is oriented
archetypes are: toward the external, objective world and
is open, confident and takes part in
The Persona. This is a mask many activities. The introverted person
adopted by the person in response is oriented toward the inner, subjective
to the demands of social world and is hesitant, cautious and
convention and tradition and to his prefers to observe the world than get
or her own inner needs. It is the involved.
role assigned by society and often
conceals the real nature of the DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY
person. The persona is the public
Jung emphasized on the forward going
personality which the world sees,
character of personality development –
while the private personality exists
behind the mask. humans are constantly progressing or
attempting to progress from a less
complete stage of development to a more
The Anima and Animus. complete one. What is the goal of
Animus is the masculine side of development? In Jung’s theory, the
females and anima is the ultimate goal is self-realization or
feminine side of males. These individuation. Self-realization is the
archetypes are the products of blending of all aspects of a human’s total
racial experiences of man living personality. It means that the psyche has
with woman and vice-versa. evolved into the self in place of the ego.

The Shadow. This archetype CAUSALITY VS. TELEOLOGY

consists of the animal instincts
The idea that a goal guides and directs
that humans inherited in their
human destiny is the basis of the
evolution from lower forms of
teleological viewpoint. According to this
life. The shadow represents the
viewpoint, human personality can be
animal side of human nature and
is responsible for the unpleasant explained in terms of where it is going,
not where it has been. It explains the
and socially unacceptable
thoughts, feelings, and actions in present in terms of the future. On the other
our consciousness and behavior. hand, the present may be explained by the
past. This is the viewpoint of causality
which holds that present events are the
The self. It is the mid-point of consequences or effects of antecedent
personality and all systems are conditions or causes. A look into the
built around it. The self provides person’s past will account for his or her
the personality with unity, present behavior. Jung believed that both
equilibrium and stability. The
standpoints are necessary for a complete
self is the goal that people
understanding of personality. The present
constantly strive for, but cannot
is not only determined by the past
reach. It motivates human
(causality) but it is also determined by the
behavior and becomes evident
only when a person has reached future (teleology). When the two views
middle age. are combined, we get a complete picture
of the person.

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PROGRESSION AND REGRESSION differentiation, development and

Development may follow either a expression. This is known as the
progressive forward movement or a individuation process.
regressive, backward movement. By
progression, Jung meant the satisfactory
adjustment of the conscious ego to the
ADLER’S INDIVIDUAL
demands of both external environment PSYCHOLOGY
and the needs of the unconscious. When
this progression is thwarted by a Alfred Adler expanded on Freud’s
frustrating circumstance, the libido is theories and formed Individual
unable to handle the environment, as a Psychology. Opposing both Freud’s
result of which, it regresses into the assumption of inborn instincts, and
unconscious and indulges in introverted Jung’s inborn archetypes as the factors
values. The ego loses its objectivity and motivating behavior, Adler suggested
becomes subjective. However, regression that humans are motivated primarily by
does not necessarily have a permanently social urges. According to him
bad effect on adjustment. It may help the humans are inherently social beings.
ego to find a way around the obstacle and His second major contribution was his
move forward again. For example, a concept of the creative self. This self is
young adult, living on his own may face a a highly personalized, subjective system
problem which he is unable to handle by that interprets and makes the
himself. Though he has left his parents, he experiences of the organism meaningful.
will still turn to them for help and advise, Thirdly, Adler considered the
or rather the parental images in his personality to be unique. Each person is
unconscious. a unique configuration of motives, traits,
interests, and values; and each act of the
THE INDIVIDUATION PROCESS individual has a distinctive style.
The central feature of Jung’s psychology Lastly, Adler considered consciousness
is that personality has a tendency to to be the centre of the personality, and
develop in the direction of a stable unity. considered that humans are conscious
The ultimate goal of development is the and aware of their behavior.
realization of selfhood. In order to
Adler’s theory of personality consists of
realize this aim it is necessary for all the
the following concepts: striving for
various systems of personality to be fully superiority, inferiority feelings and
developed. A neglected part will offer compensation, social interest, style of
resistance and sap energy from other life and the creative self.
developed systems. If too many
resistances develop, the person becomes
neurotic. This usually happens when
archetypes are not allowed to express
themselves through the conscious ego, as
the persona has smothered the
personality. To have a healthy integrated
personality, every system must be
allowed to reach the fullest degree of

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STRIVING FOR SUPERIORITY only with training and guidance. By

Superiority denotes a striving for perfect definition, social interest consists of the
completion. This striving is innate, and individual helping society to attain the
is part of life. This striving for goal of a perfect society. The person is
superiority carries the person from one embedded in a social context from the
stage of development to the other right first day of life, and is continuously
from birth to death. Each person has his involved in a network of interpersonal
or her own way of achieving or trying to relations that shape the personality and
achieve perfection. Adler identified provide outlets for striving for superiority.
power with masculinity and weakness Striving for superiority becomes
with femininity. In line with this socialized, and by working for the
suggestion, he spoke of “masculine common good, humans compensate for
protest”, a form of overcompensation their individual weakness.
that both men and women indulge in
when they feel inadequate and inferior. STYLE OF LIFE
Superiority in this context does not Style of life is the principle by which the
mean social distinction, leadership, or an individual personality functions; it is the
eminent position in society. What causes principle that explains the uniqueness of
these various modes of striving to come the person. Everyone has a style of life,
into the individual? but no two people develop the same
style. Style of life is formed very early in
INFERIORITY FEELINGS childhood, and experiences are taken in
AND COMPENSATION according to this unique style of life.
According to Adler, the causes of the What determines an individual’s style of
striving for superiority can be traced to life? Style of life is a compensation for a
inferiority feelings and compensation. particular inferiority; the dull child will
Adler observed that a person with a strive for intellectual superiority. For
defective organ tries to compensate for example, Napolean’s conquering style of
the weakness by strengthening it through life was determined by his slight
intensive training. He explained that physical build. Adler however, was not
feeling of inferiority arise from a sense satisfied with this concept, and came up
of incompletion or imperfection in any with the concept of creative self.
sphere of life. Adler was of the opinion
that inferiority feelings are not a sign of THE CREATIVE SELF
abnormality, but are the cause of all The theory of creative self asserts that
improvement in mankind. In other humans make their own personalities.
words, human beings are pushed by the They construct them out of the raw
need to overcome their inferiority and material of heredity and experience. The
pulled by the desire to be superior. creative self is the catalyst which
Perfection, not pleasure, was the goal of transforms raw data into a personality
life. that is subjective, dynamic, unified,
personal, and uniquely stylized. The
Social Interest creative self gives meaning to life and is
the goal as well as the means to the goal.
Adler believed that social interest is
It is the active principle of human life,
inborn; that humans are social creatures
and is unlike the soul.
by nature, not by habit. However, social
interest can be brought to a culmination

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ERIKSON’S CONTEMPORARY (developmental tasks) in which his

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY growing abilities are tested. The resolution
of each task provides a base for further
growth; unsolved developmental crises
INTRODUCTION
block further development and may lead
Erik Erikson’s most significant to neurotic residuals in the later character
contribution is his formulation of the structure. Erikson also describes
psychosocial theory of development ritualizations that are peculiar to each
from which he expanded the conception stage. By this he means a playful, yet
of the ego. Erikson’s view of culturally determined way of doing or
psychosocial development brings experiencing something in the daily
together a number of important ideas for interplay of individuals. The basic purpose
the understanding of personality growth. of these ritualizations is to turn the
Building on Freud’s psychosexual maturing individual into an effective and
stages, Erikson added ego development familiar member of the community.
(role of sensorimotor and cognitive
capacities), and interpersonal KAREN HORNEY:
interactions. Thus, he combined the
concepts of dynamic motivation, ego BASIC ANXIETY
functioning and social behavior into a Horney emphasized on the importance
single model of personality of social relationships in personality
development. development. Basic anxiety refers to the
feeling of a child of being isolated and
THE PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY helpless in a potentially hostile world.
OF DEVELOPMENT
Development proceeds in eight stages ERICH FROMM
according to Erikson. The first four Erich Fromm was a neo-Freudian
stages occur during infancy and psychoanalyst who suggested a theory of
childhood, the fifth stage during personality based on two primary needs:
adolescence, and the last three stages the need for freedom and the need for
during the adult years up to and belonging. He suggested that people
including old age. Erikson places develop certain personality styles or
particular emphasis on the adolescent strategies in order to deal with the
period as it is the transition stage anxiety created by feelings of isolation.
between childhood and adulthood. Of these character types, he suggested
that four of them are unproductive
Erikson felt that each child has its own orientations, while one is a productive
timetable, and thus, it is very difficult to orientation. Fromm believed that
frame a strict chronological schedule. character is something that stems both
Further, each stage is not passed through, from our genetic inheritance and from
and left behind. Each stage contributes to our learning experiences.
the formation of the total personality. At
each stage, the maturing person faces new
and important encounters with his world

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TYPE THEORIES
Sheldon set out with the intention of
establishing a relationship between body
SHELDON’S SOMATOTYPE THEORY type and psychological or
The type approach has mainly temperamental types. The human body

evolved out of the medical sciences. consists of three layers, the ectoderm,
It makes the following assumptions. the mesoderm and the endoderm.
a. People can be classified into a
few categories or types According to him an ectomorphic
depending on their behaviour individual tends to be cerebrotonic in
patterns. temperament. Cerebrotonics are
characterized
b. These types or categories are qualitatively by greater nervous and
different from each other. cerebral activities and
c. The behavioural variations among the are given to activities like thinking,
different types are stable, describable and reading, etc, The endomorphic physique
even was associated with a viscerotonic

measurable. temperament likely to be more

interested in visceral activities like
d. It is possible to relate these
eating and drinking. Lastly, the
behavioural types to
mesomorphic physique is associated
constitutional and body
with the somatotonic temperament,
characteristics.
being more given to muscular activity.

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HIPPOCRATE’S TYPOLOGY Jung’s classification has been criticised on

In 400 B.C. Hippocrates attempted to the ground that it is not possible to divide
explain personality in terms of body people into two watertight compartments
fluid or humours. He postulated that our because a significant number of people do
body has four types of fluid; yellow not fall in either of the categories. They
bile, black bile, blood and phlegm. exhibit characteristics of both the
Every person is characterised by the extrovert and introvert type. To
prominence of one type of fluid which compensate for this psychologist placed
determines the temperament of the such persons into another category called
person concerned. Thus, he classified ambiverts.
people into four types which are given
below: TRAIT THEORIES
According to trait theory personality is
Choleric – people with
made up of different traits. Traits are the
predominance of yellow bile
building blocks and human behaviour
are irritable, restless and hot
blooded. can be described in terms of these traits.
A trait generally is a description of
Melancholic – people with high black bile are
behaviour, for example, friendliness,
sad, depressed and devoid of hope in life
social, assertive are words that describe
Sanguinary – When blood content human behaviour.
is high the person remains
cheerful, active and he is Now the question is do these words really
optimistic in life. describe behaviour? No, because to be
Phlegmatic – predominance of called a trait it must manifest consistency.
phlegm makes a person calm and For example, if a person shows
quite and usually there behaviour assertiveness in all situations he is said to
is marked by inactiveness. show consistency but if he does not show
assertiveness when the situation demands
it he is not showing consistency. Besides
JUNG’S TYPOLOGY consistency of a trait should also show
the characteristics of stability and
Jung postulated personality theory based relative permanency. In other words, the
on psychological characteristics. He trait should remain manifest itself in the
divided people into two broad types i.e. person’s behaviour for long periods of
extroverts and introverts. time. For example, if a person shows
honesty in his behaviour across all
Extroverts – Such people are socially
situations for a month or so but after that
oriented. They like to mix up with
honesty is not reflected in his behaviour,
people, are fun loving, optimistic. They
are realistic in their approach towards then the trait of honesty does not have
life. Often such people exhibit stability.
leadership qualities.
According to Atkinson, Atkinson and
Hilgard “A trait refers to any
Introverts – They are the opposite of
characteristic that differs from person
extroverts. They do not like to mingle
to person in a relatively permanent
with people. They have very few and consistent way.”
friends. They are self-centred and
conservative. Such people are dogmatic
in the sense that they follow traditions ALLPORT’S TRAIT THEORY
and customs of the society without ever
giving thought to their justifiability. Allport mentioned two types of traits ; common
traits and personal traits.

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Common Traits – are the traits found in

dispositions,
the majority of persons living in a
b) central dispositions, and
society or culture. Thus people of a
secondary dispositions.
society or culture can be compared on
that trait. Common traits thus are those Cardinal dispositions: such
which are reflected in the behaviour of traits have overriding and
most of the persons in a society or a overwhelming influence on the
community or culture. behaviour of a person in that they
manifest themselves in all that a
Personal Traits – This refers to the
person does and guides the
unique characteristics of a person and not
behaviour of that person. For
shared by other members of the society or
example, Mahatma Gandhi had
community or culture. Such a personal
firm belief and conviction in peace
trait is not comparable with those of
and non-violence. Message of
others in that culture. These traits are
peace and nonviolence were
inculcated by a person more in the process
explicitly seen in whatever
of socialisation and thus many of do’s and Mahatma Gandhi did in his life,
don’ts of the parents or caregivers become whether at home or abroad.
part of the personality and these traits are
unique to this individual. Another Central dispositions: This is
important aspect is that, these traits are found in all persons and one can
highly consistent and can be seen in have 5 to 10 central dispositions.
almost all behaviours of this individual These are not equivalent to
irrespective of the situation concerned. To cardinal traits but one can assess
give an example, trait of parsimony, is the personality of an individual in
something which an individual will show terms of these traits. These traits
in almost every aspect of his behaviour actually define the personality of a
whether he is at home or office or school person. Let us take an example of
or anywhere. He will for example put off a person who has the traits of
the lights to economise on electricity honesty, punctuality, parsimony,
consumption whether at office or at home. cleanliness and generosity. Such a
Similarly he would be very careful not to person will be always on time to
waste paper and will use for rough work the office, and keep the scheduled
one side pages in the office as well as at meetings on time and never will
home. waste anyone’s time, will be
always straight forward and deal
Allport further divided personal traits directly with his employer
into three subcategories: a) cardinal

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and employees, and would Cattell mentioned two types of

ensure that nothing is wasted and source traits i.e. environmental
will make sure others do not mould traits and constitutional
waste anything and when ever traits. In the development of
someone comes for help would some source traits environmental
be generous enough to offer help factors play more important role
and solve the problem. than genetic factors, therefore,
such traits are called
c) Secondary dispositions: environmental mould traits.
These traits of a person are less Source traits determined by
consistent, less explicit and less genetic factors are called
meaningful for the person and constitutional traits.
hence are called secondary traits.
These traits are of not much help Cattell also divided traits according to
in explaining the personality. For the behaviour they are related to and
example, hair style, dressing these include the dynamic traits and
sense, eating pattern or ability traits.
preferences etc.
Dynamic Traits are those which direct
the behaviour of the person in a
particular direction. Attitude and
CATTELL’S TRAIT THEORY sentiments are examples of dynamic
traits. For example, suppose a person
After Allport, major contribution to trait feels strongly for girls education /
theory was made by R.B. Cattell. He
women’s education, then he may join an
divided traits into two categories, viz.,
surface traits, and source traits. NGO or an organisation which is
concerned with spreading women’s
Surface Traits – As the name suggests education and offering education to girls
these are found on the periphery of and women. This trait will be reflected
personality i.e. these are reflected in the in all his activities in terms of writing
day to day interactions of the person. articles in the newspapers and various
Their expression is so explicit that it other magazines advancing the cause of
leaves no doubt about their existence in women and girls education.
the personality.
Ability Traits – traits that are
Source Traits – These represent the instrumental in reaching to a goal are
structure of personality. They are called ability traits. For example,
present in less number than surface musical ability is a must for becoming a
traits. These traits are not observable in musician.
day to day interactions of the person.
Temperamental Traits – These
Source traits come to notice when some
develop out of a person’s efforts to reach
of the surface traits are joined together. a goal and relate to emotional state and
For example, sociability, unselfishness energy of the person.
and humor are surface traits which when
joined together create a source trait
known as friendliness.

