CONTENTS

DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES:
Nature, Principles, Factors in development, Stages of Development.

Successful aging.

THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT: Psychoanalytical, Behavioristic, and Cognitive

VARIOUS ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT:

Sensory-motor, cognitive, language, emotional, social and moral.

PSYCHOPATHOLOGY: Concept, Mental Status Examination, Classification, Causes

PSYCHOTHERAPIES:
Psychoanalysis, Person-centered, Gestalt, Existential, Acceptance Commitment Therapy,
Behavior therapy, REBT, CBT, MBCT, Play therapy, Positive psychotherapy, Transactional
Analysis, Dialectic behavior therapy, Art therapy, Performing Art Therapy, Family therapy.

Applications of theories of motivation and learning in School

Factors in educational achievement

Teacher effectiveness

GUIDANCE IN SCHOOLS:
Needs, organizational set up and techniques

COUNSELLING:
Process, skills, and techniques

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HUMAN
UNIT DEVELOPMENT and
9 INTERVENTIONS

WHAT IS LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT?

Lifespan development, also known as years, there was much speculation about
human development, is a field how people grow and change and when
of study that is devoted to understanding combined.
constancy and change throughout a The study of developmental psychology is
person’s lifespan (Berk, 2010). Life span essential to understanding how humans
development begins with infancy and learn, mature and adapt. Throughout their
looks at several points in a person’s life in lives, humans go through various stages of
which significant change takes place. development. Developmental
The study of children did not begin until psychologists study how people grow,
the late nineteenth and early twentieth develop and adapt at different life stages.
centuries (Berk, 2010). Throughout the

DEVELOPMENT: Pattern of change adolescence, little or no change in

that begins at conception and continues adulthood, and decline in late old age.
throughput the life span (Santrock, 1998) Infancy is especially thought to be a
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: time of considerable change, in the
Branch of psychology devoted to the traditional approach.
understanding of all changes that human
being experience throughout the life span.  The life-span approach emphasizes
CHILD DEVELOPMENT: all changes/ developmental change during
aspects of human growth from conception adulthood as well as childhood
through adolescence . Developmental (Salthouse, 2000). Baltes saw the way
psychology, which is the study of how that people changed throughout the
humans grow and change, was confined to entirety of their lives. To challenge the
the years from birth through adolescence. traditional view of development, he
By the time people reach adulthood, established the life span perspective
psychologists believed, they are through of development, which views growth
developing: and change as occurring at all points in
 The traditional approach emphasizes a person's life, as well as in many
extensive Change from birth to different directions at [Link] age

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period dominates development (so Developmental psychologist’s study

don’t give importance to childhood human growth and development over the
only). Whether a child is learning to lifespan, including physical, cognitive,
feed himself or a new parent is social, intellectual, perceptual, personality
learning how to make decisions based and emotional growth. Developmental
on more than their own selfish psychologists working in colleges and
interests, people are always growing universities tend to focus primarily on
and changing. research or teaching. Others working in

more applied settings like health care and treat people living with developmental
facilities or clinics help to assess, evaluate disabilities. Developmental psychologists
may also work in assisted living homes for
the elderly, hospitals, mental health clinics
and centres for the homeless.

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TABLE: COMPARISON OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

GROWTH DEVELOPMENT
Development refers to overall changes in
Growth refers to physiological
theindividual. It involves changes in anorderlyand
changes.
coherent type towards the goal of maturity.

Changes in the quantitative respect is Development changes in thequality along with

termed as growth. quantitative aspect.

Growth does not continuethroughout

Development continuesthroughout life.
life.

Growth stops aftermaturation. Development is progressive.

Growth occurs due to the Development occurs due to both maturation and
multiplication of cells. interaction with the environment.

Growth is cellular. Development isorganizational.

Growth is one of the parts of the

Development is a wider and comprehensive term.
developmental process.

Growth may be referred to describe

the changes in particular aspects of Development describes the changes in the
the body and behavior of the organism as a whole.
organism.

The changes produced by growth are Development brings qualitative changes which are
subjects of measurements. They may difficult to measure directly. They are assessed
be quantified and observable in through keen observation of behavior in different
nature. situations.

Growth may or may not bring

Development is possible without growth.
development.

Tenets of a life span MULTIDIRECTIONAL: Humans

perspective/Characteristics of development change in many directions. We may
(Baltes, 1987) show gains in some areas of
development, while showing losses in
DEVELOPMENT IS LIFELONG: other areas. Every change, whether it is
Lifespan theorists believe that development finishing high school, getting married,
is life-long, and change is apparent across or becoming a parent, entails both
the lifespan. No singl age period is more growth and loss.
crucial, characterizes, or dominates human 3. DEVELOPMENT IS AN
development. Consequently, the term INTERACTIVE
lifespan development will be used PROCESS:Intersection between the
throughout the textbook. environment and the individual
2. DEVELOPMENT IS

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DEVELOPMENTISMULTIDIMEN specific age-grade share particular

SIONAL: We change across three experiences and developmental
generaldomains/dimensions; physical, changes.
cognitive, and psychosocial. The 2. NORMATIVE HISTORY-
physical domain includes changes in GRADED INFLUENCES: The time
height and weight, sensory capabilities, period in which you are born (see
the nervous system, as well as the Table 1.1) shapes your experiences. A
propensity for disease and illness. The cohort is a group of people who are
cognitive domain encompasses the born at roughly the same period in a
changes in intelligence, wisdom, particular society. These people travel
perception, problem-solving, memory, through life often experiencing similar
and language. The psychosocial circumstances.
domain focuses on changes in 3. NON-NORMATIVE LIFE
emotion,self-perceptionand INFLUENCES: Despite sharing an
interpersonal relationships with age and history with our peers, each of
families, peers, and [Link] three us also has unique experiences that
domains influence each other. It is also may shape our development. A child
important to note that a change in one who loses his/her parent at a young age
domain may cascade and prompt has experienced a life event that is not
changes in the other domains. For typical of the age group.
instance, an infant who has started to
crawl or walk will encounter more FACTORS AFFECTING HUMAN
objects and people, thus fostering DEVELOPMENT:
developmental change in the child’s
understanding of the physical and
social world. 1. HEREDITARY FACTORS:
DEVELOPMENTIS Heredity exerts an influence on human
MULTIDISCIPLINARY: As development. The child carries genetic
mentioned at the start of the chapter, endowments from his/her parents. It is
human development is such a vast genetically transmitted characteristics
topic of study that it requires the from one generation to the next. The
theories, research methods, and physical characteristics like height,
knowledge base of many academic weight, eye color etc. and psychological
disciplines. characteristics such as intelligence,
DEVELOPMENTIS personality, creativity and soon are
CHARACTERIZED BY innately determined and hereditary. The
PLASTICITY: Plasticity is all about genetic code provides the base on
our ability to change and that many of which brain and body grow and
our characteristics are malleable. For manifest in observable appearance and
instance, plasticity is illustrated in the behavior.
brain’s ability to learn from experience
and how it can recover from injury. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS:
DEVELOPMENT IS MULTI- Another important factor of human
CONTEXTUAL:Development occurs development is the environment
in many contexts. where an individual lives. The child
lives and grows in his environment.
Environment consists of a wide
Baltes(1987) identified three specific range of stimuli and it provides the
contextual influences. necessary input and experiential base
for development of the child.
Enrichment or impoverishment of
NORMATIVE AGE-GRADED
the environment would produce
INFLUENCES: An age-grade is a
specific age group, such as toddler, differences in his abilities. For
adolescent, or senior. Humans in a example, a child may have inherited

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music talent from his parents through appreciation for cultural differences
transmission of genes, but he may and the understanding that cultural
not excel in music field if he does practices are best understood from
not get the proper environment and the standpoint of that particular
support to develop his innate ability. culture. The socialization processes
of the child take place according to
HOME ENVIRONMENT: Home the culture, customs and traditions of
environment exerts tremendous the society. For example, greeting
influence on child’s understanding of someone is a familiar experience but
the external world. It builds self- behavioral experiences are different
concept and prepares him to face the
in different cultures. In Indian
external world. The child begins to
culture, people greet others by saying
acquire knowledge through namaskar, folding hands or lying
interaction with parents and down near the feet but in Western
[Link] culture, people greet by handshake or
yearsofdevelopment,thebehaviorsoft kissing or saying hello etc.
hechildare modulated by the home
environment. The environment of the
SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS
family can be supportive or stressful
(SES): Socioeconomic Status plays a
for the child. If it is supportive,
pivotal role in human development.
warm and harmonious environment,
The index of socioeconomic status is
the child develops normally. In
determined by parental education,
unsupportive and stressful home
occupation and income. The children
environment, broken families or
of low socioeconomic status may
uncaring parents in the family,
develop as mal- nourished, suffer
children may develop as mal-
from lack of knowledge in many
adjusted persons.
aspects and the normal development
may get hampered. The parenting in
CULTURAL FACTORS: Culture high socioeconomic status families
is the totality of our shared would be different from low socio-
language, knowledge, material economic status families. Children
objects, and behavior. Culture fro of the high socioeconomic
teaches us how to live in a society groups of the society get better
and allows us to advance because social opportunities, are nurtured
each new generation can benefit with better nutrition, good medical
from the solutions found and passed treatment and are exposed to more
down from previous generations. intellectual stimulation than low
Culture is learned from parents, socioeconomic group.
schools, houses of worship, media, NORMATIVE INFLUENCES:
friends and others throughout a Normative influences occur in a
lifetime. The kinds of traditions and
similar way for majority of people in
values that evolve in a particular
a particular group. These influences
culture serve to help members
may be biological or environmental.
function and value their own society.
For example, biological events like
We tend to believe that our own
sexual maturity or deterioration in old
culture’s practices and expectations
age. Environmental events, like
are the right ones. This belief that
entering the school at about 6 yrs. of
our own culture is superior is called
age, parenthood etc. have the same
ethnocentrism and is a normal by-
influences on
product of growing up in a culture. It
[Link]
becomes a roadblock, however,
meage,atsameplaceandtimeandgener
when it inhibits understanding of
ationhave common biological and
cultural practices from other
environmental influences such as
societies. Cultural relativity is an