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EYSENCK’S TRAIT THEORY such as a car crash — the extravert’s brain

inhibits itself, which means that it
H.J. Eysenck proposed that personality becomes “numb,” you might say, to the
could be reduced into two broad trauma, and therefore will remember very
dimensions. These dimensions are little of what happened. After the car
Neuroticism, and Extraversion- crash, the extravert might feel as if he had
Introversion dimensions. According to “blanked out” during the event, and may
Eysenck, these are biologically and ask others to fill them in on what
genetically based and each dimension happened. Because they don’t feel the full
subsumes under it a number of specific mental impact of the crash, they may be
traits. ready to go back to driving the very next
day. The introvert, on the other hand,
Neuroticism: Neuroticism is the name
has poor or weak inhibition: When
Eysenck gave to a dimension that had
trauma, such as the car crash, hits them,
persons who tend to be quite “nervous.”
their brains don’t protect them fast
These people tend to suffer more
frequently from a variety of “nervous enough, don’t in any way shut down.

disorders”, hence the name of the Instead, they are highly alert and learn

dimension. But it does not mean that well, and so remember everything that
people who score high on the happened. They might even report that
neuroticism scale are necessarily they saw the whole crash “in slow
suffering from neurotic disorders, but it motion!” They are very unlikely to want to
only shows that such persons are drive anytime soon after the crash, and
relatively more susceptible to develop may even stop driving altogether.
neurotic problems as compared to the Neuroticism and extraversion-introversion
normal persons. Another thing Eysenck looked into was
the interaction of the two dimensions and
Extraversion-introversion: His second what that might mean in regard to various
dimension is extraversion-introversion. psychological problems. He found, for
By this he means something very similar example, that people with phobias and
to what Jung meant by the same terms, obsessive-compulsive disorder tended to
and something very similar to our
be quite introverted, whereas people with
common sense understanding of them,
conversion disorders (e.g. hysterical
that is Shy, quiet people “versus” out-
paralysis) or dissociative disorders (e.g.
going, loud people. This dimension, too,
amnesia) tended to be more extraverted.
is found in everyone, but the
physiological explanation is a bit more
complex. According to Eysenck,
extraversion-introversion is a matter of
the balance of “inhibition” and
“excitation” in the brain itself.
Excitation is the brain waking itself up,
getting into an alert, learning state.
Inhibition is the brain calming itself down,
either in the usual sense of relaxing and
going to sleep, or in the sense of
protecting itself in the case of
overwhelming stimulation. Thus someonewho is extraverted
, he hypothesized, hasgood, strong inhibition:
When confronted by traumatic stimulation

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OCEAN MODEL BY COSTA AND MC CRAE

PERSONALITY TYPES BY FRIEDMAN AND ROSENMAN

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SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY

Social cognitive theory is basically a behaviours, that would make the
social leaning theory based on the ideas person much more successful in
that people learn by watching what doing so.
others do and that human thought
processes . People’s interaction with the ALBERT BANDURA’S
environment, behaviour of others ,
and one’s own cognition etc. act as
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
chief factors in influencing the
development of personality of an
individual. “In social learning theory, a self-system
is not a psychic agent that controls
Main Tenets of Social Cognitive Theory behaviour. Rather it refers to cognitive
People learn by observing others, a structures that provide reference
process known as vicarious learning. mechanisms to set of functions for
Although learning can modify perception, evaluation and regulation of
behaviour, people do not always apply behaviour”. According to Bandura the
what they have learned. three component processes involved in
Individual’s choice is based on self regulation of behaviour through the
perceived or actual consequences activation of self-prescribed
of the concerned behaviour. contingencies. The three components
People are more likely to follow the involved in self-system are self-
behaviours modeled by someone observation, judgmental processes and
with whom they can identify. self –response.
The more perceived
commonalities and/or emotional Self-observation: We look at ourselves,
attachments between the our behaviour, and keep tabs on it.
observer and the model, the more Judgment: We compare what we see with
likely the observer will learn a standard.
from the model.
Also, the degree of self-efficacy that Self-response: If you did well in
a learner possesses directly comparison with your standard, you give
affects his or her ability to learn. yourself rewarding self-responses. If you
Self-efficacy is a fundamental did poorly, you give yourself punishing
belief in one’s ability to achieve self-responses.
a goal. If a person believes that Self efficacy: In other words, self-
he or she can learn new efficacy is a person’s belief in his or
her ability to succeed in a particular
situation

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People with a strong sense of self-efficacy have the help them master comparable
following characteristics: activities and succeed.
Social Persuasion: Bandura also
They view challenging problems as tasks to asserted that people could be
be mastered.
persuaded to believe that
They develop deeper interest in the activities in they have the skills and
which they participate. capabilities to succeed.
Consider a time when
They form a stronger sense of commitment to their someone said something
interests and activities. positive and encouraging that
helped you achieve a goal.
They recover quickly from setbacks
and disappointments. On the other Getting verbal
hand, people with a weak sense of self- encouragement from others
efficacy show the following helps people overcome self-
characteristics: doubt and instead focus on
giving their best effort to the
They avoid challenging tasks. task at hand.
They believe that difficult tasks and situations are Psychological Responses: Our
beyond their capabilities. own responses and emotional
reactions to situations also
They focus on personal failings and play an important role in self-
negative outcomes. efficacy. Moods, emotional
They quickly lose confidence in personal states, physical reactions, and
abilities (Bandura, 1994). stress levels can all impact
how a person feels about their
According to Bandura, there are four personal abilities in a
major sources of self-efficacy. particular situation. A person
who becomes extremely
Mastery Experiences: The most nervous before speaking in
effective way of developing a public may develop a weak
strong sense of efficacy is sense of self-efficacy in these
through mastery experiences.
situations.
(Bandura 1994).
Principles of Observational Learning
Performing a task
successfully strengthens our A Study of Aggression.” In this
senseofself-efficacy. experiment Bandura exposed a group
However, failing to of children to a video, featuring
adequately deal with a task or violent and aggressive actions. For the
challenge can undermine and
experiment Bandura made of film of
weaken selfefficacy
one of his students, a young woman,
Social Modeling: Witnessing other essentially beating up a bobo doll.
people successfully Bobo doll is an inflatable, egg-shape
completing a task is another balloon creature with a weight in the
important source of self- bottom that makes it bob back up
efficacy. According to when you knock him down. The
Bandura, when a person sees woman punched the clown, shouting
another person or persons “sockeroo!” She kicked it, sat on it, hit
similar to oneself succeeding with a little hammer, and so on,
by one’s sustained efforts, shouting various aggressive phrases.
makes the person raise the
belief that they too possess
the capabilities that could

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Bandura showed this film to groups promised reinforcements

of kindergartners who, as you might (incentives) that we can
predict, liked it a lot. They then were imagine. c) vicarious
let out to play. In the play room, of reinforcement — seeing and
course, were several observers with recalling the model being
pens and clipboards in hand, a brand reinforced.
new bobo doll, and a few little
hammers.

All these variations allowed Bandura to ROTTER'S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

establish that there were certain steps
involved in the modeling process: Rotter's interactionist position holds that
human behavior is based largely on the
Attentional Processes: In order to interaction of people with their
learn, you need to be paying attention. meaningful environments. Human
Anything that detracts your attention is
behavior is most accurately predicted by
going to have a negative effect on
an understanding of four variables:
observational learning
behavior potential, expectancy,
Retentional Processes: The ability to reinforcement value, and the
store information is also an important psychological situation.
part of the learning process. Retention
can be affected by a number of factors, A. Behavior Potential Behavior
but the ability to pull up information potential is the possibility that a
particular response will occur at a given
later and act on it is vital to
time and place in relation to its likely
observational learning
reinforcement.
Reproduction Processes: Once you
have paid attention to the model and B. Expectancy People's expectancy in
retained the information, it is time to any given situation is their confidence
actually perform the behaviour you that a particular reinforcement will
observed. follow a specific behavior in a specific
In the theory of observational learning situation or situations. Expectancies can
Bandura mentions a number of motives, be either general or specific, and the
which are: overall likelihood of success is a
a) past reinforcement function of both generalized and specific
b) ala traditional behaviourism. expectancies.

C. Reinforcement Value Reinforcement occur. Internal reinforcement is the

value is a person's preference for any individual's perception of an event,
particular reinforcement over other whereas external reinforcement refers to
reinforcements if all are equally likely to society's evaluation of an event.

D. Psychological Situation The E. Basic Prediction Formula

psychological situation is that part of the Hypothetically, in any specific situation,
external and internal world to which a behavior can be predicted by the basic
person is responding. Behavior is a prediction formula, which states that the
function of the interaction of people potential for a behavior to occur in a
with their meaningful environment.

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particular situation in relation to a given INTRODUCTION TO

reinforcement is a function of people's
expectancy that the behavior will be HUMANISTIC THEORIES
followed by that reinforcement in that
situation. Accordingly, humanistic psychology
focuses on subjective experiences of
persons as opposed to forced, definitive
KELLY’S COGNITIVE THEORY: factors that determine behaviour.
PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS THEORY Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers were
proponents of this view, which is based
on the “phenomenal field” theory of
Kelly's theory of personal constructs can
Combs and Snygg. Maslow and Rogers
be seen as a meta-theory, or a theory in
relation to the theories. It holds that emphasised a view of the person as an
people expect events through the active, creative, experiencing human
meanings or interpretations that they being who lives in the present and
place on those events. Kelly described subjectively responds to current
these interpretations personal constructs. perceptions, relationships, and
His philosophical position, described encounters. They disagree with the dark,
constructive alternativism, assumes pessimistic outlook of those in the
that alternative interpretations are Freudian psychoanalysis ranks, but
always accessible to people. rather view humanistic theories as
positive and optimistic proposals which
Psychotherapy: Kelly insisted that stress the tendency of the human
clients should set their own goals for personality toward growth and self-
therapy and that they should be active actualisation.
participants in the therapeutic process.
He sometimes used a procedure
described fixedrole therapy in which
clients act out a predetermined role for THEORY OF ABRAHAM MASLOW
many weeks. Through playing the part
of a psychologically healthy person, "Self Actualization is the intrinsic growth of
clients may discover previously hidden what is already in the organism, or more
characteristics of themselves. The Rep accurately, of what the organism is."
Test: The purpose of the Rep test is to Characteristics of Self Actualizing People
discover methods in which clients
construe important people in their lives. Realistic Realistically oriented, SA persons
Clients place names of people they know have a more efficient perception of reality,
on a repertory grid in order to identify they have comfortable relations with it. This
both similarities and differences among is extended to all areas of life. SA persons
these people. are unthreatened, unfrightened by the
unknown. they have a superior ability to
reason, to see the truth. They are logical and
efficient.

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Acceptance Accept themselves, others and objective. They are self starters, responsible
the natural world the way they are. Sees for themselves, own their behavior.
human nature as is, have a lack of crippling
guilt or shame, enjoy themselves without Autonomy: Independent of Culture and
regret or apology, they have no unnecessary Environment SA's rely on inner self for
inhibitions. satisfaction. Stable in the face of hard
knocks, they are self contained, independent
Spontaneity, Simplicity, Naturalness from love and respect.
Spontaneous in their inner life, thoughts and
impulses, they are unhampered by Continued Freshness of Appreciation
convention. Their ethics is autonomous, they Have a fresh rather than stereotyped
are individuals, and are motivated to appreciation of people and things.
continual growth. Appreciation of the basic good in life,
moment to moment living is thrilling,
Problem Centering Focus on problems transcending and spiritual. They live the
outside themselves, other centered. They present moment to the fullest.
have a mission in life requiring much
energy, their mission is their reason for Peak experiences "Feelings of limitless
existence. They are serene, characterized by horizons opening up to the vision, the
a lack of worry, and are devoted to duty. feeling of being simultaneously more
powerful and also more helpless than one
Detachment: The Need for Privacy Alone ever was before, the feeling of ecstasy and
but not lonely, unflappable, retain dignity wonder and awe, the loss of placement in
amid confusion and personal misfortunes, time and space with, finally, the conviction
that something extremely important and
valuable had happened, so that the subject
was to some extent transformed and strengthened
even in his daily life by such experiences.

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that tastes bad is likely to be spoiled,

Homeostasis Maslow also talks about
rotten and unhealthy. This is called
these levels in terms of homeostasis.
organismic valuing. Among the many
Homeostasis is the principle by which
things that we instinctively value is
your furnace thermostat operates: When
positive regard, Rogers umbrella term
it gets too cold, it switches the heat on,
for things like love, affection, attention,
and when it gets too hot, it switches the
nurturance, and so on. It is clear that
heat off. Maslow sees all these needs as
babies need love and attention.
essentially survival needs. Even love
and esteem are needed for the Another thing that we value is positive
maintenance of health. He says we all self regard, that is, self esteem, self
have these needs built in to us worth, and a positive self image. We
genetically, like instincts. In fact, he achieve this positive self regard by
calls them instinctoid, that is, instinct experiencing the positive regard others
like needs. Under stressful conditions, or show us over our years of growing up.
when survival is threatened, we can Getting positive regard on “on
“regress” to a lower need level. When a condition” Rogers calls conditional
person’s good career is in jeopardy, the positive regard. Because we do indeed
person might seek out a little attention need positive regard, these conditions
are very powerful, and we bend
ourselves into a shape determined, not
THEORY OF CARL ROGERS by our organismic valuing or our
actualising tendency, but by a society
A person’s identity is formed through a that may or may not truly have our best
series of personal experiences, which interests at heart
reflect how the individual is perceived
by both him or herself and the outside Incongruity: The gap between the real
world – the phenomenological field. self and the ideal self, the “I am” and the
“I should be” is called incongruity. The
Rogerian personality theory greater the gap, the more is the
distinguishes between two personalities. incongruity. The more the incongruity,
The real self is created through the the more the individual suffers.
actualising tendency, it is the self that
one can become. The demands of Defenses: When you are in a situation
society, however, do not always support where there is an incongruity between
the actualising tendency and we are your image of yourself and your
forced to live under conditions that are immediate experience of yourself (i.e.
out of step with our tendencies. The between the ideal and the real self), you
ideal self is the ideal created through the are in a threatening situation. Rogers
demands of society. also has a partial explanation for
psychosis: Psychosis occurs when a
Rogers tells us that organisms know person’s defense are overwhelmed, and
what is good for them. Evolution has their sense of self becomes “shattered”
provided us with the senses, the tastes, into little disconnected pieces.
the discriminations we need: When we
are hungry, we find food not just any
food, but food that tastes good. Food