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floods, famines and other natural year-old. A 70- year-old might be

[Link]- travelling to new countries, taking
normativeinfluencesincludetheunusu courses at college, or starting a new
allifeeventsinanindividual’[Link] business. Compared to others of our
example, death of a parent when a age group, we may be more or less
child is young or birth defectsetc. adaptive and excited to meet new
challenges. Remember you are as
EDUCATION AND TRAINING: young or old as you feel.
Each child is equipped with certain
abilities which need to be nurtured
through proper education and
SOCIAL AGE: Our social age is
training. Therefore, the first and
based on the social norms of our
foremost step is to identify and
culture and the expectations our
recognize the ability of the child and
culture has for people of our age
the next step is to provide adequate
group. Our culture often reminds us
opportunities to develop the same. If
whether we are “on target” or “off
proper identification of the ability is
target” for reaching certain social
not possible and
milestones, such as completing our
adequatefacilitiesarenotavailabletoth
education, moving away from home,
echild,thenhisinnateabilitymaynotbe
having children, or retiring from work.
developed. Thus, adequate education
However, there have been arguments
and training have influence on
that social age is becoming less
human development.
relevant in the 21st century
(Neugarten, 1979; 1996). If you look
CONCEPTIONS OF AGE around at your fellow students in your
courses at college you might notice
more people who are older than the
1. CHRONOLOGICAL AGE:The more traditional aged college students,
number of years that have elapsed those 18 to 25. Similarly, the age at
since a person’s birth. which people are moving away from
the home of their parents, starting their
BIOLOGICAL AGE: Another way careers, getting married or having
developmental researcher can think children, or even whether they get
about the concept of age is to examine married or have children at all, is
how quickly the body is aging, this is changing.
your biological age. Several factors
determine the rate at which our body ISSUES IN LIFESPAN
ages. Our nutrition, level of physical DEVELOPMENT
activity, sleeping habits, smoking,
alcohol consumption, how we mentally
handle stress, and the genetic history of NATURE AND NURTURE: Why are
our ancestors, to name but a few. you the way you are? As you consider
some of your features (height, weight,
personality, being diabetic, etc.), ask
PSYCHOLOGICAL AGE: Our yourself whether these features are a result
psychologically adaptive capacity of heredity or environmental factors, or
compared to others of our both. Chances are, you can see the ways in
chronological age is our psychological which both heredity and environmental
age. This includes our cognitive factors (such as lifestyle, diet, and so on)
capacity along with our emotional have contributed to these features. For
beliefs about how old we are. An decades, scholars have carried on the
individual who has cognitive "nature/nurture" debate. For any particular
impairments might be 20 years of age, feature, those on the side of nature would
yet has the mental capacity of an 8- argue that heredity plays the most

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important role in bringing about that developmental path? Are you at the whim
feature. Those on the side of nurture of your genetic inheritance or the
would argue that one's environment is environment that surrounds you? Some
most significant in shaping the way we are. theorists see humans as playing a much
This debate continues in all aspects of more active role in their own development.
human development, and most scholars Piaget, for instance believed that children
agree that there is a constant interplay actively explore their world and construct
between the two forces. It is difficult to new ways of thinking to explain the things
isolate the root of any single behavior as a they experience. In contrast, many
result solely of nature or nurture. behaviorists view humans as being more
passive in the developmental process.
CONTINUITY VERSUS
DISCONTINUITY: Is human
development best characterized as a slow, STABILITY VERSUS CHANGE: How
gradual process, or is it best viewed as one similar are you to how you were as a
of more abrupt change? The answer to that child? Were you always as out-going or
question often depends on which reserved as you are now? Some theorists
developmental theorist you ask and what argue that the personality traits of adults
topic is being studied. The theories of are rooted in the behavioral and emotional
Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and Kohlberg are tendencies of the infant and young child.
called stage theories. Stage theories or Others disagree, and believe that these
discontinuous development assume that initial tendencies are modified by social
developmental change often occurs in and cultural forces over
distinct stages that are qualitatively
different from each other, and in a set,
universal sequence. At each stage of
development, children and adults have
different qualities and characteristics.
Thus, stage theorists assume development
is more discontinuous. Others, such as the
behaviorists, Vygotsky, and information
processing theorists, assume development
is a more slow and gradual process known
as continuous development. For instance,
they would see the adult as not possessing
new skills, but more advanced skills that
were already present in some form in the
child. Brain development and
environmental experiences contribute to
the acquisition of more developed skills.

ACTIVE VERSUS PASSIVE: How

much do you play a role in your own
HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS
• In the original sin view: especially advocated during the Middle
Ages, children were perceived as being basically bad, born into
1. Original Sin the world as evil beings.
• The goal of child rearing was salvation, which was believed to
remove sin from the child’s life

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• Toward the end of the seventeenth century, the tabula rasa view

was proposed by English philosopher John Locke.

• He argued that children are not innately bad.

• children are like a “blank tablet/slate”,

2. Tabula Rasa • They acquire their characteristics through experience.

• Locke believed that childhood experiences are important in

determining adult characteristics.

• He advised parents to spend time with their children and help

them become contributing members of society.

• In the eighteenth century, the innate goodness view was

presented by Swiss-born French philosopher Jean-Jacques

Innate Goodness:
Rousseau.
3. children are
• He stressed that children are inherently good. Rousseau said that
inherently good
because children are basically good, they should be permitted to

grow naturally with little parental monitoring or constraint.

RESEARCH DESIGNS FOR

DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES

1. THE LONGITUDINAL DESIGN.

PARTICIPANTS are studied
repeatedly, and changes are noted as
they get older.
The time spanned may be relatively
short (a few months to several years)
or very long (a decade or even a
lifetime).

2 major strengths:

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For instance,by tracing how children’s

 It tracks the performance of each vocabularies increase on a day-by-day
person over time, researchers can basis, researchers have been ableto
identify common patterns as well understand the processes that underlie the
as individual differences in human ability to become competent in
 development. using language(Gershkoff-Stowe & Hahn,
 Longitudinalstudiespermit 2007; Oliver & Plomin, 2007; Childers,
investigators to examine 2009; Fagan, 2009)
relationships between early and
later events and behaviors.
LIMITATIONS
The granddaddy of longitudinal studies, a
classic study, is a study of giftedchildren Participants moving away or Dropping
begun by Lewis Terman about 80 years out
ago. In the study—which has yet to be Changes the original sample: questions
concluded—a group of 1,500 children with of generalizability
high IQs were tested about every 5 years. Becoming test wise (practice effect)/
Now in their 80s, the participants—who becoming aware of one’s own
call themselves “Termites”—have T/F/A due to repeated
provided information on everything from testing/questioning (age related
intellectual accomplishment to personality change not being reflected)
and longevity (Feldhusen, 2003; Cohort effect: Individuals born in the
McCullough, Tsang, &Brion, 2003; same time period are influenced by a
Subotnik, 2006). particular set of historical and
cultural conditions. Results based on
one cohort may not apply to people
Longitudinal research has also provided developing in other times.
great insight into language development.

of people differing in age are studied at

the same point in time.
 An 
efficient strategy for describing age-
2. THE CROSS-SECTIONAL related trends.
DESIGN Participants are measured only once.
Hence no concern about as participant
The length of time it
takes for many dropout or practice effects.
behaviors to change 
In the cross-sectional design, groups


Does not provide evidence about
development at the level at which it
LIMITATIONS  actually occurs: the  individual
(Kraemer et al., 2000). 
Comparisons are limited to age-group

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averages. Within individual changes 3. SEQUENTIAL DESIGNS

cannot be analysed.  Utilizing the strengths of both the designs
 Cannot 
tell if important individual
differences exist.
 Examining a number of different age
Indeed, longitudinal findings reveal groups at several points in time.
that adolescents vary considerably in Conducting several similar cross-
the changing quality of their sibling  (called
sectional or longitudinal studies
sequences) at varying times.
relationships. Although many become 
more distant, others become more
supportive and intimate, and still others  ADVANTAGES:
more rivalrous and antagonistic We can find out whether cohort
 (Branje et al., 2004; 
Dunn, effects are operating by comparing
Slomkowski, & Beardsall, 1994).
Cross-sectional studies—especially participants of the same age who were
 threatened by cohortwide
those that cover a agecan be born in different years. E.g., we can
effects. compare the three longitudinal samples
 differ, we can rule out cohort effects.
For example, comparisons of 10-year- at ages 20, 30, and 40. If they do not
old cohorts, 20-year-old cohorts, and
30-yearold cohorts—groups born and We can make longitudinal and cross-
reared in different years—may not sectional [Link] outcomes are
really represent age-related changes. similar in both, then we can be
Instead, they may reflect unique especially confident about our
experiences associated with the findings.
historical period in which  the age
groups were growing up.

social studies of childhood’

(James, Jenks, and Prout, 1998)
and the children’s right discourse
Issues of research in Life Span (the United Nations Conventions
Development: Methodological & Ethical on the Rights of the Child, 1989
(1); the Children’s Act, 2004),
PERCEPTION OF CHILDREN children are now viewed as social
actors who are ‘experts’ on their
Until relatively recently, research was
own lives (e.g. Mauthner, 1997;
fundamentally on children, rather
Kellett and Ding, 2004).
than with children or for children
(Mayall, 2000; O’Kane,
2000; Darbyshire et al., 2005). METHODOLOGICAL SHIFT
Historically, children were seen as Emergence of new ‘participatory’
objects to be studied, being research methodologies, the
regarded as incompetent, unreliable adaptation of more traditional
and incomplete (e.g. Barker and methods, such as observation and
Weller, 2003). questionnaires (Punch, 2002), and
With the emergence of the ‘new the development of multi-method

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approaches, such as the ‘mosaic and for all it is a fact of research, as it is of

approach’, developed by Clark life, that many of the problems we identify
and Moss (2001). and views which we hold today will be
In recent years, children have started challenged by future generations and
to become involved in the various surpassed as different questions and
stages of the research process, approaches to research emerge.
such as formulating the research
questions, planning the
methodology, collecting and/or DIVERSITY OF CHILDREN
analysingdata,drafting PARTICIPANTS
recommendations and Pattman and Kehily remind us that it is
disseminating findings (Coad and essential that researchers think carefully
Evans, 2008). This has involved about the suitability of their
differing levels of control-sharing methodological approach, given the
and of participation in the research diversity of participants.
process (Brownlie et al., 2006;
Alderson, 2000; McNeish, 1999).