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The Fully Functioning Person the arts or sciences, through social

concern and parental love, or simply by
Rogers, like Maslow, is just as interested doing one’s best at one’s job. Creativity
in describing the healthy person. His as Rogers uses it is very close to
term is “fully-functioning,” and involves Erikson’s generativity.
the following qualities:
Therapy: Carl Rogers is best known for
Openness to experience. This is the
his contributions to therapy. He
opposite of defensiveness. It is the
originally called his therapy to be non-
accurate perception of one’s experiences
directive, because he felt that the
in the world, including one’s feelings. It
therapist should not lead the client, but
also means being able to accept reality,
rather be there for the client while the
again including one’s feelings.
client directs the progress of the therapy.
Existential living. This is living in Rogers felt that a therapist, in order to
the here-and-now. Rogers, as a part of be effective, must have three very
getting in touch with reality, insists that special qualities:
we not live in the past or the future —
Congruence — genuineness, honesty with the
the one is gone, and the other isn’t
client.
anything at all, yet! The present is the
only reality we have. Empathy — the ability to feel what the
client feels.
Organismic trusting. We should
allow ourselves to be guided by the Respect — acceptance, unconditional positive
organismic valuing process. We should regard towards the client.
trust ourselves, do what feels right, what
comes naturally. Rogers meant trust EXISTENTIAL THERAPY
your real self, and you can only know
Existential therapy focuses on free will,
what your real self has to say if you are self-determination, and the search for
open to experience and living meaning—often centering on you rather
existentially. than on the symptom. The approach
emphasizes your capacity to make
Experiential freedom: It means that rational choices and to develop to your
we feel free when choices are available maximum potential.
to us. Rogers says that the fully-
functioning person acknowledges that The existential approach stresses that:
feeling of freedom, and takes
responsibility for his choices. All people have the capacity for self
awareness.
Creativity: A fully-functioning
person, in touch with actualisation, will
feel obliged by their nature to contribute
to the actualisation of others, even life
itself. This can be through creativity in

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Each person has a unique identity that their allowance in any way they choose -
can be known only through - yet they still expect the parent to
relationships with others. provide the money, and will complain
People must continually re-create about unfairness if they don't get it!
themselves because life’s meaning
constantly changes. Ordinary -- the normal adult
Anxiety is part of the human condition ego, conventional and a little
boring, perhaps. They have
learned responsibility, but find it
ROLLO MAY THEORY too demanding, and so seek
refuge in conformity and
Rollo May is the best known American traditional values.
existential psychologist. Much of his
thinking can be understood by reading
Creative -- the authentic adult,
about existentialism in general, and the the existential stage, beyond ego
overlap between his ideas and the ideas and self-actualizing. This is the
of Ludwig Binswanger is great. person who, accepting destiny,
faces anxiety with courage!
Stages of development
These are not stages in the traditional
Innocence -- the pre-egoic, pre- sense. A child may certainly be
self-conscious stage of the infant. innocent, ordinary or creative at times;
The innocent is pre-moral, i.e. is An adult may be rebellious.
neither bad nor good. Like a wild
animal who kills to eat, the Love and Will
innocent is only doing what he or
she must do. But an innocent His basic motivational construct is the
does have a degree of will in the daimonic. The daimonic is the entire
sense of a drive to fulfil their system of motives, different for each
needs! individual. It is composed of a collection
of specific motives called daimons. The
Rebellion -- the childhood and word daimon is from the Greek, and
adolescent stage of developing means little god. But originally, a
one’s ego or self-consciousness daimon could be bad or good. Daimons
by means of contrast with adults, include lower needs, such as food and
from the “no” of the two-year- sex, as well as higher needs, such as
old to the “no way” of the love.
teenager. The rebellious person
wants freedom, but has as yet no For May, one of the most important
full understanding of the daimons is eros. Eros is love (not sex),
responsibility that goes with it. and in Greek mythology was a minor
The teenager may want to spend god pictured as a young man.

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Another important concept for May is will.” This idea is, in fact, an old
will: The ability to organize oneself in one that we find among quite a
order to achieve one’s goals. This makes few theorists
will roughly synonymous with ego and
reality-testing, but with its own store of
energy, as in ego psychology
VICTOR FRANKL THEORY
TYPES:
Understanding Logotherapy
There is the type he refers to as
“neo-Puritan,” who is all will,
but no love. They have amazing Frankl believed that humans are motivated by
self-discipline, and can “make something called a "will to meaning
things happen”... but they have
no wishes to act upon. So they “Everything can be taken from a man
become “anal” and but one thing: the last of the human
perfectionistic, but empty and freedoms—to choose one's attitude in
“dried-up.” The archetypal any given set of circumstances.”
example is Ebenezer Scrooge.
Fundamentals of Logotherapy
The second type he refers to as
“infantile.” They are all wishes "Logos" is the Greek word for meaning,
but no will. Filled with dreams and logotherapy involves helping a
and desires, they don’t have the patient find personal meaning in life.
self-discipline to make anything
of their dreams and desires, and Core Properties
so become dependent and
conformist. They love, but their Frankl believed in three core properties on which
love means little. Perhaps Homer his theory and therapy were based:
Simpson is the clearest example!
Each person has a healthy core.
The last type is the "creative" One's primary focus is to enlighten
type. May recommends, wisely, others to their own internal
that we should cultivate a resources and provide them tools to
balance of these two aspects of use their inner core.
our personalities. He said “Man’s Life offers purpose and meaning but does not
task is to unite love and promise fulfillment or happiness.

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the freedom to access that will to

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS find meaning.

Logotherapy consists of six basic 5. Meaning of the Moment

assumptions that overlap with the
fundamental constructs and ways of The fifth assumption argues that
seeking meaning listed above: for decisions to be meaningful,
individuals must respond to the
1. Body, Mind, and Spirit demands of daily life in ways
that match the values of society
The human being is an entity that or their own conscience.
consists of a body (soma), mind
(psyche), and spirit (noos). 6. Individuals Are Unique

2. Life Has Meaning in All Circumstances Frankl believed that every individual
is unique and irreplaceable.
Frankl believed that life has
meaning in all circumstances, LOGOTHERAPY IN PRACTICE
even the most miserable ones.
This means that even when
Frankl believed that it was possible to
situations seem objectively turn suffering into achievement and
terrible, there is a higher level of accomplishment. He viewed guilt as an
order that involves meaning. opportunity to change oneself for the
better, and life transitions as the chance
3. Humans Have a Will to Meaning to take responsible action.
Logotherapy proposes that Three techniques used in logotherapy
humans have a will to meaning, include dereflection, paradoxical
which means that meaning is our intention, and Socratic dialogue.
primary motivation for living
and acting, and allows us to
Dereflection: Dereflection is aimed at
endure pain and suffering. helping someone focus away from
themselves and toward other people
4. Freedom to Find Meaning so that they can become whole and
spend less time being self-absorbed
Frankl argues that in all about a problem or how to reach a
goal.
circumstances, individuals have

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. 2) Paradoxical intention:
Paradoxical intention is A
technique that has the patient
wish for the thing that is feared
most. This was suggested for use
in the case of anxiety or phobias,
in which humour and ridicule
can be used when fear is
paralyzing. For example, A
person with a fear of looking
foolish might be encouraged to
try to look foolish on purpose.
Paradoxically, the fear would be
removed when the Intention
involved the thing that was
feared most.
. 3) Socratic dialogue: Socratic
dialogue would be used in
logotherapy as a tool to help a
patient through the process of
self-discovery through his or her
own words. In this way, the
therapist would point out patterns
of words and help the client to
see the meaning in them. This
process is believed to help the
client realize an answer that is
waiting to be discovered.

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Concepts

BASIC MOTIVATIONAL CONCEPTS:

Instincts,
Needs,
Drives,
Arousal,
Incentives,
Motivational Cycle.

APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF MOTIVATION:

Psychoanalytical,
Ethological,
S-R Cognitive,
Humanistic

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MOTIVATION characteristics model, Hackman and

Oldham (1974) emphasized the
A motive is a reason for doing importance of the core job dimensions
something. Motivation is concerned with as motivators, namely skill variety, task
the strength and direction of behaviour identity, task significance, autonomy
and the factors that info hence people to and feedback.
behave in certain ways. The term
Extrinsic motivation
‘motivation’ can refer variously to the
goal’s individuals have, the ways in Extrinsic motivation occurs when things
which individuals chose their goals and are done to or for people to motivate
the ways in which others try to change them. These include rewards, such as
their behaviour. incentives, increased pay, praise, or
promotion; and punishments, such as
disciplinary action, withholding pay,
Types of motivation or criticism. Extrinsic motivators can
have an immediate and powerful effect,
The two types of motivation are intrinsic
but will not necessarily last long.
motivation and extrinsic motivation.
The intrinsic motivators, which are
Intrinsic motivation
concerned with the ‘quality of working
Intrinsic motivation can arise from the life’ (a phrase and movement that
self-generated factors that influence emerged from this concept), are likely to
people’s behaviour. It is not created by have a deeper and longer-term effect
external incentives. It can take the form because they are inherent in individuals
of motivation by the work itself when and their work and not imposed from
individuals feel that their work is outside in such forms as incentive pay.
important, interesting and challenging
and provides them with a reasonable
degree of autonomy (freedom to act), CONCEPTS RELATED
opportunities to achieve and advance, TO MOTIVATION
and scope to use and develop their skills
Drive
and abilities. Deci and Ryan (1985)
Need leads to drive, which is the second
suggested that intrinsic motivation is
step towards achieving goal. Drive can be
based on the needs to be competent and defined as the state of tension or arousal
self-determining (that is, to have a produced by need. The drive can also be
choice). Intrinsic motivation can be considered as the original source of
enhanced by job or role design. energy that activates an organism. For
According to an early writer on the instance, when an organism is hungry
significance of the motivational impact
of job design (Katz, 1964): ‘The job
itself must provide sufficient variety,
sufficient complexity, sufficient
challenge and sufficient skill to engage
the abilities of the worker.’ In their job

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and/or thirsty, the organism seeks to less or more satisfying and attractive.
reduce this drive by eating and/or Thus, one can put in greater amount of
drinking. Drive acts as a strong effort to attain a more attractive
persistent stimulus to push an organism incentive. As a matter of fact, many
towards its goal. It is the state of incentives assume considerable
heightened tension leading to restless significance in the lives of people and
activity and preparatory behavior. they do everything possible to attain
those incentives.
NEED AND MOTIVES
A need is a condition of lack or deficit Instincts
of something required by the organism.
Instinct is an old concept in the field of
In order to maintain homeostasis or
motivation. It is defined as an innate
balance the organism finds it necessary
biological force that predisposes the
to satisfy the needs. The needs are of
organism to act in a certain way . At
different types. The need for food or
one time all behaviours were supposed
water is a physiological need, which
to be results of certain instincts. Some of
arises out of lack or deficit of food or
the instincts identified by early
water in the organism. The needs for
psychologists are fight, repulsion,
excretion and urination are also
curiosity, self abasement, acquisition
physiological needs. They are due to the
etc. It was thought that instincts were
organism’s necessity to eliminate waste
inherited and compelling sources of
matter from the body. The need for
conduct, but can be modified by learning
contact with other persons is a social
and experience. This term is no more
need. The other social needs include
used in relation to human behaviour.
need for prestige, status, affection, self-
Animal behaviour is sometimes
esteem, and so on. A person becomes
explained using this term. In current
more aware of his needs when they are
usage 'instinct' is reserved for innate
not fulfilled. In other words, when you
response tendencies found among
are hungry, you need food, and, when
animals
you are thirsty you need water
Needs for food, water, sex, sleep and Values
Values work as important motivators.
rest, and elimination are primary needs.
Needs for achievement, affiliation, They are considered as desirable and
power are examples of social needs. The cheris-able goals that serve as guiding
term ‘motive’ refers to goal directed principles in people’s lives. Values help
behaviour and energising conditions to make choices. Values prioritize
within the organism that drive needs. It is only because of values that
behaviour. It is generally used to refer to people take purposeful long range
certain conditions which, besides actions. Moral values differentiate
arousing, predispose a person to between good and bad.
respond, or behave in a way appropriate
to that motive. Motives direct the
activity of the individual towards
person’s goals.

Incentives
Incentives refers to the goal objects
which satisfy the needs. Incentives vary
in quality and quantity which make them

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Power: This includes social status and life. They include truth (Satya), non
prestige, control and dominance over stealing (asteya), keeping tolerance (driti),
people and resources intellect (dhi), knowledge (vidya), non-
Achievement: This includes personal anger (akrodh), forgiveness (kshama),
success by demonstrating competence purity (saucha), control of sense organs
according to social standards. (indriya nigraha) and self control (dam).
Self-direction: This includes These values provide basis for
independent thought and action, maintaining and promoting life at the
choosing, creating, and exploring. individual and the social levels. It
Universalism : This includes maintains a the view that holds entire
understanding, appreciation, tolerance universe into account.
and protection for the welfare of all
people.
Benevolence: This includes preservation Arousal's Contribution to Motivation
and enhancement of the welfare of Arousal is the energy source for
people with whom one is in frequent behaviour; it is the primary key in the
personal contact. initiation, strength and persistence of
Tradition : This includes respect, all motivational behaviours (Pfaff, 2006,
commitment and acceptance of the p. 2). You can be aroused without being
customers and ideas that are given motivated, yet you cannot be
importance in the traditional cultures or motivated without being aroused.
religions. Motivational arousal can increase and
Conformity: This includes restraint of decrease with its level of intensity being
action, inclination, and impulses likely guided by how an individual perceives a
to upset or harm others and violate task. If a task is expected to be difficult
social expectations or norms. the need for motivational arousal will
Security: This includes safety, harmony and increase, whereas if the task is expected
stability of society, of relationships and of self. to be easy motivational arousal will
decrease (Miron, Parkinson & Brehm,
In the Indian context the framework of 2007).
Dharma provides a set of values which are
considered central to the sustenance of Motivation cycle

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APPROACHES TO STUDY evolve) over time to promote survival.