GAINING ACCESS AND SEEKING

POWER RELATIONS
CONSENT:
Fraser (2004) argues for the
importance of ‘research with…’
rather than ‘research on…’Children When undertaking research with
and young people can be involved children, researchers must gain the co-
is as active participants, like operation of a range of different
children and young people actually ‘gatekeepers’, such as school staff and
carrying out the research(for parents (Cree et al., 2002).
example interviewing other Informed consent should be freely
children or young people. Our given (without coercion, threat or
beliefs about the competence of persuasion) by children who can make
children and young people and how an appropriately informed decision.
these affect research, questions of Competent minors less than 16 years old
power relations, and who should of age can give consent, with
provide consent competence being defined as having
Robinson and Kellett (2004), Jones enough knowledge to understand what is
(2004) point out, when children proposed and enough discretion to be
and young people become co- able to make a wise decision in light of
researchers in a project this can be one’s own interests (Alderson and
genuinely empowering. Involving Morrow, 2004).
children and young people as co- It has often been assumed that
researchers raises additional issues, ‘children are not competent enough to
such as ensuring that the research give their informed consent, that this
activities and arrangements are needs to be gained from a ‘more
appropriate for the child competent adult’ and the simpler level
researchers and considering the of ‘assent’ (agreement to participate) is
consequences for the children when sufficient from the child’ (Kellet and
they cease being researchers. Ding, 2004).
Some researchers have questioned this
assumption and claim that children are
EVER CHANGING CONTEXT AND
fully capable of giving their informed
RELEVANCE OF RESEARCH consent.
FINDINGS: Cocks (2006) argues that the notion of
Fashions and trends shift and change in consent might exclude some children,
research and while we may believe that we such as disabled or refugee children,
have identified and solved a problem once since it might not always be possible to

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obtain in those particular contexts. (L121/34) from 2001 advised that

She endorses the concept of ‘assent’ paying children to take part in research
(their like or dislike in participating) should be illegal (Cree et al., 2002)
as a sensitive and appropriate option to
include all children in research on REWARDS
issues that affect them, and argues that
the notion of ‘assent’ ‘removes the Payments should be given as an
reliance on the child demonstrating acknowledgement of the participants’
adult-centric attributes such as time and contribution. (Children in
maturity, competence and Scotland, 2001)
completeness’ Cree and others (2002) decided not to
pay or give vouchers to the participants
in their research, but to offer them a
CONFIDENTIALITY AND CHILD pack of paper and pens as a sign of their
PROTECTION ISSUES gratitude. In contrast, Bushin
Parents’ curiosity and concern for their (2007) decided to give a ‘thank you’
child as well as child protection voucher to children, but only informed
regulations. them about the voucher during the
Children might reveal that they are interviews with them, rather than prior
seriously harmed or ill-treated/abused, to participating in the research, since
or the researcher, when interviewing a that might have acted as an incentive.
child, might identify a medical
condition or learning difficulty which
USE OF DECEPTION:
the parents could take action about.
Children should be informed about the
limitations of confidentiality before When is deception acceptable? Never,
participating in the research in order to if there is another way to elicit and
enable them to give fully informed study the behaviour.
consent (Williamson et al, 2005). If deception is a critical element of the
This could ‘be expressed as the research, however, the importance of
difference between what can be ‘just the research is paramount in
between you and me’ and what may determining if deception is acceptable.
need to be told to others ‘to stop Debriefing is necessary to fulfil our
someonefromgettinghurt’’ responsibility to the rights of subjects.
(Thompson and Rudolph, 2000: 35) It is intended to remove any
unwarranted negative effects of
DATA COLLECTION: DEBRIEFING participation, especially when stress
AND REWARDS and deception are involved.
Even when there is no stress and
DEBRIEFING virtually no possibility of harm to
subjects, debriefing is included as a
After the interview, it might be standard part of experimental
appropriate to have some debriefing procedure.
(Clark, 2005), and suitable support
might be needed in cases where the TECHNIQUES, METHODS AND
participants’ feelings may become TOOLS WHEN RESEARCHING
overwhelming (Kay et al., 2003). CHILDREN
Giving payments (whether cash or Various methods and techniques have
vouchers) to participants is a somewhat been used when conducting research with
controversial issue. children. However, it has been argued that
Payments can pressurise people into researchers need to critically reflect on the
taking part in the research and into
saying what they think researchers
want to hear. An EU Directive

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methods and techniques they use and the source of pleasure at the particular
ways they use them (Barker and Weller, stage. Theyare:
2003; Sanders and Munford, 2005). The
ORAL STAGE (BIRTH TO 18
methodology chosen needs to match the
MONTHS):Itbeginsatbirthand
research questions of the project, respect
extend till12to18months.
limitations of time and resources, be
Inthisstagethemouthistheprimaryorga
sensitive and ethical, and consider the
[Link]
particular characteristics and needs of the
e child and mother relationship has
participants, as well as the cultural and
an impact on unconscious mind of
physical setting where it takes place (e.g.
the child. This stage relates to the
Christensen and Prout, 2002; Punch, 2002a
activities like feeding, crying,
teething, biting and thumb sucking,
etc.
THEORIES OF HUMAN ANAL STAGE (18 MONTHS TO
DEVELOPMENT 3 YEARS):The child gets sensual
gratification from withholding
[Link]
usisthechiefsourceofpleasure. The
child’s real experiences during this
stage have an impact upon the
FREUDIAN MODEL OF unconscious and behaviors. Pleasure
PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES derived from body parts are the
centre of the world during this stage.
Sigmund Freud (1953, 1964a, 1964b) PHALLIC STAGE (3 TO 6
proposed that people are born with YEARS): During this period the
biological drives that must be child derives pleasure from genital
redirected so as to live in society. The region. Many of the normal sexual
personality of the child is formed in behaviour of human personality
childhood, as children deal with develop in this period. The child’s
unconscious conflicts between these sexual longing is intensified at this
inborn urges and the requirements of time. This is the stage in which
civilized life. These conflicts occur in conflicts related to reproductive
an unvarying sequence of five issues areresolved.
maturational based stages of
psychosexual development, in different LATENCY STAGE (6 TO
stages of development, sexual pleasure PUBERTY):This stage is a stage of
shifts from one body zone to another, learning skills rather than a
i.e. from the mouth to the anus and then psychosexual stage. There is no
to the genitals. sexual development takes place
during this period.
According to Sigmund Freud there are Thisisthetimeofrelativecalmbetween
five stages of development. Freud [Link]
believed that nces, fears and conditioning have
personalityisformedinfirstthreestagesw shaped many of the child’s feelings
hichincludesfirstfewyearsoflife,aschildr andattitudes.
endeal
withconflictsbetweentheirbiological,sex
uallyrelatedurgesandthepressuresofthes
ociety. At each stage there a change in
the main source of gratification. Each
stage is characterized
byatypicalpleasuregainingbehavioraswe
[Link]
ese stages are named according to the

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Genital Stage (Puberty onwards): Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a stage

This the time of mature adult theorist who took Freud’s controversial
sexuality. In this stage many theory of psychosexual development and
hormonal and physical changes take modified it as a psychosocial theory.
place. Children are engaged in sex- Erikson emphasized that the ego makes

Basic Virtue &

Erikson's Second Named Maladaptation
Freudian
Psychosocial Strength / Malignancy
Psycho- Life Stage / Relationships /
Crisis Stages (Potential (Potential Negative
sexual Issues
(Syntonic v Positive Outcome from Each
Stages
Dystonic) Outcomes from Crisis)
Each Crisis)
infant / mother / feeding and
Trust v Sensory Distortion
Mistrust Oral being comforted, teething, Hope and Drive / Withdrawal
sleeping

Autonomy v toddler / parents / bodily

Willpower and Impulsivity
Shame & Anal functions, toilet training,
Doubt muscular control, walking Self-Control / Compulsion

preschool
Initiative v Purpose and Ruthlessness
Phallic / family / exploration and
Guilt discovery, adventure and play Direction / Inhibition

schoolchild / school,
Industry v teachers, friends, Competence Narrow Virtuosity
Latency
Inferiority neighborhood / achievement and Method / Inertia
and accomplishment
adolescent / peers, groups,
Identity v Puberty
influences / resolving identity Fidelity and Fanaticism
Role and
and direction, becoming a Devotion / Repudiation
Confusion Genitality grown-up

young adult / lovers, friends,

Intimacy v work connections / intimate Love and Promiscuity
Isolation Genitality relationships, work and social Affiliation / Exclusivity
life

mid-adult / children,
Generativity Care and Overextension
- community / 'giving back',
v Stagnation helping, contributing Production / Rejectivity

Integrity v late adult / society, the world, Wisdom and Presumption

- life / meaning and purpose,
Despair Renunciation / Disdain
life achievements
related thoughts and feelings. positive contributions to development by
Narcissism takes place during mastering attitudes, ideas, and skills at
thisstage. each stage of development.
This mastery helps children grow into
ERIKSON'S THEORY OF successful, contributing members of
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT society. During each of Erikson’s eight
stages, there is a psychological conflict

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that must be successfully overcome in also motivates behaviors and actions. Each
order for a child to develop into a healthy, stage in Erikson’s theory is concerned
well-adjusted adult. with becoming competent in an area of
According to Erikson, a person passes life. If the stage is handled well, the person
through eight developmental stages that will feel a sense of mastery, which he
build on each other. At each stage we face sometimes referred to as ego strength or
a crisis. By resolving the crisis, we ego quality. 2 If the stage is managed
develop psychological strengths or poorly, the person will emerge with a
character traits that help us become sense of inadequacy. In each stage,
confident and healthy people. One of the Erikson believed people experience a
main elements of Erikson’s psychosocial conflict that serves as a turning point in
stage theory is the development of ego development. In Erikson’s view, these
identity. 1 Ego identity is the conscious conflicts are centered on either developing
sense of self that we develop through a psychological quality or failing to
social interaction. According to Erikson, develop that quality. During these times,
our ego identity is constantly changing due the potential for personal growth is high,
to new experience and information we but so is the potential for failure.
acquire in our daily interactions with
others. In addition to ego identity, Erikson
also believed that a sense of competence
and doubt by working to establish
1. TRUST VS. MISTRUST independence. This is the “me do it” stage.
For example, we might observe a budding
sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who
From birth to 12 months of age, infants wants to choose her clothes and dress herself.
must learn that adults can be trusted. This Although her outfits might not be appropriate
for the situation, her input in such basic
occurs when adults meet a child’s basic decisions has an effect on her sense of
needs for survival. Infants are dependent independence. If denied the opportunity to act
on her environment, she may begin to doubt
upon their caregivers, so caregivers who her abilities, which could lead to low self-
are responsive and sensitive to their esteem and feelings of shame.
infant’s needs help their baby to develop a
sense of trust; their baby will see the world 3. INITIATIVE VS. GUILT
as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive
caregivers who do not meet their baby’s Once children reach the preschool stage
needs can engender feelings of anxiety, (ages 3–6 years), they are capable of
fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the initiating activities and asserting control
world as unpredictable. If infants are over their world through social
treated cruelly or their needs are not met interactions and play. According to
appropriately, they will likely grow up Erikson, preschool children must resolve
with a sense of mistrust for people in the the task of initiative vs. [Link] learning
world. to plan and achieve goals while interacting
with others, preschool children can master
AUTONOMY VS. SHAME/DOUBT this task. Initiative, a sense of ambition
and responsibility, occurs when parents
As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to allow a child to explore within limits and
explore their world, they learn that they then support the child’s choice. These
can control their actions and act on their children will develop self-confidence and
environment to get results. They begin to feel a sense of purpose. Those who are
show clear preferences for certain
elements of the environment, such as food,
toys, and clothing. A toddler’s main task is
to resolve the issue of autonomy vs. shame

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unsuccessful at this stage—with their 6. INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION

initiative misfiring or stifled by over-
controlling parents—may develop feelings People in early adulthood (20s through
of guilt. early 40s) are concerned with intimacy vs.
isolation. After we have developed a sense
4. INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY of self in adolescence, we are ready to
share our life with others. However, if
During the elementary school stage (ages other stages have not been successfully
6–12), children face the task of industry vs. resolved, young adults may have trouble
inferiority. Children begin to compare developing and maintaining successful
themselves with their peers to see how relationships with others. Erikson said that
they measure up. They either develop a we must have a strong sense of self before
sense of pride and accomplishment in their we can develop successful intimate
schoolwork, sports, social activities, and relationships. Adults who do not develop a
family life, or they feel inferior and positive self-concept in adolescence may
inadequate because they feel that they experience feelings of loneliness and
don’t measure up. If children do not learn emotional isolation.
to get along with others or have negative
experiences at home or with peers, an 7. GENERATIVITY VS.
inferiority complex might develop into STAGNATION
adolescence and adulthood.
When people reach their 40s, they enter
5. IDENTITY VS. ROLE the time known as middle adulthood,
CONFUSION which extends to the mid-60s. The social
task of middle adulthood is generativity vs.
In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face stagnation. Generativity involves finding
the task of identity vs. role confusion. your life’s work and contributing to the
According to Erikson, an adolescent’s development of others through activities
main task is developing a sense of self. such as volunteering, mentoring, and
Adolescents struggle with questions such raising children. During this stage, middle-
as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to do aged adults begin contributing to the next
with my life?” Along the way, most generation, often through childbirth and
adolescents try on many different selves to caring for others; they also engage in
see which ones fit; they explore various meaningful and productive work which
roles and ideas, set goals, and attempt to contributes positively to society. Those
discover their “adult” selves. Adolescents who do not master this task may
who are successful at this stage have a experience stagnation and feel as though
strong sense of identity and are able to they are not leaving a mark on the world in
remain true to their beliefs and values in a meaningful way; they may have little
the face of problems and other people’s connection with others and little interest in
perspectives. When adolescents are productivity and self-improvement.
apathetic, do not make a conscious search
for identity, or are pressured to conform to 8. INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR
their parents’ ideas for the future, they may
develop a weak sense of self and From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are
experience role confusion. They will be in the period of development known as
unsure of their identity and confused about late adulthood. Erikson’s task at this stage
the future. Teenagers who struggle to is called integrity vs. despair. He said that
adopt a positive role will likely struggle to people in late adulthood reflect on their
“find” themselves as adults. lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction
or a sense of failure. People who feel
proud of their accomplishments feel a
sense of integrity, and they can look back

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on their lives with few regrets. However, following his or her crying is more likely
people who are not successful at this stage to employ crying behavior in the future.
may feel as if their life has been wasted. Or, an individual who has experienced
They focus on what “would have,” “should ridicule following his or her initiation of a
have,” and “could have” been. They face social contact may soon employ
the end of their lives with feelings of withdrawal and isolation as a
bitterness, depression, and despair. developmental coping style. A second
behavioral approach to the explanation of
the influence of environment on
BEHAVIORISM THEORY development is that initially presented by
Albert Bandura (1997, 2008) as social
learning theory. Bandura’s model
Whereas,Erikson introduced
expanded the classic behavioral theory to
heimportanceofsocialcontexttodevelopmen
include cognitive
t,theBehavioralTheory, at least in its
[Link]’sworkemphasizedtheim
classical form, placed nearly sole emphasis
portanceofobservationallearning(also
on the impact of environment, experience,
called imitation or modeling). For
and learning about the unfolding
example, consider the situation of a child
development of the human condition. This
who was raised in an environment where
orientation can best be illustrated by a
there was much domestic arguing and
quote offered by John B. Watson (1878–
physical violence and the employment of
1985), deemed the father of American
alcohol as a stress- reducing strategy.
[Link]’semphasisontheroleo
Raised in this setting and observing these
fenvironmentintheshapingofhumandevelop
social exchanges and coping styles, the
mentis concretized in his statement “Give
child, according to social learning theory,
me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed,
would be very likely to model the
and my own specified
observed behavior and engage in similar
worldtobringthemupinandIwillguaranteetot
domestic violence and alcohol
akeanyoneatrandomandtrainhimtobecomea
usebehaviors.
ny type of specialist I might select... doctor,
lawyer, artist, merchant-chief... According to Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, and
and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, Pastorelli (2001), social learning is connected to
regardless of his talents, penchants, perceptions and interpretations of the individual’s
tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of experience. Self-efficacy, the belief that personal
his ancestors” (Watson, 1998, p.82). That
achievement depends on one’s actions, teaches
is quite a guarantee and clearly highlights
the valuing and people to have high aspirations and to strive for
focusesthisbehavioristplacedontheroleofen notable accomplishments when they see others
vironment,experience,andlearninginthecre solve problems successfully. This premise is
ationof the humancondition. contrary to Behavioral Theory, which holds that
Two main themes or forms of behavioral theory behavior depends on associations between one
have been presented in explaining how the stimulus and
environment has such a formational impact. One anotherandalsoassumesthatallbehaviorsrea
proffered by B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) suggested [Link] ,social
that behavior was formed, or shaped, as a result of learning maintains that behaviors come from
the consequences experienced. His operant people acting on the stimulation of theenvironment.
conditioning model argued that behavior followed
by a rewarding stimulus would be more likely to
recurandendurethanthatfollowedbyapunish COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
ingconsequence(Cohen,1987;Skinner,1974 ).Thus, THEORY (JEAN PIAGET)
an infant who experiences the comfort of being
picked up and cradled Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist was
particularly concerned with the way

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thinking develops in children from birth world, which we use both to understand
till they become young adults. To and to respond to situations. The
understand the nature of this development, assumption is that we store these mental
Piaget carefully observed the behavior of representations and apply them when
his own three kids. He used to present needed.
problems to them, observe responses
Piaget believed that newborn babies have
slightly after the situations and again
a small number of innate schemas - even
observe their responses. Piaget called this
before they have had many opportunities
method of exploring development clinical
to experience the world. These neonatal
interview. Piaget believed that humans
schemas are the cognitive structures
also adapt to their physical and social
underlying innate reflexes. These reflexes
environments in which they live.
are genetically programmed into [Link]
THERE ARE THREE BASIC example, babies have a sucking reflex,
COMPONENTS TO PIAGET'S which is triggered by something touching
COGNITIVE THEORY: the baby's lips. A baby will suck a nipple,
a comforter (dummy), or a person's finger.
1. Schemas- (building blocks of Piaget, therefore, assumed that the baby
knowledge). has a 'sucking schema.'
2. Adaptation processes that enable the Similarly, the grasping reflex which is
transition from one stage to another
elicited when something touches the palm
(equilibrium, assimilation, and of a baby's hand, or the rooting reflex, in
accommodation). which a baby will turn its head towards
Stages of Cognitive Development- something which touches its cheek, are
innate schemas. Shaking a rattle would be
sensorimotor, the combination of two schemas, grasping
preoperational, and shaking.
concrete operational,
formal operational.
ASSIMILATION AND
ACCOMMODATION
SCHEMAS
Jean Piaget (1952; see also Wadsworth,
Schemas are the basic building blocks of 2004) viewed intellectual growth as a
such cognitive models, and enable us to process of adaptation (adjustment) to the
form a mental representation of the world. world. This happens through:
Piaget (1952, p. 7) defined a schema as:"a ASSIMILATION: Which is using an
cohesive, repeatable action sequence existing schema to deal with a new
possessing component actions that are object or [Link]: A 2-year-
tightly interconnected and governed by a old child sees a man who is bald on top
core meaning." of his head and has long frizzy hair on
the sides. To his father’s horror, the
When Piaget talked about the development toddler shouts “Clown,  clown”
of a person's mental processes, he was  (Siegler et al., 2003).
referring to increases in the number and
complexity of the schemata that a person ACCOMMODATION: This happens
had [Link] a child's existing when the existing schema (knowledge)
schemas are capable of explaining what it does not work, and needs to be
can perceive around it, it is said to be in a changed to deal with a new object or
state of equilibrium, i.e., a state of situation. Example: In the “clown”
cognitive (i.e., mental) balance. incident, the boy’s father explained to
his son that the man was not a clown
Piaget emphasized the importance of and that even though his hair was like
schemas in cognitive development and a clown’s, he wasn’t wearing a funny 
described how they were developed or costume and wasn’t doing silly things
acquired. A schema can be defined as a set
of linked mental representations of the