OF MOTIVATION Ethological theories are in large part
about how behavior adapts to better
PSYCHOANALYTICAL ensure survival and is passed down to
This theory which has been explained by Sigmund the next generations
Freud, deals with unconscious motivation.
One of the pioneers of instinct theories
According to Freud, the inborn tendencies
called instincts influence our behaviour. of motivation is the English-born social
psychologist, William McDougall, who
Life instincts (Eros): these instincts formed the Hormic Psychology, with
have the life energy called Libido-which ‘hormic’ meaning animal impulse or
urge. Hormic Psychology is based on
motivates the individual towards
determined and goal-oriented behaviors
constructive activities like love, that are supposed to be motivated by
sympathy/helping others, etc. instincts, which are spontaneous,
persistent, variable, and repetitive.
Death instincts (Thanatos)-motivate the
individual for destructive activities like
murder, suicides, aggression, attack, etc.
Humanistic approach
This theory believes in striving tendency
According to him, our unconscious
of the individual for realizing his
mannerisms, slips of tongue and pen,
potentialities, especially creative ones,
phobias are the result of these
strengthening self-confidence and
hidden motives.
attaining the ideal self. There are two
important persons related to this
ETHOLOGICAL APPROACH theory— Abraham Maslow and Carl
Ethology is a study of behavior based on two Rogers.
core principles:
Maslow has explained that every
behavior changes to achieve survival
(sometimes referred to as an adaptive trait) individual struggle to fulfil basic needs
behavioural traits are inherited first, and then followed by safety, love,
esteem and finally actualisation needs.
The work of Charles Darwin laid the
foundation for ethology. Darwin
believed biological traits could adapt (or

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immediately available to his senses. The

Self-actualisation means becoming
second factor involves the individual’s
everything one is capable of, or
past experience, which the person
becoming what he can, that is, fulfilment refers to when trying to make sense of
of his basic potentialities. Maslow information presently available and in
explains that the self- actualised people determining how to respond or relate to
experience, what he calls the ‘peak the current situation.
experiences’, when they fulfil the need
for self-actualisation.
THEORIES of MOTIVATION
Carl Rogers, as a humanist believes in
the strength and potentialities of human
Content (needs) theory
beings. Every individual will strive to
The theory focuses on the content of motivation in
realise his potentialities and to grow to the shape of needs. Its basis is the belief
become a fully functioning person. that an unsatisfied need creates tension
Hence in the view of Rogers, the and a state of disequilibrium. To
motivation for self-growth and restore the balance a goal is identified
becoming a fully functioning person are that will satisfy the need, and a
important concepts. behaviour pathway is selected that will
lead to the achievement of the goal and
the satisfaction of the need. All
S-R COGNITIVE APPROACH
behaviour is therefore motivated by
Cognitive theories of motivation seek to
explain human behavior as a product of unsatisfied needs.
the careful study and active processing
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
and interpretation of information
received. Such a perspective runs The most famous classification of needs is
counter to rationalizing human behavior the one formulated by Maslow (1954). He
as a result of automatic responses suggested that there are five major need
governed by pre-programmed rules or categories that apply to people in general,
innate mechanisms involving drives,
starting from the fundamental
needs and reactions. The actions of
physiological needs and leading through a
humans, in addition to what motivates
them to engage in particular actions, are hierarchy of safety, social and esteem
therefore, the product of deliberate needs to the need for self-fulfilment, the
thought processes such as beliefs, highest need of all. When a lower need
expectations, knowledge about things
and past experiences.
Cognitive motivation is said to be rooted
on two basic factors. The first involves
information available to the individual.
Initially, an individual will process a
situation based on whatever input is

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is satisfied the next highest becomes McClelland’s achievement–affiliation–power

dominant and the individual’s attention needs
is turned to satisfying this higher need. An alternative way of classifying
The need for self-fulfilment, however, needs was developed by McClelland
can never be satisfied. Psychological (1961), who based it mainly on studies
development takes place as people move of managers. He identified three needs
up the hierarchy of needs, but this is not as being most important:
necessarily a straightforward
The need for achievement, defined as
progression. The lower needs still exist,
even if temporarily dormant as the need for competitive success
motivators, and individuals constantly measured against a personal standard of
return to previously satisfied needs. excellence.

The need for affiliation, defined as

ERG theory (Alderfer) the need for warm, friendly,
Alderfer (1972) devised a theory of human compassionate relationships with others.
needs that postulated three primary categories:
Existence needs such as hunger and The need for power, defined as the need to
control or influence others.
thirst – pay, fringe benefits and working
conditions are other types of existence
needs.
Relatedness needs, which
acknowledge that people are not self-
contained units but must engage in
transactionswiththeirhuman
environment–acceptance,
understanding, confirmation and
influence are elements of the relatedness
process.
Growth needs, which involve people
in finding the opportunities ‘to be what
they are most fully and to become what
they can’.

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Process theory a clearly perceived and usable

In process theory, the emphasis is on the relationship exists between performance
psychological processes or forces that and outcome, and the outcome is seen as
affect motivation, as well as on basic a means of satisfying needs.
needs. It is also known as ‘cognitive
This theory was developed by Porter
theory’ because it is concerned with
and Lawler (1968) into a model that
people’s perceptions of their working
environment and the ways in which they follows Vroom’s ideas by suggesting
interpret and understand it. According to that there are two factors determining
Guest (1992), process theory provides a the effort people put into their jobs:
much more relevant approach to
first the value of the rewards to
motivation that replaces the theories of
individuals in so far as they
Maslow and Herzberg which, he claims,
satisfy their needs for security,
have been shown by extensive research
to be wrong. social esteem, autonomy, and
self-actualization, and second
Expectancy theory the probability that rewards
Expectancy theory states that motivation depend on effort, as perceived
will be high when people know what by individuals – in other words,
they have to do to get a reward, expect their expectations about the
that they will be able to get the reward relationships between effort and
and expect that the reward will be reward.
worthwhile. The concept of expectancy
was originally contained in the valency– Thus, the greater the value of a
instrumentality–expectancy (VIE) set of awards and the higher the
theory formulated by Vroom (1964). probability that receiving each of
these rewards depends upon
Valency stands for value, effort, the greater the effort that
instrumentality is the belief that if we do will be expended in a given
one thing it will lead to another, and situation.
expectancy is the probability that action
or effort will lead to an outcome. The
strength of expectations may be based
on past experiences (reinforcement), but
individuals are frequently presented with
new situations – a change in job,
payment system, or working conditions
imposed by management – where past
experience is an inadequate guide to the
implications of the change. In these
circumstances, motivation may be
reduced. Motivation is only likely when

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ability – individual characteristics such as

The two variables additional to effort that affect
intelligence, knowledge, skills, and
task achievement are

role perceptions – what individuals want to do or

think they are required to do.

Goal theory the value of goals and the individual’s

Goal theory as developed by Latham and ability to reach them. The term
Locke (1979) states that motivation and ‘reciprocal determinism’ is used to
performance are higher when individuals denote the concept that while the
are set specific goals, when goals are situation will affect individual
difficult but accepted, and when there is behaviour, individuals will
feedback on performance. Participation simultaneously influence the situation.
in goal setting is important as a means of
getting agreement to the setting of higher Equity theory
goals. Difficult goals must be agreed and Equity theory (Adams, 1965) is
their achievement reinforced by guidance concerned with the perceptions people
and advice. Finally, feedback is vital in have about how they are being treated as
maintaining motivation, particularly compared with others. To be dealt with
towards the achievement of even higher equitably is to be treated fairly in
goals. comparison with another group of
people (a reference group) or a relevant
Social learning theory other person. Equity involves feelings
Social learning theory as developed by and perceptions and it is always a
Bandura (1977) combines aspects of comparative process. It is not
both behavioural and expectancy theory.
It recognizes the significance of the
basic behavioural concept of
reinforcement as a determinant of
future behaviour but also emphasizes the
importance of internal psychological
factors, especially expectancies about

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synonymous with equality, which means motivate in the short term, the effect
treating everyone the same, since this quickly wears off. According to
would be inequitable if they deserve to Herzberg's theory, only challenging jobs
be treated differently. that have the opportunities for
achievement, recognition, responsibility,
Equity theory states, in effect, that people advancement and growth will motivate
will be better motivated if they are treated personnel.
equitably and demotivated if they are
treated inequitably. It explains only one McGregor’s Theory X and Y
aspect of the processes of motivation and Douglas McGregor (1960) produced his
job satisfaction, although it may be analysis of the different views about
significant in terms of morale. people and how they should be motivated.
Theory X is the traditional view that the
There are two forms of equity: average human dislikes work and wishes
distributive equity, which is concerned to avoid responsibility and that, therefore,
with the fairness with which people feel ‘most people must be coerced, controlled,
they are rewarded in accordance with directed, threatened with punishment to
their contribution and in comparison get them to put forward adequate effort
with others; and procedural equity, towards organizational objectives’. In
which is concerned with the perceptions contrast, theory Y emphasizes that people
employees have about the fairness with will exercise self-direction in the service
which company procedures in such of objectives to which they are committed
areas as performance appraisal, and that commitment to objectives is a
promotion and discipline are being function of the rewards associated with
operated. their achievement.

Herzberg’s two-factor model Achievement Motivation

The two-factor model of satisfiers and David McClelland and his associates
dissatisfiers was developed by Herzberg (Notably John Atkinson), focused on
et al (1957) following an investigation
needs similar to the higher order (social
into the sources of job satisfaction and
dissatisfaction of accountants and and esteem) needs identified by Maslow.
engineers. The wants of employees McClelland's needs theory, also called
divide into two groups . One group Achievement motivation theory is
revolves around the need to develop in concerned with how individual needs
one’s occupation as a source of personal and environmental factors combine to
growth. The second group operates as form three basic human motives.
an essential base to the first and is
associated with fair treatment in Need for Achievement (n Ach):
compensation, supervision, working People who want to take
conditions and administrative responsibility for finding
practices. The fulfilment of the needs of solutions to problems, who
the second group does not motivate the seek challenge, who is willing
individual to high levels of job to work hard and who has the
satisfaction and to extra performance on mental vigour to reach the
the job. All we can expect from
ultimate goal are considered to
satisfying this second group of needs is
the prevention of dissatisfaction and have a high
poor job performance. The second group
forms the hygiene factors in the medical
use of the term, meaning preventive and
environmental. Herzberg pointed out
that while financial incentives may

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need for achievement. Each of the McClelland's

Achievement motivated three motives evokes a
people tend to get more pay different type of feeling of
raises and are promoted satisfaction. Achievement
faster because they are motive tends to evoke a sense
constantly trying to think of of accomplishment, power
better ways of doing things. motive tends to evoke a sense
They have a desire to do of authority and affiliation
something better or more motive tends to evoke love
efficiently than it has been and affection. Tools like
done before. This drive is the Thematic Apperception
achievement need. Test (TAT) are used to
Need For Power (n POW): Need for measure and determine the
power is the desire to have strength of these needs.
impact to be influential, and
to control others. A high need
for power means that an
individual seeks to influence
or control others. Individuals
with this need are concerned
with acquiring, exercising
and retaining power or
influence over others. They
prefer to be placed into
competitive and status
oriented situations. They
generally tend to seek
positions of leadership. Top
level managers, politicians
etc., have a high need for
power.

Need For Affiliation (n Aff): Need

for affiliation is related to the
desire for affection and
establishing friendly
relationships. People who
have a high need for
affiliation view the
organization as a chance to
form new and satisfying
relationships. They are
motivated by the jobs that
provide frequent interaction
with colleagues. They derive
pleasure from being loved by
the group.

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Comparison of needs in four theories of motivations

MASLOW ALDERFER MCCLELLAND HERZBERG

Self-actualization Need for Power

Growth Motivators
Need for
Esteem or Ego
Achievement

Belongingness
Relatedness Need for Affiliation Hygiene
and love

Safety and Security

Existence
Physiological

Source: Gordon R. Judith et al, Management and Organizational Behavior , Allyn and
Bacon, 1990, p.428.

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IMMATURITY - MATURITY THEORY along which individuals in an

Argyris postulated a descriptive and organization naturally grow
multidimensional developmental process towards maturity.

Thus Argyris proposes that the existing theory reveals that human behaviour can
bureaucratic - pyramidal organization be explained in terms of the previous
structure (the organizational counterpart positive or negative outcomes of that
to Theory X assumptions about people) behaviour. This is truly a behaviouristic
should give way to humanistic - approach where one can see that
democratic value system (the reinforcement conditions behaviour. The
organizational counterpart to Theory Y repeating behaviours that people have
assumptions about people'2). learned will produce pleasant outcomes.
Those behaviors, which are rewarded,
tend to be repeated and those behaviors,
REINFORCEMENT THEORY which are either not rewarded or
Reinforcement theory applies the punished, tend to disappear. It should be
behaviourist learning theories to applied in conjunction with the
motivation. Also called Organizational principles of social learning. Rewards or
Behaviour Modification Theory or reinforcements must meet an employee's
O.B. Model developed by B.F Skinner is specific needs and must be applied
quite different from the cognitive equitably.
theories of Motivation. Reinforcement

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CONCEPTS

Exploratory behavior and curiosity

Achievement, Affiliation and Power

Motivational Competence
Self-regulation
Flow

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CURIOSITY CURIOSITY AND EXPLORATION

A second factor influencing individual What exactly are curiosity and

motivation is curiosity. This is an exploration? Loewenstein (1994) points
individual factor because a person’s out four central issues of curiosity:
curiosity can be aroused without definition and dimensionality,
involving other people. Curiosity is cause,
stimulated when something in the voluntary exposure to curiosity, and
physical environment attracts our situational determinants.
attention or when there is an optimal
level of discrepancy between present He adds a fifth issue of superficiality
knowledge or skills and what these and intensity since he states that
could be if the learner engaged in some curiosity can arise, change focus or end
activity. Novelty and interest are good abruptly.
synonyms for the motivational use of
curiosity. Loewenstein believed that despite its
transience, curiosity can be a powerful
There are two types of curiosity that can motivational force. Langevin (1971)
stimulate intrinsic motivation: conducted research in the area of
curiosity and classified measures of
Sensory curiosity occurs when curiosity into two categories.
physical factors such as changes in
tone of voice, light, or sound attract the Curiosity is viewed as a motivational state and
attention of learners. measured with behavioural indices.
Curiosity is viewed as a personality trait that is
Cognitive curiosity, on the other assessed by personality measures.
hand, is evoked when learners believe
that it may be useful to modify existing It has been suggested that curiosity is
not a unitary construct. At the
cognitive structures.
conceptual level there are numerous
The feeling of loss of control is one of definitions of curiosity which tend to
the most powerful anti-motivating encompass a broad range of
factors in education. Drive theories characteristics. Fowler (1965) stated that
differ on whether they view curiosity as boredom is generally a prerequisite
for curiosity (exploration). Curiosity
a primary or secondary drive. Some
and exploration are difficult to define
research has shown that unsatisfied
independently when looking at them
curiosity tends to intensify over some
from a psychological perspective. This
interval as do other drives such as
is so because whenever we consider
hunger and thirst.
exploration and curiosity, the concepts
of motivation and drive come into play
and become intertwined.

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KINDS OF CURIOSITY

William James (1890) pointed out to two kinds ZUCKERMAN’S SENSATION SEEKING
of curiosity.
novel and highly stimulating
i) He emphasised the biological function
of curiosity as a mechanism of instinct Sensation seeking is a personality trait
driven behaviour that serves in defined by the degree to which an individual
seeks activities and experiences. People
approaching new objects. Approach and who are high in sensation seeking are
attracted to the unknown and as a result
exploration are described as being consistently seek the new, varied, and
characteristic forms of behaviour. unpredictable. Examples of such behaviors
are varied, but sensation seekers may be
attracted to extreme sports, frequent travel,
The second kind of curiosity pointed diverse foods and music, new sexual
partners and experiences, and challenging
out by James is “scientific curiosity” existing viewpoints. Specifically,
and “metaphysical wonder” with which Zuckerman’s basic proposition is that
sensation seeking is based on individual
“the practical instinctive root has differences in the optimal level
probably nothing to do” rather “the of sensation caused by biological nervous-
philosophical brain responds to an system differences. People who are high in
inconsistency or a gap in its sensation seeking are individuals who have
knowledge”. relatively low-level nervous system
activation and therefore seek arousal from
In the psychoanalytical literature Freud their external environment by looking for
views curiosity as a derivative of the sex novel stimuli and engaging in varied
drive. The partial impulse of looking experiences. In contrast, individuals who are
motivates the child’s great interest in all low in sensation seeking have a naturally
things and all events that have to do with higher level of internal activation and thus
sexuality. Whereas the looking impulse do not tend to seek sensation from external
and curiosity are primarily sexual in sources.
origin, the child’s exploratory interest Zuckerman posits that sensation seeking is
and desire for knowledge can be genetically influenced because it is
considered to be a by product of evolutionary adaptive. Across the animal
cognitive development. Due to social kingdom, engaging in a certain degree of
pressure, sexual exploration is later risky behaviors will increase the likelihood
abandoned. of survival and reproductive success (e.g.,
seeking new territories for food and new
Blarer proposed curiosity to be intrinsic to
potential mates).
the individuals perceptions and world
experiences and thus Blarer’s view is the
basis for the intrinsic motivation
viewpoint in curiosity theory.