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to make people [Link] this new PIAGET'S 4 STAGES OF

knowledge, the boy was able to change COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
his schema of “clown” and make this
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive
idea fit better to a standard concept of
development suggests that children move
“clown”.
through four different stages of intellectual
EQUILIBRATION- This is the force development which reflect the increasing
which moves development along. sophistication of children's thought
Piaget believed that cognitive
development did not progress at a His theory focuses on understanding how
steady rate, but rather in leaps and children acquire knowledge regarding
bounds. It occurs when a child's fundamental concepts such as object
schemas can deal with most new permanence, number, categorization,
information through assimilation. quantity, causality, and justice.
However, an unpleasant state of Piaget's four stages of cognitive
disequilibrium occurs when new development include:
information cannot be fitted into
existing schemas (assimilation). It is Sensorimotor: Birth to ages 18-24
the force which drives the learning months.
process as we do not like to be
frustrated and will seek to restore Preoperational: Toddlerhood (18-24
balance by mastering the new months) through early childhood (age 7).
challenge (accommodation). Once the Concrete operational: Ages 7 to 11
new information is acquired the years.
process of assimilation with the new
schema will continue until the next Formal operational: Adolescence to
[Link] child goes through the
time we need to make an adjustment to
it. stages in the same order, and child
development is determined by biological
maturation and interaction with the
environment.

[Link] STAGE- This stage

begins at birth and lasts till the child is

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about 2 years old. It is called Sensorimotor Pretend Play: Pretending is a favorite

Stage, because children’s thinking activity at this time. A toy has qualities
involves seeing, hearing, moving, beyond the way it was designed to function
touching, testing and so on. This stage and can now be used to stand for a
marks a transitional stage for a person character or object unlike anything
from a biological to a psychological being. originally intended. A teddy bear, for
In the first few weeks of life the baby’s example, can be a baby or the queen of a
behavior consists simply of reflex faraway land. Piaget believed that
responses, such as sucking, stepping and children’s pretend play helped children
solidify new schemata they were
grasping. Later the reflex disappears and
developing cognitively. This play, then,
the baby chooses what and when to grasp. reflected changes in their conceptions or
During this period the infants attain the thoughts. However, children also learn as
concept of object permeance. This refers they pretend and experiment. Their play
to the understanding that objects and
events continue to exist even when they
 what they have
does not simply represent
learned (Berk, 2007).
cannot directly be seen, heard or touched.
Till this kind of understanding is achieved, 
an object that is out of sight remains out of Egocentrism: Egocentrism in early
mind and therefore, becomes non-existent. childhood refers to the tendency of young
children not to be able to take the
A second major accomplishment in the perspective of others, and instead the child
Sensorimotor period is learning to reverse thinks that everyone sees, thinks, and feels
actions. E.g., we give a toy to a child that just as they do. An egocentric child is not
has ten detachable parts. We detach all able to infer the perspective of other
parts. Through trial and error, the child people and instead attributes his own
gradually learns to attach all the parts of perspective to situations. For example, ten-
the toy. year-old Keiko’s birthday is coming up, so
her mom takes 3-year-old Kenny to the toy
store to choose a present for his sister. He
PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE (2 TO 7 selects an Iron Man action figure for her,
YEARS)-The preoperational period is thinking that if he likes the toy, his sister
divided into two stages: will too.

The Symbolic Function Substage occ urs

between 2 and 4 years of age and is
characterized by the child being able to
mentally represent an object that is not
present and a dependence  on
 perception in problem solving.

 The lasting 
Intuitive ThoughtSub-stage,
from 4 to 7
years is marked by greater dependence
 on intuitivethinking rather than
just perception (Thomas, 1979). At this
stage, children ask many questions as
they attempt to understand the world
around them using immature
reasoning. Piaget’s classic experiment on egocentrism
involved showing children a three-
Let’s examine some of Piaget’s assertions dimensional model of a mountain and asking
about children’s cognitive abilities at this them to describe what a doll that is
age.

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looking at the mountain from a different However, even younger children when
angle might see. Children tend to choose a speaking to others tend to use different
picture that represents their own, rather sentence structures and vocabulary when
than the doll’s view. By age 7 children are addressing a younger child or an older
less self-centered. adult. This indicates some awareness of
the views of others.

level and asked if they have the same

Conservation of Liquid. Does pouring amount. Usually the child agrees they
liquid in a tall, narrow container make have the same amount.
it have more? 
Conservation The experimenter then pours the liquid
Errors: Conservation refers to the in one glass to a taller and thinner
ability to recognize that moving or glass (as shown in b). The child is
rearranging matter does not change the again asked if the two glasses have the
quantity. Let’s look at Kenny and same amount of liquid. The
Keiko again. Dad gave a slice of pizza preoperational child will typically say
to 10-year-old Keiko and another slice the taller glass now has more liquid
to 3-year-old Kenny. Kenny’s pizza because it is taller (as shown in c). The
slice was cut into five pieces, so Kenny child has centrated on the height of the
told his sister that he got more pizza glass and fails to conserve.
than she did. Kenny did not understand
that cutting the pizza into smaller Classification Errors: Preoperational
children have difficulty understanding
pieces did not increase the overall that an object can be classified in more
amountexhibited. than one way. For example, if shown
three white buttons and four black
Centration, or focused on only one ch buttons and asked whether there are
aracteristic of an object to the exclusio more black buttons or buttons, the
n of others. Kenny focused on the five child is likely to respond that there are
pieces of pizza to his sister’s one piece more black buttons. They do not
even though the total amount was the consider the general class of buttons.
same. Keiko was able to consider Because children lack these general 
several characteristics of an object than  classes, their reasoning is typically.
just one. Because children have not
developed this understanding of Transductive, that is, making faulty
conservation, they cannot perform inferences from one specific example
 mentaloperations. to another. For example, Piaget’s
daughter Lucienne stated she had not
The classic Piagetian experiment had her nap, therefore it was not
associated with conservation involves afternoon. She did not understand that
liquid (Crain, 2005). As seen in Figure afternoons are a time period and her
4.10, the child is shown two glasses (as nap was just one of many events that
shown in a) which arefilled to the same occurred in the afternoon (Crain,

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2005). As the child’s vocabulary

improves and more schemata are EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS:
developed, the ability to classify Piaget’s concept of development process
objects improves. of understanding working of the child’s
 mind can be helpful to those who are
Animism: Animism refers to involved in teaching and other educational
attributing life-like qualities to objects. practices. He says that children pass
The cup is alive, the chair that falls through number of stages before the age of
down and hits the child’s ankle is 14 years and a lot of care should be taken
mean, and the toys need to stay home in child’s training and development. Most
because they are tired. Cartoons of the teachers are now in agreement with
frequently show objects that appear him that it is waste of time to take those
alive and take on lifelike things to children which cannot be
[Link] children do seem to experienced through sense organs. When
think that objects that move may be the children form many direct experiences
alive, but after age three, they seldom then only they are in a position to
refer to objects as being alive (Berk, understand the abstract ideas and concept.
2007). Piaget does not like to looking at
education, therefore, the teacher must
always make aneffort to orient education
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL around the child. The most important
STAGE (7 TO 11 YEARS). function of school is to provide good
stimulating environment within the school
At this stage a child is concerned with the for the proper development of their mental
integration of stability of his cognitive abilities. The school should provide good
systems. He learns to add, subtract, library opportunities for free discussions
multiply and divide. He is in a position to and community services. The needs of
classify concrete objects. In short, children adolescents should be given proper place
develop the abilities of rational thinking on the school curriculum.
but their thinking is tied to concrete
objects. At the concrete operational stage,
children are able to use inductive logic – VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL
the type of reasoning that starts from a THEORY OF COGNITIVE
specific idea and leads to a generalization. DEVELOPMENT
They can also distinguish facts from
fantasies, as well as formulate judgements
about cause and effect. Vygotsky has developed a sociocultural
Another important milestone at this stage approach to cognitive development. He
is the idea of reversibility – children developed his theories at around the same
understand that some objects can be time as Jean Piaget was starting to develop
altered and then shaped back to their his ideas (1920's and 30's), but he died at
original shape. For example, a deflated the age of 38, and so his theories are
balloon can be filled with air again to incomplete - although some of his writings
become an inflated balloon. are still being translated from Russian. No
single principle (such as Piaget's
equilibration) can account for
FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE development. Individual development
(11 & ABOVE).This type is characterized cannot be understood without reference to
by the emergence of logical thinking and the social and cultural context within
reasoning. Other important cognitive which it is embedded. Higher mental
attainments during this period are: the processes in the individual have their
ability to think about the hypothetical origin in social [Link]'s
possibilities and to solve problems through theory differs from that of
logical deductions and in a systematic Piaget in a number of important ways:
manner.