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Zuckerman first created the Sensation competence. According to the theory

Seeking Scale in 1964 to measure an competence motivation increases when a
individual’s overall level of susceptibility to person successfully masters a task. This
excitement or boredom in the context of encourages the person to master more tasks.
sensory deprivation experiments. Current
Harter’s Model
versions of the self-report measure include Harter’s competence motivation theory
four subscales: (1978) can be used to explain motivation to
Thrill and Adventure Seeking—the participate and drop out of physical activity.
extent to which individuals engage in or are This theory represents an interactionist view
of behavior, incorporating both individual
interested in participating in risky activities
and situational factors that impact one’s
such as parachuting or skiing;
motivation. The original model came from
Experience Seeking—the degree to White (1959). Harter (1978) expanded on
which one seeks excitement through the the premise that people are intrinsically
mind, such as from music, art, and travel; motivated to master specific domains. As
a consequence, they gain and display
Disinhibition—seeking sensations competence and control over their
through social stimulation and disinhibitory environment, which in turn increases
behaviors such as drinking and sex; and pleasure (positive affect or enjoyment). If
people succeed, it increases motivation to
Boredom Susceptibility—
adhere to physical activity. However, if
avoiding monotonous, repetitive, and
people do not believe they are competent in
boring situations, people, and activities.
that domain, they will have negative affect,
and this will decrease their motivation. In
addition, her model incorporates the impact
of significant others on one’s perceptions of
competence, affect, and motivation (Harter,
MOTIVATIONAL COMPETENCE 1978).
A theory of achievement motivation based
on a person's feelings of personal

Figure 1. Harter’s (1978) competence motivation theory.

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SELF-REGULATION compared with the desired

Self-regulation models are concerned with temperature);
what individuals choose to do and how they
an operate stage, in which an
go about trying to accomplish their goals. In
action is undertaken to bring the
more formal terms, we can distinguish three
present value in line with the
components of the self-regulation process:
standard (the heat comes on if
goal selection, (2) preparation for action,
the room temperature is below
and (3) a cybernetic cycle of behavior (made
up of several component processes) the standard);
(Markus & Wurf, 1987). another test phase, in which the
Goal Selection- The first stage in the new value is compared with the
self-regulation process is the goal- standard (the new room temperature
selection stage. Before they can is compared with the desired
effectively regulate their behavior, temperature); and
people must select a goal; they must
an exit, or quit, stage, which
decide what they intend to do.
occurs when the desired goal is
Preparation for action- Having
adopted a goal, people prepare to reached (the furnace shuts off
attain it. This is the second stage in when the room reaches the selected
the self-regulation process. Here, temperature).
people gather information, construct
scenarios regarding possible THREE SELF-RELEVANT PHENOMENA
outcomes, and engage in behavioral Self-Efficacy-Beliefs People’s beliefs
practice (rehearsal). In short, they about their ability to succeed exert a strong
design and prepare to implement a
influence on the self regulation process.
plan to achieve their goal. Of
Bandura (1986, 1989) refers to such beliefs
course, not all behavior fits this
as self-efficacy beliefs. People with high
model.
self-efficacy beliefs think they have the
Cybernetic Cycle of Behavior The third
ability to succeed at a task, to overcome
stage in the self-regulation process
obstacles, and to reach their goals. People
has been conceptualized as a
with low self-efficacy beliefs doubt their
cybernetic cycle of action.
ability to succeed and do not believe they
Cybernetics is the study of how
have what it takes to reach their goals.
entities use information to regulate
their actions (Wiener, 1948). It is Possible Selves- People’s ideas about
also called control theory, as it what they may be like in the future also
emphasizes negative feedback influence motivated behavior. Markus and
control as the means by which her colleagues (Markus & Nurius, 1986;
machines (e.g., thermostats, guided Markus & Ruvolo, 1989) coined the term
missiles, cruise control settings in possible selves to refer to these beliefs. To
automobiles) as well as animals illustrate, an aspiring gymnast might have a
adjust their behavior to match some clearly articulated “Me winning an Olympic
standard. gold medal” possible self. This person is
able to vividly imagine herself on the
Formally, this process is known by the acronym
TOTE, as it involves four stages: victory stand with the national anthem
playing in the background and the crowd
A test phase, in which a present cheering while she receives her medal.
value is compared against some
relevant standard (the current
temperature in the room is

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Self-Awareness- A third variable of interest Much of the time (perhaps most of the time)
to a motivational analysis of behavior is our attention is focused outward on the
selfawareness. As discussed throughout this environment. This means that attentional
text, the self has a reflexive quality: People focus is variable and that self-awareness is a
are capable of taking themselves as the transient state. Sometimes we are aware of
object of their own attention. But our ourselves; other times we are not.
attention is not always focused inward.

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FLOW because one knows how to respond to

Viewed through the experiential lens of whatever happens next Distortion of
flow, a good life is one that is temporal experience (typically, a
characterized by complete absorption in sense that time has passed faster than
what one does. normal). Experience of the activity as
Studying the creative process in the 1960s intrinsically rewarding, such that often
(Getzels & Csikszentmihalyi, 1976), the end goal is just an excuse for the
Csikszentmihalyi was struck by the fact process. Because the direction of the
that when work on a painting was going unfolding flow experience is shaped
well, the artist persisted single-mindedly, by both person and environment, we
disregarding hunger, fatigue, and speak of emergent motivation in an
discomfort—yet rapidly lost interest in the open system (Csikszentmihalyi,
artistic creation once it had been completed. 1985): what happens at any moment is
responsive to what happened
The conditions of flow include: immediately before within the
• Perceived challenges, or interaction, rather than being dictated
opportunities for action, that stretch by a pre-existing intentional structure
(neither overmatching nor located within either the person (e.g.,
underutilizing) existing skills; a a drive) or the environment (e.g., a
sense that one is engaging tradition or script). Here, motivation is
challenges at a level appropriate to emergent in the sense that proximal
one’s capacities clear proximal goals arise out of the interaction.
goals and immediate feedback about
the progress that is being made.
THE AUTOTELIC
PERSONALITY
Under these conditions, experience From the beginning, Csikszentmihalyi (1975/
seamlessly unfolds from moment to 2000) recognized the possibility of an
autotelic personality, a person who tends to
moment, and one enters a subjective state
enjoy life or “generally does things for their
with the following characteristics:
Intense and focused concentration on what one own sake, rather than in order to achieve
is doing in the present moment some later external goal” (Csikszentmihalyi,
-Merging of action and awareness 1997, p. 117). This kind of personality is
distinguished by several meta-skills or
-Loss of reflective self-consciousness (i.e., loss competencies that enable the individual to
of awareness of oneself as a social actor) enter flow and stay in it. These meta-skills
• A sense that one can control one’s include a general curiosity and interest in
actions; that is, a sense that one can life, persistence, and low self-centeredness,

in principle deal with the situation which result in the ability to be motivated by
intrinsic rewards.

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The Flow Questionnaire presents in what activity contexts

(Csikszentmihalyi &
respondents with several passages
Csikszentmihalyi, 1988).
describing the flow state and asks
The quotations used were drawn from
whether they have had the experience,
the original interviews about flow
how often, and activities (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975/2000),
one each from a dancer, a rock climber,
and a composer.

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PHYSIOLOGICAL Both systems are constantly active,

although one system can temporarily
CORRELATES OF dominate. If you spot danger at a
EMOTION distance (in either time or space), you
pay attention to it with mainly
Any stimulus that arouses emotion alters parasympathetic activity. If the danger is
the activity of the autonomic nervous close enough to require action, you shift
system, the section of the nervous system to vigorous sympathetic activity (Löw,
that controls the organs such as the Lang, Smith, & Bradley, 2008). Many
heart and intestines. The word situations activate parts of both systems
autonomic means “independent” (Berntson, Cacioppo, & Quigley, 1993).
(autonomous). Biologists once believed Some emergency situations increase
that the autonomic nervous system was your heart rate and sweating
independent of the brain and spinal cord. (sympathetic responses) and also
We now know that the brain and spinal promote bowel and bladder evacuation
cord regulate the autonomic nervous (parasympathetic responses). Have you
system, but the term autonomic remains. ever been so frightened that you thought
you might lose your bladder control?
The autonomic nervous system consists
of the sympathetic and the To measure emotion, researchers
parasympathetic nervous systems. measure sympathetic nervous system
Chains of neuron clusters just to the left arousal as indicated by heart rate,
and right of the spinal cord comprise the breathing rate, or momentary changes
sympathetic nervous system, which in the electrical conductivity across
arouses the body for vigorous action. It the skin. However, remember that the
is often called the “fight-or-flight” sympathetic nervous system is the fight-
system because it increases your heart or-flight system, so its responses could
rate, breathing rate, sweating, and flow indicate anger, fear, or any other intense
of epinephrine (EP-i-NEF-rin; also emotion. Physiological measurements
known as adrenaline), thereby preparing do not tell us which emotion someone is
you for vigorous activity. Different feeling.
situations activate different parts of the
sympathetic nervous system to facilitate Limbic system
different kinds of activity. The limbic system was originally
proposed to consist of interconnected
The parasympathetic nervous system subcortical structures with pathways to the
consists of neurons whose axons extend hypothalamus. The limbic system was
from the medulla (see Figure 12.1) and proposed to modulate the emotional
the lower part of the spinal cord to quality of stimuli and support autonomic
neuron clusters near the organs. The effector mechanisms associated with
parasympathetic nervous system emotional states. A key limbic structure
decreases the heart rate and promotes that has a critical role in emotional
digestion and other nonemergency expression is the amygdala. The
functions. Both the sympathetic and amygdala has an important role in
parasympathetic systems send axons to evaluating the emotional valence of
the heart, the digestive system, and most stimuli. Support for this view arises from
other organs. A few organs, such as the extensive work done with lesions of the
adrenal gland, receive only sympathetic amygdala. For
input.

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example, animals with amygdala the transmission of information between

lesions have difficulty learning the cortical and subcortical limbic
associations between environmental structures can have dire consequences.
stimuli and emotional states. They may For example, patients with frontal lobe
fail to learn that a stimulus predicts lesions show inappropriate emotional
reward or danger, they may fall in social and social behavior in the absence of
rank, or show decreased affiliative intellectual deficits. These patients
behavior. Damage to other limbic might cry or laugh inappropriately,
structures can also produce changes in urinate in public, or use profanity.
emotional behavior.
Monoaminergic systems (serotonin,
norepinephrine, dopamine)
The neural circuits and brain structures
involved in emotions are modulated by a
myriad of chemical neurotransmitters.
The ascending monoamine systems have
received considerable attention over the
past several decades. These include the
serotonin, norepinephrine, and
dopamine systems. Prior to the
discovery of neurotransmitters,
researchers believed that a major
ascending neural system was responsible
for arousal of forebrain (epithalamus,
thalamus, subthalamus) and
It is important to note that an telencephalon (cerebral cortex, basal
interaction exists between cortical ganglia and associated structures like the
brain regions and the limbic system. nucleus basilis of Meynert and the
There are massive connections between nucleus accumbens). This neural system
cortical regions, particularly from the used to be called the ascending
frontal and temporal lobes, to subcortical reticular activating system, before the
limbic structures (Fig. 2). The monoamines were characterized. It is
implication of these connections is that believed that a balance among these
complex sensory information processing systems (as well as other
occurring in the cortex can directly neurotransmitters) is necessary for
influence the limbic system. Conversely, normal emotional states and arousal.
limbic processing can strongly influence Over the last three decades, the
higher-level cognitive integration neurochemical basis of this ascending
occurring in the cortex. Disconnection in system was described and receptors
identified.

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Fig. 2. Schematic diagram emphasizing the interactions between structures in the limbic
system

THE NEURAL SUBSTRATES OF

FEAR AND ANXIETY The amygdala may also be involved in
This class of emotion is elicited by what is termed “emotional memory.”
threatening situations and it functions as We seem to be able to better recall
an internal signal to alert the organism to events surrounding a strong, negative
potential danger. In response to fear, emotional experience than events not
individuals engage in defensive or linked to any particular experience.
protective acts that serve to promote Many people in the U.S. of a certain
survival. These behaviors include generation can remember exactly where
fleeing or withdrawing from a they were and what they were doing
when informed that President Kennedy
situation, freezing to remain
inconspicuous, or fighting. was shot. Younger people may clearly
remember the day the space shuttle
Challenger blew up
The amygdala: A key structure mediating
fear In the 1930's, Kluver and Bucy noted A human case study illustrates the
that large lesions of the temporal lobe made importance of the amygdala in the
monkeys tame in the presence of previously recognition of emotional stimuli. A
fearful stimuli, such as humans and snakes. patient suffered from Urbach-Wiethe
The absence of an appropriate behavioral disease, a rare genetic disorder, that
response to fear-eliciting stimuli was termed resulted in bilateral calcification and
"psychic blindness" because it was atrophy of her amygdala. When asked to
presumed that the cognitive processing of rate the intensity of various facial
emotional stimuli was altered. This taming expressions, the patient judged faces
effect could be produced by lesions restricted showing fear expressions to be
considerably less intense than ratings
to the amygdala. In contrast to the made by normal control subjects. Other
taming effects of amygdala lesions, facial expressions (smiling for instance)
electrical stimulation of the amygdala were also judged by the patient to be less
elicits defensive and flight reactions in intense than those reported by controls,
cats and feelings of fear and anxiety in but not to the degree made when
humans. Increased autonomic activity, viewing fear expressions. Bilateral
i.e., heart rate, blood pressure also amygdala damage appears to produce a
occurs after electrical stimulation of the profound insensitivity to the intensity of
amygdala.

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fear shown by faces. The patient, increasing the level of biogenic amines
however, had no difficulty recognizing (DA, NE, epineph serotonin, histamine)
people by their faces and could rapidly but in different ways. MAOIs are a class
learn the identity of new faces Role of of drugs that block MAO, the major
corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) enzyme responsible for the oxidation of
systems in fear and anxiety monoamines. The tricyclic drugs work
by blocking the reuptake (keep it around
In animals, administration of CRH into
longer) of NE and serotonin into the
the cerebral ventricles (so as to
presynaptic terminal resulting in a net
eventually reach receptors on amygdala
increase in neurotransmitter availability.
and LC cells) effectively induces
Consequently, there is an increase in
anxiety responses, including postsynaptic receptor activity. SSRIs
hypervigilance, enhancement of the work by selectively blocking the
freezing posture, and decreased reuptake of serotonin. SSRIs are as
exploration in unfamiliar situations. effective as the tricycylic compounds
Furthermore, in anxiety-provoking but without some of the sedating and
situations that typically elicit these cardiovascular side effects of tricyclic
behavioural responses, administration of antidepressants. As a result, SSRIs (e.g.,
a CRH antagonist produces a reduction Prozac, Zoloft) are now used widely and
in the occurrence of these reactions. In underscore the importance of
rats, infusion of a CRH antagonist into serotonergic systems in regulating
the central nucleus reduces expression of mood.
fear behavior (“freezing” in an
environment where the animal had been It is presently unclear why reduced brain
previously shocked) suggesting that serotonin function predisposes
blockade of CRH receptors in the central individuals to commit suicide. One
nucleus has an antianxiety effect. hypothesis is that low brain 5-HT
SADNESS AND NEGATIVE values produce an increase in impulsive
AFFECT An important clinical behavior. Impulsivity refers to a
observation was made in the 1950's when propensity to act without considering
the antihypertensive agent reserpine was alternative options in a decision-making
prominently used. Clinicians noted that process. Although impulsivity is not
some individuals became markedly synonymous with acting rapidly,
depressed after taking this drug, which impulsive individuals tend to act without
produces a long-lasting depletion of time for reflection. In people with
monoamines (norepinephrine, serotonin personality disorders characterized by
and dopamine). Other work chronic problems with impulsive
demonstrated that drugs that increased behavior, the rate of completed suicide
the level of monoamines were effective can be as high as 25%. The underlying
in the treatment of depression. Together, cause of reduced brain serotonin remains
these observations led to the unknown but could be related to
monoamine hypothesis of depression. heritable factors and/or neurological
According to this hypothesis, depression insults during development.
results from a deficit in brain
norepinephrine or serotonin, or both.

Lowered brain serotonin is associated with

Suicide Monoamine oxidase inhibitors
(MAOI), tricyclic antidepressants,
and selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitors (SSRIs ) are effective
antidepressants that share
The pharmacological Propertyof

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THEORIES OF EMOTION view of emotion. It suggests that the

subjective emotional experiences are
actually the result of physiological
JAMES LANGE THEORY changes within our bodies. In other
words you feel frightened when making
Proposed independently by psychologist your speech because you notice that
William James and physiologist Carl your heart is racing, your mouth is dry,
Lange, the James-Lange theory of and so on. We feel sorry because we cry,
emotion proposes that emotions occur as angry because we strike, and afraid
a result of physiological reactions to because we tremble
events. According to this theory, you see
an external stimulus that leads to a
CANNON – BARD THEORY OF
physiological reaction. Your emotional
reaction is dependent upon how you EMOTION
interpret those physical reactions. For
example, suppose you are walking in the This theory suggests that various
woods and you come across face to face emotion provoking events induce
with a bear. You begin to tremble and simultaneously the subjective
your heart begins to race. The James- experiences which are labeled by
Lange theory proposes that you will humans as emotions. All these emotions
interpret your physical reactions and are accompanied by physiological
conclude that you are frightened (“I am reactions and thus in the situation given
trembling, therefore I am afraid.”) as an example of a student going to the
stage to give a lecture, the sight of the
William James explained the same thing audience and of his professor, whose
differently. He said that the bodily pen is poised to evaluate the student’s
performance, causes the student to
changes follow directly the perception of
experience a racing heart, a dry mouth
the exciting fact, and that our feeling of
and other signs of physiological arousal
the same changes as the facts occur and
and at the same time, also to experience
these feelings are called emotions.
subjective feelings which is labeled as
fear. In other words it may be stated that
The James-Lange theory states:
this situation stimulates various portions
of the nervous system so that both
Environmental influence (event) —> arousal, mediated by the autonomic
Physiological change —> nervous system and subjective feelings,
Psychological experience
mediate in part by the individual’s
cerebral cortex .
Problems: The Cannon-Bard theory is a
Later studies separated the internal
physiological explanation of emotion
organs that James said caused arousal
from the CNS, but this did not eliminate developed by Walter Cannon and Philip
emotional responding. So, perceptions Bard, and states that we feel the
of bodily changes could not be the only emotions and experience the
factor involved in emotions. James
Lange theory offers a more surprising

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physiological reactions such as basis of several forms of evidence. More

sweating, trembling and muscle recently though the pendulum of
tension simultaneously. More scientific opinion has begun to swing the
specifically, it is suggested that other way and certain aspects of James-
emotions result when the thalamus Lange approach have gained increasing
sends a message to the brain in response acceptance. Additional support for the
to a stimulus, resulting in a James-Lange theory of emotion is
physiological reaction. provided by studies of the facial
feedback hypothesis according to
For example: I see a snake —> I am afraid —> I which changes in our facial expression
begin to tremble. sometimes produce shifts in our
emotional experiences rather than
According to the Cannon-Bard theory of merely mirroring them. In other words,
emotion, we react to a stimulus and as James would suggest, we feel happier
experience the associated emotion at the while we smile, sadder when we frown,
same time. The Cannon Bard theory of and so on. While there are many
emotion differs from other theories of complexities in examining the
emotion such as the James Lange theory hypothesis, the results of several studies
of emotion, which argues that offer support for accuracy
physiological responses occur first and
this in turn cause the emotions. The SCHACHTER-SINGER’S TWO-
questions in regard to the emotions that FACTOR THEORY OF EMOTIONS
arise are for instance
Where do our emotions come from? This theory is similar to Bem’s
What is it about the human body explanation for the cause of behaviour in
and mind that has the capacity to general. Schachter’s theory looks
form emotions and reactions to specifically at how we decide what
such a variety of situations? emotions we are experiencing especially
Why do we form these when we are experiencing one. When
emotions? trying to understand what kind of person
we are, we first watch what we do and
According to Cannon-Bard, emotions do feel and then deduce our nature from
not come as a response to physiological this.
conditions. However, at the same time,
neither do emotions come and then the This means that the first step in the
body creates a physical reaction to the experience of motions is to experience
said emotions. When we consider this physiological arousal. You are
philosophy we realise that according to physiologically up or down compared to
Cannon-Bard “emotions and normal. We then try to find a label to
physiological responses occur at explain our feelings usually by looking
exactly the same time.” When both at what we are doing (behaviour) and
these theories (James Lange and Cannon what else is happening at the time of
Bard’s) are considered, the issue arises arousal (environment) Thus we do not
is that which of these theories is closer just feel angry, happy or what ever. We
to the truth. Until recent decades, most experience general feeling and then
of the psychologists believed that decide what the experience mean, a
Cannon-Bard theory was more accurate. specific emotion.
They reached this conclusion on the

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Physiological arousal + Environment about the effects of the injection were
circumstances = Attributed emotions more likely to feel either happier or
e.g. 1. I am tense and sweating + a gun is angrier than those who had been
being pointed at me = I am afraid. informed. Schachter and Singer
e.g.2. I am tense and sweating + Sheela is developed the two-factor theory of
looking at me and smiling = I am in love. emotion. The two-factor theory suggests
that emotion comes from a combination
In both the examples, the state of arousal is of a state of arousal and a cognition that
the same. What changes is the environment. makes best sense of the situation the
person is in. For example, the two-factor
Two factor theory argues that the cues in theory of emotion argues that when
the environment are what determine the people become aroused they look for
emotions that we believe we are cues as to why they feel the way they
experiencing. Change the environment do. If a person experiences a state of
the emotions will also change. Like the arousal for which they have no
James Lange theory of emotion, immediate explanation, they will
Schachter and Singer felt that physical describe their emotions in terms of the
arousal plays a primary in emotions. cognitions available to them at the time.
However, they suggested that this If a person experiences a state of arousal
arousal was the same for a wide variety for which they have an appropriate
of emotions, so physical arousal alone explanation e.g. ‘I feel this way because
could not be responsible for emotional I have just received an injection of
responses. The two-factor theory of adrenalin’, then they will be unlikely to
emotion focuses on the interaction describe their emotion
between physical arousal and how we
cognitively label that arousal. Criticism of Two-Factor Theory
While Schachter and Singer’s research
spawned a great deal of further research,
SCHACHTER AND their theory has also been subject to
SINGER’S EXPERIMENT criticism. Other researchers have only
In a 1962 experiment, Schachter and partially supported the findings of the
Singer put their theory to the test. A group original study, and have also shown
of 184 male participants were injected contradictory results. Other criticisms of
with epinephrine, a hormone that the two-factor theory:
produces arousal including increased Sometimes emotions are experienced beforewe
heartbeat, trembling and rapid breathing. think about them.
All of the participants were told that they There are actual physiological
were being injected with a new drug to differences between emotions.
test their eyesight. However, one group of
participants was informed of the To sum up this theory, strong emotions
symptoms the injection might cause, are a common part of daily life, but how
while other participants were not. do we tell them apart? How do we know
Participants were then placed in a room
that we are angry rather than frightened,
with another participant who was actually
sad rather than surprised? One potential
a confederate in the experiment. The
answer is provided by a third theory of
confederate either acted in one of two
emotion, that is the two-factor theory of
ways: euphoric or angry. Participants who
emotions by Schacter and Singer.
had not been informed

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According to this view, emotion taken to a private room by the

provoking events produce increased experimenter and told that the aim of the
arousal. In response to the feelings of experiment was ‘to look at the effects of
arousal, we search the external vitamin injections on visual skills’, and
environment in order to identify the was asked if he would mind having an
cause of such arousal feelings. These injection of ‘Suproxin’ (made up name).
causes that we select play a key role in 184 out of 195 participants agreed to the
determining the importance we place on injection. They were given an injection
our arousal. If we feel aroused after a (by a doctor) of either adrenalin
near-miss in traffic, we will probably (epinephrine) or a placebo, which was
label our emotion as fear or perhaps actually a saline solution, which has no
anger. If instead we feel aroused in the side effects at all. The effects of the
presence of an attractive person, we may adrenalin are an increase in blood
label our arousal as attraction or love. In pressure, heart rate, blood sugar level,
short, we perceive ourselves to be respiration rate, and blood flow to the
experiencing the emotion based on the muscles and brain, with an
external cues, as well as our processing accompanying decrease in blood flow to
them, and then suggest what we should the skin. This is often experienced as
be feeling. The theory is described as a palpitations, tremors, flushing and faster
two factor theory because it considers breathing. The effects begin after three
both arousal and cognitive appraisal that minutes and last from ten minutes to an
we perform in our efforts to identify the hour.
cause of such arousal
The participants were then put in one of four
LAZARUS’S COGNITIVE THEORY experimental conditions:
The importance of cognitive Adrenalin Ignorant - participants were given
interpretation of circumstances in no idea of the injection adrenain
determining the arousal levels is central Adrenalin informed - participants were
to Lazarus Theory. In this theory he informed what adrenalin will do
suggests that some degree of cognitive Adrenalin misinformed -
processing is essential before an participants were given wrong
emotional reaction, either overt or information about adrenalin
internal, can occur. effect 4) Control group.
s in terms of the alternative cognitions
available. If a person is put in a The researchers then made observational
situation, which in the past could have measures of emotional response through
made them feel an emotion, they will a one-way mirror, and also took self-
react emotionally or experience report measures from the participants. In
emotions only if they are in a state of the euphoria condition the misinformed
physiological arousal. participants were feeling happier than all
the others. The second happiest group
Experiment was the ignorant group. This
The participants were 184 male college demonstrates that these participants
students, taking classes in introductory were more susceptible to the stooge
psychology at Minnesota University. As because they had no explanation of why
soon as the participant arrived, he was their bodies were reacting differently.

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Lazarus’s Cognitive Theory

Lazarus et al.(1980) proposed a theory
suggesting that emotion is a cognitive theory. Cognitive appraisal of a situation
function , arising as result of appraisal is of primary importance in emotional
of a situation. A situation may be states. In contrast, Zajonc (pronounced
appraised as nonthreatening leading to “ZI-ANTS,” rhymes with “science”) holds
positive emotional states. The actual that we feel first and think later. In other
emotion experienced depends upon other words, the emotional state strongly
characteristics or circumstances. A influences the cognitive appraisal. More
stimulus appraised as threatening leads recently, cognitive scientists have
to direct action, such as attack, retreat or proposed that there may be different
freezing, together with physiological components to our response to stimuli, but
responses such as these which it is not productive to segregate them into
accompany negative states, including cognitive vs. emotional categories
fear, anger or [Link] direct action
is impossible, coping strategies may be LINDSLEYS
employed to reappraise the situation ACTIVATION THEORY
benignly, in order to live with the threat.
These coping strategies may be simply The American psychologist and
to redefine the threat as ‘not’ as bad as it neuroscientist Donald Benjamin
was first [Link] example, why Lindsley's (1907-2003) germinal work
does a wife continue to live with her on activation in the general area of
husband who is violent towardsher? The emotion shows the importance of the
husband who is the stimulus is appraised brain-stem portion of the brain called
as threatening, but for various reasonsthe the reticular substance. Lindsley's
wife cannot take direct action. Probably activation theory is based, in particular,
she cannot fight back, as her husband on research involving the
isstronger, she cannot run away, as she electroencephalogram (EEG) and its
has no one and nowhere to go. In such relevance toward understanding the
cases, the situation is to be reappraised interaction of the cerebral cortex and the
and a different solution is to be found subcortical structures. The activation
such as staying on with the husband and theory was advanced not only as an
losing the extreme fear and doing things explanatory concept for emotional
that may prevent violence etc. A behavior, but it was related also to the
different thinking pattern may also phenomenon of sleep-wakefulness, to
perhaps help. In other words, the woman EEG recordings of cortical activity, and
may start thinking that the husband may to different types of abnormal behavior
not perhaps hit her again, and that he is involving various psychiatric
very considerate the next day and so on. symptomatology.
Living with this reappraised threat is less
problematic than fear of the outside of The activation theory states:
that situation.
the EEG in emotion shows an
activation pattern with reduction
This theory is primarily descriptive, but
in alpha (synchronized) rhythms
the underlying mechanisms involved in
and induction of low-amplitude,
emotion such as the relationship between
cognitions, feelings and expressions of fast activity;
emotion are undefined to a great extent.
Thus to sum up the cognitive theory of
emotions, it may stated that as follows:
Lazarus’ cognitive-mediational theory:
This is an extension of Schacter-Singer

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the EEG activation pattern is time, magnitude, duration, and offset of
reproducible by electrical stimulation of responses in behavioral, experiential, or
the brain-stem reticular formation physiological domains. Emotion
(BSRF); regulation also involves changes in how
destruction of the rostral end of response components are interrelated as
the BSRF abolishes EEG activation the emotion unfolds, such as when large
and allows restoration of rhythmic increases in physiological responding
discharges in the thalamus/cortex; occur in the absence of overt behavior.
the behavior associated with
destruction of the rostral end of the Focus on five aspects of this definition of
BSRF is the opposite of emotional emotion regulation.
excitement, namely, apathy, First, individuals increase,
somnolence, lethargy, and catalepsy; maintain, and decrease
the combined mechanism of the negative and positive emotions
basal diencephalon and lower BSRF is (Parrott, 1993).
identical with, or overlaps, the EEG Second, neural emotion circuits do
activating mechanism, and this not appear to overlap completely
mechanism causes the objective features (LeDoux, 1994; Panksepp, 1982;
of emotional expressiveness to appear. 1998). This suggests that circuits
involved in regulating these
Lindsley (1951) concludes that it is not emotions also may not overlap
legitimate on the basis of the existing completely, and that there may
experimental evidence to attempt to be important differences in
account for all the varieties of emotional emotion regulatory processes
expression, and further research is across emotions.
advised on the influences of learning, Third, this definition of emotion
habituation, and memory on emotional regulation emphasizes regulation
expression. The activation theory is able in self. Other definitions include
to account for the extremes of emotional attempts to influence others'
behavior but is not able to explain emotions (e.g., Gross &
completely the intermediate and mixed Levenson, 1993; Masters, 1991;
states of emotional expressiveness. Thompson, 1994).
Fourth, prototypic examples of
emotion regulation are conscious,
DEFINING EMOTION such as deciding to
changeanupsetting
REGULATION conversational topic or
squelching laughter at a child's
Emotion regulation refers to the inappropriate antics. One can
processes by which individuals imagine, however, emotion
influence which emotions they have, regulatory activity that occurs
when they have them, and how they without conscious awareness,
experience and express these emotions. such as hiding one's
Emotion regulatory processes may be disappointment at an unattractive
automatic or controlled, conscious or present (Cole, 1986) or turning
unconscious, and may have their effects one's attention away from
at one or more points in the emotion
potentially upsetting material
generative process (which I describe in a
(Boden & Baumeister, 1997).
later section). Because emotions are
multi-componential processes that
unfold over time, emotion regulation
involves changes in "emotion dynamics"
(Thompson, 1990), or the latency, rise

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Fifth, I make no a priori assumptions as 1996). Thus, cognitive strategies

to whether emotion regulation is good or that dampen negative emotions
bad (Thompson & Calkins, 1996). This may permit medical
circumvents the confusion that was professionals to operate
created in the stress and coping literature successfully (Lief & Fox, 1963;
by Smith & Kleinman, 1989). The
predefining defenses as same strategies, however, may
maladaptive and coping as be used to dehumanize an enemy
adaptive (Parker & Endler, and neutralize empathic distress
that could interfere with state-
sanctioned killing (Bandura,
1977).