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 words, Vygotsky believed that social
learning comes before cognitive
The main assertion of the Vygotsky theory
development, and that children construct
is that the cognitive development of
knowledge actively.
children is advanced through social
interaction with other people, particularly
those who are more skilled. In other VYGOTSKY’S CONCEPT OF ZONE
OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT

Vygotsky is most recognized for his VYGOTSKY’S CONCEPT OF MORE

concept of Zone of Proximal Development KNOWLEDGEABLE OTHER
(ZPD) pertaining to the learning process of
children. According to the Vygotsky Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory emphasizes
theory of cognitive development, children that children learn through social interaction
who are in the zone of proximal that include collaborative and cooperative
development for a particular task can dialogue with someone who is more skilled
almost perform the task independently, but in tasks they’re trying to learn. Vygotsky
not quite there yet. They need some help in called these people with
order to perform the task successfully.

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higher skill level the More Knowledgeable child by a More Knowledgeable Other
Other (MKO). They could be teachers, that enables the child to perform a task
parents, tutors and even peers. until such time that the child can perform
this task independently.
VYGOTSKY’S CONCEPT OF
SCAFFOLDING According to Vygotsky’s theory,
scaffolding entails changing the quality
Vygotsky’s concept of scaffolding is and quantity of support provided to a child
closely related to the concept of the Zone in the course of a teaching session. The
of Proximal Development. Scaffolding MKO adjusts the level of guidance in
refers to the temporary support given to a order to fit the student’s current level of
performance.

(ZPD) showed the greatest improvement

compared with their first attempt at the
For novel tasks, the MKO may utilize task. The conclusion being that guided
direct instruction. As the child gains more learning within the ZPD led to greater
familiarity with the task and becomes more understanding/performance than working
skilled at it, the MKO may then provide alone (discovery learning).
less guidance.

EVIDENCE FOR VYGOTSKY AND

VYGOTSKY AND LANGUAGE:
THE ZPD-

Freund (1990) conducted a study in which Vygotsky believed that language develops
children had to decide which items of from social interactions, for
furniture should be placed in particular communication purposes. Vygotsky
areas of a dolls house. Some children were viewed language as man’s greatest tool, a
allowed to play with their mother in a means for communicating with the outside
similar situation before they attempted it world. According to Vygotsky (1962)
alone (zone of proximal development) language plays two critical roles in
while others were allowed to work on this cognitive development:
by themselves (Piaget's discovery It is the main means by which adults
learning). Freund found that those who had transmit information to children.
previously worked with their mother

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Language itself becomes a very powerful for the purpose of self-regulation (rather
tool of intellectual adaptation. than communication).' (Diaz, 1992, p.62)

VYGOTSKY (1987) Unlike inner speech which is covert (i.e.,

DIFFERENTIATES BETWEEN hidden), private speech is overt. In contrast
THREE FORMS OF LANGUAGE: to Piaget’s (1959) notion of private speech
representing a developmental dead-end,
Vygotsky (1934, 1987) viewed private
Social speech which is external speech as: 'A revolution in development
communication used to talk to others which is triggered when preverbal thought
(typical from the age of two); private and pre-intellectual language come together
speech (typical from the age of three) to create fundamentally new
which is directed to the self and serves an forms of mental functioning.'
intellectual function; and finally, private (Fernyhough& Fradley, 2005: p. 1)
speech goes underground, diminishing in
audibility as it takes on a self-regulating
function and is transformed into silent Through private speech, children begin to
inner speech (typical from the age of collaborate with themselves in the same way
seven). For Vygotsky, thought and a more knowledgeable other (e.g., adults)
language are initially separate systems collaborate with them in the achievement of
from the beginning of life, merging at a given function. Vygotsky (1987) notes that
around three years of age. At this point private speech does not merely accompany a
speech and thought become child’s activity but acts as a tool used by the
interdependent: thought becomes verbal, developing child to facilitate cognitive
speech becomes representational. When processes, such as overcoming task
this happens, children's monologues obstacles, enhancing imagination, thinking,
internalized to become inner speech. The and conscious awareness. Vygotsky (1987)
internalization of language is important as proposed that private speech is a product of
it drives cognitive development. 'Inner an individual’s social environment. This
speech is not the interior aspect of external hypothesis is supported by the fact that there
speech - it is a function in itself. It still exist high positive correlations between
remains speech, i.e., thought connected rates of social interaction and private speech
with words. But while in external speech in children. Children raised in cognitively
thought is embodied in words, in inner and linguistically stimulating
speech words dies as they bring forth environments (situations more
thought. Inner speech is to a large extent frequently observed in higher
thinking in pure meanings.' (Vygotsky, socioeconomic status families) start using
1962: p. 149). and internalizing private speech faster than
children from less privileged backgrounds.
Indeed, children raised in environments
Vygotsky (1987) was the first psychologist
characterized by low verbal and social
to document the importance of private
exchanges exhibit delays in private speech
speech. He considered private speech as
development.
the transition point between social and
inner speech, the moment in development
where language and thought unite to CLASSROOM APPLICATIONS
constitute verbal thinking. Thus, private A contemporary educational application of
speech, in Vygotsky's view, was the Vygotsky's theories is "reciprocal teaching,"
earliest manifestation of inner speech. used to improve students' ability to learn
Indeed, private speech is more similar (in from text. In this method, teachers and
its form and function) to inner speech than students collaborate in learning and
social speech. Private speech is 'typically practicing four key skills: summarizing,
defined, in contrast to social speech, as questioning, clarifying, and predicting.
speech addressed to the self (not to others)

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The teacher's role in the process is reduced together to form sentences, groups of
over time. Also, Vygotsky is relevant to words that make meaningful statements.
instructional concepts such as Pragmatics is the study of language as
"scaffolding" and "apprenticeship," in used in particular situations, which may
which a teacher or more advanced peer affect its meaning. Consider the
helps to structure or arrange a task so that statement, “What a wonderful day!” and
a novice can work on it successfully. its various meanings if the sun is shining,
Vygotsky's theories also feed into the if the rain is pouring down, and if the
current interest in collaborative learning, speaker has just received a traffic ticket.
suggesting that group members should
have different levels of ability so more
advanced peers can help less advanced ACQUISITION OF LANGUAGE. B. F.
members operate within their ZPD. Skinner believed that language acquisition,
an important development in childhood,
occurs because of reinforcement, that is,
LANGUAGE
because children’s parents or other
caregivers reward them when their initially
Language is a system of communication random sounds most resemble speech.
using gestures, sounds, or written symbols Linguist Noam Chomsky contested
that have significance for those who use Skinner's approach and proposed the well‐
the language and follow its rules. In known, but controversial, theory that
speech, phonemes are the smallest units of children have an innate neural mechanism
sound in a language, and although they called a language acquisition device
individually have no meaning, they acquire (LAD) (not yet discovered), which allows
it when combined. For example, the them to master language.
phonemes k and r alone convey no
meaning (other than that they are letters),
but together they sound like car, which is a
meaningful sound in the English language.

SEMANTICS. The term semantics refers

to the study of meaning in a language. The
smallest unit of meaning in spoken
language is called a morpheme, which in
many instances is itself a word. The word
overcoat is composed of two morphemes,
over and coat. Language rules govern the
combination of morphemes to
create meaning; overcoat, for example,
Developmental psychologists have
means something different than
subsequently documented the general
does coatover.
process of language acquisition, which is
usually thought to progress through the
SENTENCES. Language rules also
stages shown in Table 1.
dictate syntax, how morphemes are put

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 here)[Link]
KOHLBERG’S MORAL czp9S4u26M
DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Kohlberg believed and was able to
Lawrence Kohlberg was, for many years, a demonstrate through studies...that people
professor at Harvard University. He progressed in their moral reasoning (i.e., in
became famous for his work there their bases for ethical behavior) through a
beginning in the early 1970s. He started as series of stages. He believed that there
a developmental psychologist and then were six identifiable stages which could be
moved to the field of moral education. He more generally classified into three levels.
was particularly well-known for his theory
of moral development which he The first level of moral thinking is that
popularized through research studies generally found at the elementary school
conducted at Harvard's Center for Moral level. In the first stage of this level, people
Education. behave according to socially acceptable
norms because they are told to do so by
His theory of moral development was some authority figure (e.g., parent or
dependent on the thinking of the Swiss teacher). This obedience is compelled by
psychologist Jean Piaget and the American the threat or application of punishment.
philosopher John Dewey. He was also The second stage of this level is
inspired by James Mark Baldwin. These characterized by a view that right behavior
men had emphasized that human beings means acting in one's own best interests.
develop philosophically and
psychologically in a progressive fashion. The second level of moral thinking is that
He used Piaget’s storytelling technique to generally found in society, hence the name
tell people stories involving moral "conventional." The first stage of this level
dilemmas. In each case, he presented a (stage 3) is characterized by an attitude
choice to be considered, for example, which seeks to do what will gain the
between the rights of some authority and approval of others. The second stage is
the needs of some deserving individual one oriented to abiding by the law and
who is being unfairly treated. responding to the obligations of duty.

One of the best known of Kohlberg’s The third level of moral thinking is one
(1958) stories concerns a man called Heinz that Kohlberg felt is not reached by the
who lived somewhere in Europe: (Link majority of adults. Its first stage (stage 5)
is an understanding of social mutuality and
a genuine interest in the welfare of others.