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CONFLICT embodies this benefit of conflict. In

some cases conflict initially reduces
Conflict is any situation in which there cohesion that can in turn reduce the
are incompatible goals, cognitions, or likelihood of “group think”
emotions within or between individuals occurring. In this case conflict is
or groups that lead to opposition or positive.
antagonistic interaction. It is the struggle
between incompatible and opposing • Increased Innovation and
needs, wishes, ideas, interests, or people. Creativity—Members are
Conflict is a form of interaction among encouraged to “put their ideas on
parties who differ in interests, the table”;7 this can lead to more
perceptions, goals, values, or approaches discoveries, improvements, and
to problems. Conflict arises when we creative solutions. “Two heads
begin to feel that the other person is are truly better than one” when
interfering with our ability to attain a conflict brings about synergy
certain objective. It begins when we instead of chaos.
believe the other party is interfering or
standing in the way of an action we want Positive Personal Growth and
to take, an idea we want to pursue, or a Change—Individuals learn their
belief we hold. Conflicts may involve strengths and weaknesses;
individual or group disagreements, conflict of ideas challenges
struggles, disputes, quarrels, or even individuals to learn and grow by
physical fighting and wars. Because expressing their ideas and
human beings are unique—possessing a thoughts through self-disclosure
variety of physical, intellectual, and sharing of important
emotional, economic, and social concepts with others.
difference—conflict is inevitable.
Clarification of Key Issues—
Conflict can be either positive or Through discussion, members
negative. The outcomes of conflict reduce ambiguity and focus
depend on how the conflict is managed energy on the real sources of
or resolved. Positive conflict is conflict, then work together to
functional and supports or benefits the target remaining issues that need
organization or person’s main to be addressed.
objectives.5 Conflict is constructive
when it leads to better decisions, Values Clarification—Members
creativity, and innovative solutions to clarify who they are and what
long-standing problems. Conflict is they stand for, understand who
viewed as positive when it results in: the other party is and what his or
her values are, and learn when to
• Increased Involvement— sublimate personal interests to
Organizational members have the larger needs of the group or
the opportunity to develop goals, organization.
share ideas, and voice opinions,
gaining greater insight into
others and situations.

Increased Cohesion—Members
build strong bonds from learning
how to resolve differences; “if
we can survive this, we must
have a true relationship”

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Negative conflict is dysfunctional and “Unfinished Business”—
hinders the organization’s or the Members are still unclear about
person’s performance or ability to attain the issue or have remaining
goals or objectives. Conflict is
concerns that will get in the way
destructive when it leads to stress and
of being able to move forward.
anxiety, inability to take action, and loss
of esteem or purpose. Conflict is
viewed as negative when it results in: SOURCES OF INTERPERSONAL
CONFLICT
Unresolved Anger—Members leave
the interaction believing they LIMITED RESOURCES
have legitimate concerns that Despite clear differences between units
have not been addressed within an organization, one commonality
appropriately or goals that remains. In general, all are vying for the
cannot be achieved; companies same resource pool. This pool is usually
can be slowly poisoned by anger limited, causing the various units within
and hostility. an organization to compete against each
other for finite resources. No matter how
Personality Clashes—Members prosperous an organization might appear
lack understanding of their style from its facilities, salary levels, or
differences and how to work private jets and limousines, few if any
cooperatively and are more tied organizations have infinite resources.
to their own interests than those This usually results in competition
among business units for the restricted
of others.
resources available through the parent
organization. People in organizations
Low Self-esteem or Self-
compete for what they consider to be
confidence—Members have a
their fair share of resources such as
diminished sense of selfworth or
money, time, senior management
identity as a result of the conflict.
attention, technology, supplies,
Often this results from impulsive
equipment, and human talent. This
things said or done in the heat of inevitably results in conflict.
the conflict.
DIFFERENCES IN GOALS/OBJECTIVES
Unclear or Opposing Views on Who
A common source of conflict within
Is or Should Be Responsible for
organizations is differences in personal
What— Members have different
and/or professional goals and objectives. If
expectations of each other and
we are working on a project with someone
their roles; the conflict was
whose objective is different from ours,
unresolved, unproductive, or
tension or conflict is likely to occur. For
ended too soon, leaving
example, perhaps one team member wants
ambiguity in its wake.
to “coast” or do as little work as possible
toward the team’s expected
Problems of Efficiency—
Members decide they are
unwilling or unable to work
together, resulting in
redundancies and poor use of
existing resources.

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output or deliverable. If this person is on numerous miscommunications, each one a

a team of individuals who are committed potential source of conflict.
to a high-quality output, there will be
differences between them on a host of DIFFERING ATTITUDES, VALUES,
items, such as approach to the work, AND PERCEPTIONS
ways to get the work done, and standards Many conflicts are the result of
of work quality and quantity. This differences in attitudes, values, and
tension can be from intragroup conflict, perceptions. Sometimes, without even
differences between members of one realizing it, we bring feelings or
group, or from intergroup conflict, concerns into an interaction that
differences between competing predisposes us to react in a certain way.
subgroups of an organization. For For example, if you are afraid of dogs
example, the marketing department and encounter a neighbor with a dog
might have a different goal than the while out walking one morning, you
finance department. Marketing folks may react with fear or even hostility.
might push to increase spending on Upon reflection, you realize this fear is
advertising and promotion in order to due to a fear of animals you’ve had
improve sales, while finance folks push since you were a child. But the neighbor,
for increased cost-cutting efforts. without knowing this background, might
misinterpret your strong reaction and
MISCOMMUNICATION conclude you dislike the neighbor rather
Many times, personal and professional than fear the dog. Without a chance to
conflicts arise due to poor communication. communicate—for the neighbor to share
Seldom is miscommunication intentional. his or her perception with you and for
More often than not, it’s the result of our you to explain the background behind
not taking time to clarify our your reaction—it is likely that you will
understanding of something, or gender or each emerge from the interaction with a
cultural differences, or errors in vastly different understanding of what
semantics. Often we say one thing and just occurred, and with different,
mean another. Or in our haste, we will possibly negative, opinions of each
speak quickly and cryptically in hopes that other. Conflicting values are a common
others know what we want. Or perhaps we and difficult-to-resolve source of
speak clearly but our nonverbal conflict between people. Differences in
communication contradicts the verbal religious beliefs, attitudes towards
message. In any case, misunderstanding is diverse others, clashes in family values,
likely to occur. These communication or in work ethic might result in
issues are further compounded by the interpersonal differences that surface in
jargon shared by and understood within the work environment.
specific groups of people, such as
engineers and military personnel. The PERSONALITY CLASHES
processes and principles of Another common source of conflict is
communication may also differ between differences in personal style or
work groups. For example, one group personality. An obvious example of this is
might have a division newsletter, through the predictable tension between two
which employees are kept informed of roommates who are on different “body
important organizational changes, while clocks.” The early riser who gets up at
another group might rely on word of
dawn and the night owl who sleeps until
mouth to spread key bits of information.
noon are almost certain to get into conflict
This results in each group having a very
with each other. Conflicts likely occur
different understanding of what’s going
between the
on in the organization. Interaction
between these groups could lead to

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Even cause depression. In such

occasions, it would be best to seek a
“slob” and the “neat freak.” The
way to let go of the anxiety through
manager who is task-oriented and the
communicating with other people.
employee who is a perpetual socializer
Eventually, when you find yourself out
are likely to encounter much tension
of the situation, you can become more
and conflict in their boss– subordinate
empowered as a person. Thus, the
relationship. Personality conflicts can
experience evoked a positive change
result in unproductive behaviors at
Which will help you in your own
work including gossip, jealousy,
personal growth.
insults, taking sides or playing
favorites, slowing of work speed,
forming of cliques, and even looking
for another job! • Intragroup conflict is a type of
conflict that happens among
Conflict is classified into the following individuals within a team. The
FOUR TYPES: incompatibilities and
misunderstandings among these
• Interpersonal conflict refers to a individuals lead to an intragroup
conflict between two individuals. This conflict. It is arises from interpersonal
occurs typically due to how people are disagreements (e.g. team members
different from one another. We have have different personalities which may
varied personalities which usually lead to tension) or differences in views
results to incompatible choices and and ideas (e.g. in a presentation,
opinions. Apparently, it is a natural members of the team might find the
occurrence which can eventually help notions presented by the one presiding
in personal growth or developing your to be erroneous due to their differences
relationships with others. In addition, in opinion). Within a team, conflict
coming up with adjustments is can be helpful in coming up with
necessary for managing this type of decisions which will eventually allow
conflict. However, when interpersonal them to reach their objectives as a
conflict gets too destructive, calling in team. However, if the degree of
a mediator would help so as to have it conflict disrupts harmony among the
resolved. members, then some serious guidance
from a different party will be needed
for it to be settled.

• Intrapersonal conflict occurs within • Intergroup conflict takes place when a

an individual. The experience takes misunderstanding arises among different
place in the person’s mind. Hence, it is teams within an organization. For
a type of conflict that is psychological instance, the sales department of an
involving the individual’s thoughts, organization can come in conflict with
values, principles and emotions. the customer support department. This is
Interpersonal conflict may come in due to the varied sets of goals and
different scales, from the simpler interests of these different groups. In
mundane ones like deciding whether addition, competition also contributes
or not to go organic for lunch to ones for intergroup conflict to arise. There
that can affect major decisions such as are other factors which fuel this type of
choosing a career path. Furthermore, conflict. Some of these factors may
this type of conflict can be quite
difficult to handle if you find it hard to
decipher your inner struggles. It leads
to restlessness and uneasiness, or can

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include a rivalry in resources or the Stress is a defensive mechanism.

boundaries set by a group to others Stress follows the three stages of
which establishes their own identity as alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
a team. If the stress is prolonged or severe, it could
result in diseases of adaptation or even death.
STRESS
Later, in The Stress Concept: Past,
Present and Future (1983), Selye
Stress has been viewed as a response, introduced the idea that the stress
a stimulus, and a transaction. How an response could result in positive or
individual conceptualizes stress negative outcomes based on cognitive
determines his or her response, interpretations of the physical
adaptation, or coping strategies. symptoms or physiological experience
(Figure 16.3, “The General Adaptation
Stress As a Response to Stress Model“). In this way, stress
could be experienced as eustress
(positive) or dystress (negative).
Stress as a response model, initially However, Selye always considered
introduced by Hans Selye (1956), stress to be a physiologically based
describes stress as a physiological construct or response. Gradually, other
response pattern and was captured researchers expanded the thinking on
within his general adaptation stress to include and involve
syndrome (GAS) model (Figure psychological concepts earlier in the
16.3). This model describes stress as a stress model.
dependent variable and includes three
concepts:

77

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The response model of stress incorporates stress as stimulus theory. The stress as
coping within the model itself. The idea of stimulus theory assumes:
adaptation or coping is inherent to the
GAS model at both the alarm and
resistance stages. When confronted with a Change is inherently stressful.
negative stimulus, the alarm response Life events demand the same levels of adjustment
initiates the sympathetic nervous system across the population.
to combat or avoid the stressor (i.e., There is a common threshold of adjustment
increased heart rate, temperature, beyond which illness will result.
adrenaline, and glucose levels). The
resistance response then initiates Rahe and Holmes initially viewed the
physiological systems with a fight or human subject as a passive recipient of
flight reaction to the stressor, returning the stress, one who played no role in
system to homeostasis, reducing harm, or determining the degree, intensity, or
more generally accommodating the valence of the stressor. Later, Rahe
stressor, which can lead to adaptive introducedtheconceptof
diseases such as sleep deprivation, mental interpretation into his research (Rahe
illness, hypertension, or heart disease. Arthur, 1978), suggesting that a
Thus, along with the early change or life event could be
conceptualization of stress as a interpreted as a positive or negative
physiological response, early research on experience based on cognitive and
coping was also born. As early as 1932, emotional factors. However, the stress
Walter Cannon described the notion of as stimulus model still ignored
self-regulation in his work The Wisdom of important variables such as prior
the Body. learning, environment, support
networks, personality, and life
Stress As a Stimulus experience.

The theory of stress as a stimulus was Stress As a Transaction

introduced in the 1960s, and viewed
stress as a significant life event or
change that demands response, In attempting to explain stress as more
adjustment, or adaptation. Holmes and of a dynamic process, Richard Lazarus
Rahe (1967) created the Social developed the transactional theory of
Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) stress and coping (TTSC) (Lazarus,
consisting of 42 life events scored 1966; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984),
according to the estimated degree of which presents stress as a product of a
adjustment they would each demand of transaction between a person
the person experiencing them (e.g., (including multiple systems: cognitive,
marriage, divorce, relocation, change physiological, affective, psychological,
or loss of job, loss of loved one). neurological) and his or her complex
Holmes and Rahe theorized that stress environment. Stress as a transaction
was an independent variable in the was introduced with the most impact
health-stress-coping equation — the
when Dr. Susan Kobasa first used the
cause of an experience rather than the
concept of hardiness (Kobasa, 1979).
experience itself. While some
Hardiness refers to a pattern
correlations emerged between SRRS
scores and illness (Rahe, Mahan, &
Arthur, 1970; Johnson & Sarason,
1979), there were problems with the

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of personality characteristics that Carver, 1985), all of which will be

distinguishes people who remain healthy discussed in the next section.
under life stress compared with those Researchers introduced multiple
who develop health problems. In the late variables to the stress-as -transaction
1970s, the concept of hardiness was model, expanding and categorizing
further developed by Salvatore Maddi, various factors to account for the
Kobasa, and their graduate students at complex systems involved in
the University of Chicago (Kobasa, experiencing a stressor (Werner, 1993).
1982; Kobasa & Maddi, 1981; Kobasa, The nature of stress was described in
Maddi, & Kahn, 1982; Kobasa, Maddi, multiple ways: acute, episodic or
Puccetti, & Zola, 1985; Maddi & intermittent, and chronic. Different types
Kobasa, 1984). Hardiness has some of stressors emerged, such as event,
notable similarities with other situation, cue, and condition, which then
personality constructs in psychology, fell into categories based on locus of
including locus of control (Rotter, 1966), control, predictability, tone, impact, and
sense of coherence (Antonovsky, 1987), duration. Figure 16.4 illustrates theories
self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997), and of stress as a response, stimulus, and
dispositional optimism (Scheier & transaction.