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The last stage (stage 6) is based on respect Kohlberg, it was important to present them
for universal principle and the demands of with moral dilemmas for discussion which
individual conscience. While Kohlberg would help them to see the reasonableness
always believed in the existence of Stage 6 of a "higher stage" morality and encourage
and had some nominees for it, he could their development in that direction. The
never get enough subjects to define it, last comment refers to Kohlberg's moral
much less observe their longitudinal discussion approach. He saw this as one of
movement to it. the ways in which moral development can
be promoted through formal education.
Kohlberg believed that individuals could Note that Kohlberg believed, as did Piaget,
only progress through these stages one that most moral development occurs
stage at a time. That is, they could not through social interaction. The discussion
"jump" stages. They could not, for approach is based on the insight that
example, move from an orientation of individuals develop as a result of cognitive
selfishness to the law and order stage conflicts at their current stage.
without passing through the good boy/girl
stage. They could only come to a Kohlberg's classification can be outlined
comprehension of a moral rationale one in the following manner:
stage above their own. Thus, according to

CRITICISM:

Kohlberg’s work has been criticized by a

lot of researchers. A prominent one among
them is Carol Gilligan who argues that

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Kohlberg’s theory reflects a gender bias. achievement of separation from the mother
In contrast with Kohlberg’s justice or on the progress of individuation. Since
perspective, Gilligan argues for a care masculinity is defined through separation
perspective, which is a moral perspective while femininity is defined through
that views people in terms of their attachment, male gender identity is
connectedness with others and emphasizes threatened by intimacy while female
interpersonal communication, relationships gender identity is threatened by separation.
with others and concern for others. Thus, males tend to have difficulty with
According to Gilligan, Kohlberg greatly relationships, while females tend to have
underplayed the care perspective, perhaps problems with individuation.
because he was a male, because most of Even though Gilligan’s critique is an
his research was with males rather than important one, questions have been raised
females, and because he used male about Gilligan’s gender conclusions
responses as a model for his theory. (Walker and Frimer, 2009). For example, a
In Gilligan’s conception of morality, meta-analysis casts doubt on Gilligan’s
which is different from psychologists like claim of substantial gender differences in
Freud,Piaget or Kohlberg, the moral moral judgements (Jaffee and Hyde,
problem arises from conflicting 2000). Also, a research review concluded
responsibilities rather than from competing that girls’ moral orientations are
rights and requires for its resolution a “somewhat more likely to focus on care
mode of thinking that is contextual and for others than on abstract principles of
narrative rather than formal and abstract. justice, but they can use both moral
This conception concerned with the orientations when needed (as can boys...)”
activity of care centers moral development (Blakemore, Brenbaum and Liben, 2009).
around the understanding of responsibility
and relationships, just as the conception of
Some other criticisms of Kohlberg’s
morality as fairness ties moral
theory include:
development to the understanding of rights
and rules. The morality of rights differs  Moral thought and moral behavior:
from the morality of responsibility in its Kohlberg’s theory has been
emphasis on separation rather than criticized for placing too much
connection and in its consideration of the emphasis on moral thought and not
individual rather than the relationship as enough emphasis on moral
primary. behavior (Walker, 2004).

This dissimilar construction of the moral
problem by women has been cited as the Culture and Moral Reasoning:
critical reason for their failure to develop Kohlberg emphasized that his
within the constraints of Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning are
universal, but some critics claim
system. his theory is culturally  biased
 (Gibbs, 2010; Miller, 2007).
The differences in morality in men and
women may as well be understood by  Families 
and Moral Development:
differences in their formation of gender Kohlberg argued that family
identity as pointed out by Gilligan (1979) processes are essentially
in her paper ‘Woman’s Place in Man’s unimportant in children’s moral
Life Cycle.’ development. However, most
experts on children’s moral
For boys and men, separation and development conclude that parent’s
individuation are critically tied to gender moral values and actions influence
identity since separation from the mother children’s development of moral
is essential for the development of
masculinity. On the other hand, for girls
and women, issues of femininity or
feminine identity do not depend on the

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reasoning (Laible and Thompson, “bioecological systems theory” to

2007). emphasize that a child’s own biology is a
primary environment fueling her
development. The interaction between
BRONFENBRENNER’S factors in the child’s maturing biology, his
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY immediate family/community
environment, and the societal landscape
Ecological systems theory: This theory fuels and steers his development. Changes
looks at a child’s development within the or conflict in any one layer will ripple
context of the system of relationships that throughout other layers. To study a child’s
form his or her environment. development then, we must look not only
Bronfenbrenner’s theory defines complex at the child and her immediate
“layers” of environment, each having an environment, but also at the interaction of
effect on a child’s development. This the larger environment as well.
theory has recently been renamed

the child also affects the behavior and

beliefs of the parent. Bronfenbrenner calls
these bi-directional influences, and he
THE MICROSYSTEM– this is the layer shows how they occur among all levels of
closest to the child and contains the environment. The interaction of structures
structures with which the child has direct within a layer and interactions of
contact. The microsystem encompasses the structures between layers is key to this
relationships and interactions a child has theory. At the microsystem level, bi-
with her immediate surroundings (Berk, directional influences are strongest and
2000). Structures in the microsystem have the greatest impact on the child.
include family, school, neighborhood, or However, interactions at outer levels can
childcare environments. At this level, still impact the inner structures. The
relationships have impact in two directions
mesosystem – this layer provides the
both away from the child and toward the connection between the structures of the
child. For example, a child’s parents may child’s microsystem (Berk, 2000).
affect his beliefs and behavior; however,

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Examples: the connection between the quickly during the Prenatal Period, which
child’s teacher and his parents, between is the time between conception and birth.
his church and his neighborhood, etc. Fetal development occurs in
THE EXO-SYSTEM – this layer defines cephalocaudal order, beginning with the
the larger social system in which the child head and ending with the lower body and
does not function directly. The structures extremities. This sequence of development
in this layer impact the child’s results in the head of a typical fetus being
development by interacting with some disproportionately larger than the rest of
structure in her microsystem (Berk, 2000). its [Link] period is generally divided
Parent workplace schedules or community- into three stages: the germinal stage, the
based family resources are examples. The embryonic stage, and the fetal stage.
child may not be directly involved at this
level, but he does feel the positive or
negative force involved with the STAGE 1: THE GERMINAL STAGE
interaction with his own system. The two-week period after conception is
called the Germinal Stage. Conception
occurs when a sperm cell combines with
THE MACROSYSTEM– this layer may an egg cell to form a Zygote. About thirty-
be considered the outermost layer in the six hours after conception, the zygote
child’s environment. While not being a begins to divide quickly. The resulting ball
specific framework, this layer is comprised of cells moves along the mother’s
of cultural values, customs, and laws fallopian tube to the uterus.
(Berk, 2000). The effects of larger
principles defined by the macrosystem
have a cascading influence throughout the Around seven days after conception, the
interactions of all other layers. For ball of cells starts to become embedded in
example, if it is the belief of the culture the wall of the uterus. This process is
that parents should be solely responsible called Implantation and takes about a
for raising their children, that culture is week to complete. If implantation fails, as
less likely to provide resources to help is quite common, the pregnancy
parents. This, in turn, affects the structures terminates. One key feature of the
in which the parent’s function. The germinal stage is the formation of a tissue
parents’ ability or inability to carry out that called the Placenta. The placenta has two
responsibility toward their child within the important functions:
context of the child’s microsystem is Passing oxygen and nutrients
likewise affected. from the mother’s blood into
 the embryo or fetus
THE CHRONOSYSTEM– this system Removing waste materials
encompasses the dimension of time as it from the embryo or fetus
relates to a child’s environments. Elements STAGE 2: THE EMBRYONIC
within this system can be either external, STAGE
such as the timing of a parent’s death, or The Embryonic Stage lasts from the
internal, such as the physiological changes end of the germinal stage to two
that occur with the aging of a child. As months after conception. The
children get older, they may react developing ball of cells is now called
differently to environmental changes and an Embryo. In this stage, all the
may be more able to determine more how major organs form, and the embryo
that change will influence them. becomes very fragile. The biggest
dangers are teratogens, which are
DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES agents such as viruses, drugs, or
radiation that can cause deformities
PRENATAL in an embryo or fetus. At the end of
DEVELOPMENT:Development happens the embryonic period, the embryo is
only about an inch long.

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syndrome may have problems such as

STAGE 3: THE FETAL STAGE small head size, heart defects, irritability,
hyperactivity, mental retardation, or
The last stage of prenatal development is slowed motor development. Fetal alcohol
the Fetal Stage, which lasts from two syndrome is incurable.
months after conception until birth. About
one month into this stage, the sex organs
of the fetus begin to form. The fetus INFANCY AND TODDLER-HOOD
quickly grows as bones and muscles form, STAGE:
and it begins to move inside the uterus.
Organ systems develop further and start to Developmentalpsychologistsusedtheter
function. During the last three months, the minfancytodenotetheperiodofdevelopm
brain increases rapidly in size, an entthat generally is from birth to two
insulating layer of fat forms under the skin, years of age. The word infant means
and the respiratory and digestive systems “without language”. Infancy includes
start to work independently. development in the areas of cognition,
FETAL VIABILITY perception, motor activity, emotion,
[Link]
Around twenty-two to twenty-six weeks ofinfancyperiodinfantscan recognize
after conception, the fetus reaches the age humanfaces
of viability, after which it has some chance andafterthattheycandifferentiatebetwee
of surviving out-side the womb if it is born nknownandunknownfacesandreactdiffe
prematurely. The chances of a premature rently.
baby’s survival increase significantly with
Developmentondifferentareastakeplacet
each additional week it remains in the
hroughinfancytotoddlerhood,i.e.,thefirs
mother’s uterus.
tthree years oflife.