Figure 16.4 Theories of stress as response, stimulus, and transaction.

In his book Psychological Stress and the secondary, and reappraisal components
Coping Process (1966), Lazarus presented (see Figure
an elegant integration of previous research 16.5, “The Transactional Theory of
on stress, health, and coping that placed a Stress and Coping”). Primary appraisal
person’s appraisal of a stressor at the involves determining whether the
centre of the stress experience. How an stressor poses a threat. Secondary
individual appraises a stressor determines appraisal involves the individual’s
how he or she copes with or responds to evaluation of the resources or coping
the stressor. Whether or not a stressor is strategies at his or her disposal for
experienced as discomforting is addressing any perceived threats. The
influenced by a variety of personal and process of reappraisal is ongoing and
contextual factors including capacities, involves continually reappraising both
skills and abilities, constraints, resources, the nature of the stressor and the
and norms (Mechanic, 1978). Lazarus and resources available for responding to
Folkman (1984) unpacked the concept of the stressor.
interpretation further in their model of
stress appraisal, which includes primary,

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Figure 16.5 The Transactional Theory of Stress and Coping, by J. Walinga.

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BIOFEEDBACK
STRESS COPING, as described by Biofeedback is a form of self-regulation in
researchers such as Lazarus and Folkman,
which individuals learn to control
implies a more specific process of
physiological responses by providing
cognitive appraisal to determine whether
an individual believes he or she has the them with an information signal, as
resources to respond effectively to the sensory feedback, about biological
challenges of a stressor or change conditions of which they may not be
(Folkman & Lazarus, 1988; Lazarus & ordinarily aware. Feedback responses
Folkman, 1987). The appraisal literature include muscle tension, skin surface
explains the response or coping process in temperature, brain wave activity, electrodermal
terms of problem-focused coping or response, blood pressure and heart rate. In combination
emotion-focused with
coping (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980; Lazarus &therapeuticFolkman,instruction1984), alsoand referredpractice, theto
as active and passive coping styles (Jex, Bliese,feedbackBuzzell,signals& enablPrimeau,patients2001). Asto
well, approach and avoidance-style measures of become active participants in
coping exist involving assertiveness or
the
withdrawal (Anshel, 1996; Anshel & rehabilitation or health maintenance
Weinberg, 1999; Roth & Cohen, 1986). process.1 Biofeedback involves the
When faced with a challenge, an application of operant conditioning to gain
individual primarily appraises the control of visceral, somatomotor, or
challenge as either threatening or non- central nervous system activities.2
threatening, and secondarily in terms of Biofeedback emerged as a treatment
whether he or she has the resources to method from pioneering learning research
respond to or cope with the challenge during the 1950s of experimental
effectively. If the individual does not psychologists, such as Neal Miller. It
believe he or she has the capacity to became a clinical modality in the late
respond to the challenge or feels a lack of 1960s.
control, he or she is most likely to turn to
an emotion-focused coping response such HOW DOES BIOFEEDBACK WORK?
as wishful thinking (e.g., I wish that I As a Stress Modifier Biofeedback
could change what is happening or how I operates on the notion that we have the
feel), distancing (e.g., I’ll try to forget the innate ability and potential to influence
whole thing), or emphasizing the positive the autonomic functions of our bodies
(e.g., I’ll just look for the silver lining) through the exertion of will and mind.
(Lazarus & Folkman, 1987). If the person Biofeedback shows the physiological
has the resources to manage the challenge, effects of stress and our ‘behavior’
he or she will usually develop a problem- directly as they occur and in the hands of
focused coping response such as analysis a trained clinician or therapist, can help
(e.g., I try to analyze the problem in order the patient to go through a learning
to understand it better; I’m making a plan process. In this process the patient
of action and following it). It is theorized becomes aware of the effects of stress on
and empirically demonstrated that a the body and learns how to make the
person’s secondary appraisal then required ‘behavioral’ or ‘lifestyle’
determines coping strategies (Lazarus & changes. Biofeedback is often aimed at
Folkman, 1987). Coping strategies vary changing habitual reactions to stress that
from positive thinking to denial (see can cause pain or disease. Most patients
Figure 16.7, “COPE Inventory”) and are who benefit from biofeedback are
measured and tested using a variety of
instruments and scales such as the COPE
inventory (Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub,
1989).

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trained to relax and modify their Provide alternative coping mechanisms for
behavior. Relaxation is a key component dealing more successfully with stress
in biofeedback treatment of many While it is critically important for
disorders, particularly those brought on persons with stress-related disorders to
or made worse by stress. In itself, increase or enhance their ability to relax,
relaxation is characterized by a it is just as important that they learn
decreased metabolism, heart rate, blood alternate ways of dealing with the stress
pressure, and rate of breathing as well as in their lives. Music therapy can be
an increase in skin temperature. effective in this role. Wolfe (1978)
Feedback of physical responses such as successfully employed music therapy
skin temperature and muscle tension discussion groups designed to encourage
provides information to help patients group members to talk to one another as
recognize a relaxed state. The feedback well as to stimulate constructive
signal may also act as a kind of reward discussion concerning ways of
for reducing tension. Constitutive nitric improving unpleasant and stressful
oxide as a result of the relaxation situations. Learning to play instruments
approach may crucially contribute to while in music therapy has the added
potentially beneficial outcomes and benefit of providing the client with a
effects in diverse pathologies, exerting a leisure skill that serves as a means of
global healing effect. tension release.
Further, in using the music setting as a
Music therapy can be effective in model for the environment in which
helping the individual to learn to stress-evoking interactions and/or events
recognize feelings and behaviours may occur, problems may be identified
associated with stress and to express and solved within the confines of the
these emotions in positive, appropriate therapy session (Hanser, 1985). Stress-
ways. Stress and stress-related disorders related behaviours and/or patterns can be
can be terribly disruptive to normal observed within the music therapy
functioning and interrelating. The music
context and dealt with or changed within
therapy session can heighten an
this controlled environment. Also,
individual’s awareness of the emotional
beyond simply learning .relaxation
toll stress is taking on his or her fife. If
techniques, Saperston
stress-related feelings and emotions are
not identified and dealt with, they may
simply exacerbate the situation. For the
individual who has so successfully
internalized these feelings, musical
experience, being both personal and
internal, may provide an important
cathartic release (Brown, et al., 1989).
Lienhard (as cited in Peters, 1987), also
discusses the integral part that music
therapy can play as an adjunct to group
therapy in stress treatment programmes.
According to Lienhard, instrumental
improvisation, music listening, their
reactions. Song lyrics, for example, can
be used as a catalyst for discussion,
helping clients to identify areas of stress,
identify and express feelings associated
with this stress, discuss emotions, and
share constructively with the group and
receive valuable feedback.

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(1989), for example, uses the music powerfully relaxing experience, and this is
therapy setting to- help individuals learn why it's so useful in managing stress and
to recognize when they would benefit coping with difficult [Link] are
from performing their relaxation several other ways that you can use imagery
induction, providing another effective to help you relax. For example, you could
means of coping with stress. create mental pictures of stress flowing out
of your body, or of your problems, your
distractions, and your everyday concerns
PROGRESSIVE MUSCLE being folded away and stashed in a
RELAXATION padlocked chest.
Progressive muscle relaxation is an
exercise that relaxes your mind and MINDFULNESS
body by progressively tensing and Mindfulness is a state of intentional,
relaxation muscle groups throughout nonjudgmental focus on the present
your entire body. You will tense each moment. Mindfulness techniques are
muscle group vigorously, but without often incorporated into other practices,
straining, and then suddenly release such as yoga or meditation. It is often
the tension and feel the muscle relax. thought to include the following
You will tense each muscle for about 5 elements:
seconds. If you have any pain or
discomfort at any of the targeted Awareness – Being tuned in to what is
muscle groups feel free to omit that happening in the present moment,
step. Throughout this exercise you including sights, sounds, smells, or
may visualize the muscles tensing and physical sensations you might usually
a wave of relaxation flowing over ignore.
them as you release that tension. It is
important that you keep breathing Focus – Paying attention to the
throughout the exercise. Now let’s present moment, without thinking
begin. about past or future events.

GUIDED IMAGERY Acceptance – Accepting whatever

Guided imagery is a stress you might be feeling or thinking,
management technique, where you without judging it or trying to change
use your imagination to picture a it or your reactions.
person, place, or time that makes you
feel relaxed, peaceful and happy. Observation – Recognizing
Imagery is slightly different from unpleasant sensations, thoughts,
other stress management techniques, and feelings as temporary and
in that it relies on the use of all of your fleeting, observing them objectively
[Link] instance, in your without reaction or judgment.
imagination you hear the sound of
birds chirping, you see the drops of
dew on the grass, you feel the breeze
on your skin, you smell the
wildflowers, and you taste the cold
drink. In imagery, using all of your
senses is what creates such a

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What Are the Benefits of Mindfulness? Symptoms of certain medical
Mindfulness has been studied for many conditions.
years. According to recent research, it has
several benefits for physical and mental TYPES OF MEDITATION
health. Some of the strongest health Meditation is an umbrella term for the
benefits include: many ways to a relaxed state of being.
There are many types of meditation
Improves mood – Mindfulness and relaxation techniques that have
training may reduce depression and meditation components. All share the
anxiety. One study found that same goal of achieving inner peace.
mindfulness training was as effective Ways to meditate can include:
as antidepressant medications in
preventing a depression relapse. Guided meditation. Sometimes
called guided imagery or
Reduces stress and its consequences visualization, with this method of
– Mindfulness can lead to less intense meditation you form mental
stress responses. This has many health images of places or situations you
benefits, such as lowering your blood find relaxing.
pressure and strengthening your
immune system. You try to use as many senses as
possible, such as smells, sights,
Improves coping with pain –People sounds and textures. You may be
with chronic pain who practice led through this process by a
mindfulness meditation report less guide or teacher.
severe pain and pain-related distress.
They are also more active in spite of Mantra meditation. In this type
their pain. of meditation, you silently repeat a
calming word, thought or phrase to
Improves brain functions – prevent distracting thoughts.
Practicing mindfulness helps build Mindfulness meditation. This
your ability to pay attention and focus. type of meditation is based on
Over time, this training can sharpen being mindful, or having an
memory and improve mental increased awareness and
performance. acceptance of living in the
present moment.
Helps with weight management –
Some mindfulness techniques have
been shown to reduce overeating
and obesity.

Meditation can give you a

sense of calm, peace and
balance that can benefit both
your emotional well-being and
your overall health.
And these benefits don't end
when your meditation session
ends. Meditation can help carry
you more calmly through your
day and may help you manage

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In mindfulness meditation, you stress. It was initially developed by

broaden your conscious awareness. psychologist Donald Meichenbaum in
You focus on what you experience the 1980s and has been employed to
during meditation, such as the flow mitigate the sequelae of stress in a
of your breath. You can observe variety of situations. The essence of SIT
your thoughts and emotions, but let is that by exposing people to increasing
them pass without judgment. levels of perceived stress, they practice
employing different coping skills and
Qi gong. This practice generally eventually develop increased tolerance
combines meditation, relaxation, 3
or immunity to a particular stimulus.
physical movement and breathing
exercises to restore and maintain The training consists of three phases that
balance. Qi gong (CHEE-gung) is are designed to empower individuals and
part of traditional Chinese medicine. enhance their repertoire of coping
Tai chi. This is a form of gentle 4,5,6
Chinese martial arts. In tai chi (TIE- skills :
CHEE), you perform a self-paced
series of postures or movements in a Conceptualization – This phase is
slow, graceful manner while designed to achieve two specific
practicing deep breathing. goals. First, it builds a relationship
Transcendental Meditation®. between the therapist, coach, or
trainer. Second, it educates an
Transcendental Meditation is a
individual, increasing their
simple, natural technique. In
understanding and awareness of
Transcendental Meditation, you
his or her stress response and
silently repeat a personally assigned existing coping skils. According to
mantra, such as a word, sound or Meichenbaum, is it peferential for
phrase, in a specific way. this phase to be less didactic and
This form of meditation may allow more Socratic in nature. He
your body to settle into a state of suggests using “curious questions”
profound rest and relaxation and to promote an individuals
your mind to achieve a state of inner processing and discovery.
peace, without needing to use Skills Acquisition and Consolidation
– This phase is all about developing
concentration or effort.
and practicing individual
Yoga. You perform a series of psychological tools and cognitive
postures and controlled breathing restructuring techniques (breathing
exercises to promote a more flexible techniques, relaxation
body and a calm mind. As you move techniques, negative thought
through poses that require balance stopping, etc.). The goal is build the
and concentration, you're coping techniques to they can be
encouraged to focus less on your applied in the next phase to regulate
busy day and more on the moment. negative emotions and increase
control over physiological
responses. They are discovered,
STRESS INOCULATION nurtured, and strengthened in
collaborative manner with a trainer
TRAINING (SIT) is a multifaceted or therapist.
type of cognitive-behavioral therapy
designed to help individuals cope with

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Application and Follow-through behavioral approach. It is dived into

– This phase is, in essence, the three analogous phases:
phase of inoculation. On a
graduated basis, an individual is Information provision – This phase
exposed to increasing levels of a provides information on the
particular stressor and practices human stress response, conditions
applying the skills they have participants should expect to
developed to mitigate his or her encounter, and other preparatory
stress response. information
Skills acquisition – This is phase is
MODIFICATIONS OF designed to develop and refine
STRESS INOCULATION behavioral, technical, and
cognitive skills
TRAINING: STRESS
Application and practice – This
EXPOSURE TRAINING phase includes practicing skills
under conditions that approximate
It is important to recognize that
the operational environment and
Meichenbaum’s intention was really to
that gradually attain the level of
help individuals cope with physical pain,
stress expected
anxiety, anger, and fear as a result of
traumatic experiences. This was a SET is different in that, quite simply, it
clinical intervention designed to treat takes a proactive approach. It provides
pathological psychiatric conditions. prophylaxis. It prepares individuals
However, various organizations and without psychiatric pathology for
individuals saw the potential benefit of potential stressors and situations that are
instituting this technique likely to encounter.
prophylactically. Organizations, like the
military and NASA, began to adapt the
I’ll make a point to emphasize that
traditional structure of SIT in
whether we call it Stress Inoculation or
demonstrated substantial improvements
Stress Exposure, makes little difference.
7,8,9,10,11,12
in performance. Truth be told, I prefer the term
“inoculation.” However, the important
One adaptation of SIT is Stress Exposure
thing is that we maintain the salient
Training (SET). SET, originally
proposed by Driskell and Johnston, takes training objectives and strategies as they
a slightly different have been developed for SET.
11
approach. Its general structure is
similar to Meichenbaum’s cognitive

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