ADVERSE FACTORS AFFECTING a. PHYSICALDEVELOPMENT:

FETAL DEVELOPMENT
Although the womb provides protection, [Link]
the fetus remains indirectly connected to sdevelopmentisrapidduringinfancy .Infantsincrease
the outside world through its mother.
Several factors that are linked to the theirbodyweightalmosttripleandinc
mother can harm the fetus: reaseinheightbyaboutone-third
during thefirstyear
Poor nutrition [Link]
Use of alcohol ftheinfantincreasebutalsobrainsize
Smoking expandsrapidly

Use of certain prescription or over-the- duringthefirst18monthsandbrainwe
counter drugs ightoftheinfantreachingmorethanh

Use of recreational drugs such as alfoftheadult brain due to rapid
 cocaine, sedatives, and narcotics growth of dendrites and axons
 X-rays and other kinds of radiation within the brain and glia cells.
Ingested toxins, such as lead Physical development also
 Illnesses such as AIDS, German includes development in vision,
measles, syphilis, cholera, hearing, perceptual development
smallpox, mumps, or severe flu etc. Infants motor development
takes place in a sequential order
and this type of development
FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME
proceeds from head towards the
limbs. Infant first controls his head
Mothers who drink heavily during
and trunk, then lift his chest,sit-up-
pregnancy may have babies with fetal
right,crawling,creeping,standwithh
alcohol syndrome. Babies with this
elp,standalongwithholdingsome

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objects, and soon walking. REFLEXES AND MOTOR SKILLS

Thisdevelopmentoccursduetoimpr
ovementofskillsandcontrolofother Because infants cannot endure on
body parts like legs, arms, etc. their own, newborns have specific
Gradually children develop their built‐in or prewired abilities for
eye, head and hand coordination survival and adaptive
and are able to pick upthings. purposes. Reflexes are automatic
reactions to stimulation that enable
In the early life, infant’s vision,
infants to respond to the environment
hearing and perception are not
before any learning has taken place.
clear and focused. The neonate
For instance, babies automatically
prefers to perceive brighter colors
suck when presented with a nipple,
and which are nearer to him. These
turn their heads when a parent speaks,
senses develop as the child
grasp at a finger that is pressed into
matures from infancy to
their hand, and startle when exposed
toddlerhood. The new born is well
to loud noises. Some reflexes, such as
equipped with sensory functioning
blinking, are permanent. Others, such
for life. The child is capable to
as grasping, disappear after several
turn his head toward a loud noise
months and eventually become
or clapping. Gradually he tries to
voluntary responses.
locate the source of noise and he
can differentiate between the voice COMMON INFANT MOTOR
of mother and the father and also REFLEXES APPEAR IN TABLE 1.
recognizes the voices of other
people. Another capacity of the (OVER LEAF)
infant is his ability to learn from
experience. For example, the child
learns to suck faster when sucking
is pleasant.
Piaget noted that the sensory
motor stage of cognitive
development occurs during
infancy. During infancy period
there are development in vision,
control of muscles and nervous
system, start to eat and sleep on
regular intervals, sit on their own
and to hold objects themselves.

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Motor skills, or behavioral abilities, body) and proximodistal (extremities and
develop in conjunction with physical lower body) patterns, so that motor skills
growth. In other words, infants must learn become refined first from the center and
to engage in motor activities within the upper body and later from the extremities
context of their changing bodies. At about and lower body. For example, swallowing
1 month, infants may lift their chins while is refined before walking, and arm
lying flat on their stomachs. Within movements are refined before hand
another month, infants may raise their movements.
chests from the same position. By the
fourth month, infants may grasp rattles, as TEMPERAMENT:Some babies have
well as sit with support. By the fifth fussy personalities, while others have
month, infants may roll over, and by the chirpy or quiet natures. These differences
eighth month, infants may be able to sit result from Temperament, the kind of
without assistance. At about 10 months, personality features babies are born with,
toddlers may stand while holding onto an individual differences in behavioural
object for support. At about 14 months, styles, emotions, and characteristic ways
toddlers may stand alone and perhaps even of [Link] has an
walk. Of course, these ages for each emotional basis; but while emotions such
motor‐skill milestone are averages; the as fear, excitement, and boredom come
rates of physical and motor developments and go, temperament is relatively
differ among children depending on a consistent and enduring.
variety of factors, including heredity, the Temperament—sometimes defined as a
amount of activity the child participates in, person’s characteristic, biologically based
and the amount of attention the child way of approaching and reacting to people
receives. and situations—has been described as the
how of behaviour: not what people do, but
Motordevelopment how they go about doing it (Thomas &
follows cephalocaudal (center and upper Chess, 1977).
Temperament appears to be largely inborn
and probably hereditary. But not fully

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formed at birth. It can change during the Easy children tend to be happy and
early months in response to parental adapt easily to change. They have
attitudes and treatment. regular sleeping and eating patterns
and don’t upset easily.
Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess, two  Slow-To-Warm-Up children tend
researchers who study temperament, to be less cheerful and less
described three basic types of adaptable than easy children. They
temperament: easy, slow to warm up, and are cautious about new
difficult. In their research, 40 percent of experiences. Their sleeping and
the children were easy, 15 percent were eating patterns are less regular than
slow to warm up, and 10 percent were those of easy children.
difficult. The remaining 35 percent of the Difficult children tend to be glum and
children displayed a mixture of these irritable, and they dislike change.
temperaments: Their eating and sleeping patterns
are irregular.

Various psychologists have provided

insight on the devoploment of attachment.
ATTACHMENT Freud: He emphasised that infants
Attachment is a close emotional bond become attched to the person or object that
between two people. It is the strong provides oral satisfaction. For most
affectionate tie we have with special infants, this is the mother, since she is
people in our lives that leads us to most likely to feed the infant.
experience pleasure and joy when we Erik Erikson: Physical comfort plays a
interact with them and to be comforted by crucial role in his view of infant’s
their nearness during times of [Link] the devlopment. Phyical comfort and sensitive
second half of the first year , infants care, accordig to Erikson(1968), are key to
beconme attached to familiar people who establishing a basic trust in infants.
have responded to their needs.
Behaviourism: Behaviourism emphasizes
the importance of feeding. According to a

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well-known behaviourist account, as the Rhesus monkeys from their mothers at

mother satisfies the baby’s hunger, the birth;for six months they were reared by
infants learn to prefer her soft caresses, surrogate mothers. One surrogate mother
warm smiles, and tender words of comfort was made of wire, the other of cloth.
because these events have been paired with Regardless of which mother fed them, the
tension relief. infant monkeys spent more time with the
cloth mother. Whether the mother
provided comfort seemed to determine
Harlow: He emphazised the importance of whether the monkeys associated the
contact comfort in the attachment process. mother with security.
A classic study done by him in 1958
revealed this. Harlow removed infant

A plain cylindrical A form covered

wire-mesh form with terry cloth

were fed
from bottles “nursed” by the warm,
connected to the cuddly cloth ones
wire “mothers

Showed more natural interest

spent more time clinging in exploring than those
to the cloth surrogates, “raised” by wire surrogates
even if they were being
fed only by the wire ones

After a year’s separation,

After a year’s separation

the “cloth-raised” monkeys

eagerly ran to embrace the terry-
“wire-raised” monkeys cloth forms, whereas the
showed no interest in
the wire forms

an evolved response that promotes

Bowlby: The ethological perspcetive given survival through ensuring both safety and
by John Bowlby(1969,1989) also stresses competence. In his theory, he retained the
the importance of attachment in the first psychoanalytic idea that quality of
year of life and the responsiveness of the attachment to the caregiever has profound
caregiver. implications for the child’s feelings of
security and capacity to form trusting
BOWLBY’S ETHOLOGICAL relationships. At the same time, Bowlby
THEORY OF ATTACHMENT was inspired by Konrad Lorenz’s studies
of imprinting.
The ethological theory of attchment DEVELOPMENTAL COURSE OF
formulated by Bowlby views the infant’s ATTACHMENT:
emotional tie to the familiar caregiver as

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According to Bowlby, attachment

develops in four phases: Bowlby argued that infants develop an
internal working model of attachment, a
simplemental model of the caregiver, their
Pre-attachment (birth to 6 weeks): relationship and the self as deserving of
Built-in signals, such as crying and nurturant care.
cooing, grasping, smiling and gazing
into the adult’s eyes- bring a newborn
baby into close proximity with their INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN
caregiver. Babies of this age recognize ATTACHMENT PATTERNS
their own mothers smell and voice.
However, they are not yet attached to Mary Ainsworth (1979) proposed that the
her, so the baby is still comfortable quality of babies’ attachment experiences
being left with an unfamiliar person. vary. She created the Strange Situation, an
Attachment-in-the-making (6 weeks observational measure of infant attachment
to 8 months): During this phase, that takes about 20 minutes in which the
infants respond differently to familiar infant experiences a series of
caregivers than they do to strangers. As introductions, separations and reunions
infants interact with their parents and with the caregiver and an adult stranegr in
experience relief from distress, they a prescribed order.
learn that their own actions affect the
behaviour of those around them. They Observing the responses of infants to these
begin to develop a sense of trust- the episodes, researchers have identified a
expectation that the caregiver will secure attachment pattern and three patterns
respond when signalled. Though they of insecurity; a few babies cannot be
recognize the parents babies still do not clasified (Ainsworth et al., 1978;Barnett
protest when separated from her. and Vondra,1999; Main and
Parents continue to build attachment Solomon,1990).
by meeting the baby's basic needs for
 food, shelter, and comfort.
Clear-cut attachment (8 months to
18 months): In this phase, attachment
to the familiar caregiver is evident.
Babies display separation anxiety- they
become upset when the adult on whom
they have come to rely, leaves.
Separation anxiety does not always
occur; it depends on infant
temperament, context and the adult’s
behaviour. During this phase, infants
use their mother as a secure base from Attachment Description
pattern
 which to explore. 
Formation of reciprocal attachment Secure These infants use

(18 months to 2 years): By the end of attachment the parent as a

the second year, Rapid growth in secure base.

representation and language permits When separated
toddlers to understand some of the they may or may
factors that influence parent’s coming not cry, but if
and going and to predict her return. As they do, it is due
a result, separation protest declines. to the parent’s
Now children start to negotiate with absence, Since
the caregiver using requests and they show A
persuasion to alter her goals rather than strong preference
clinging to her. for her over the
stranger.

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 
When the parent Disorganized - This pattern
returns they disoriented reflects the
actively seek attachment greatest
contact, and their insecurity.

crying is reduced At reunion, these
immediately. infants show
 confused,
Avoidant These infants
attachment seem Contradictory
unresponsive to behaviors.

the parent when They might look
she is present. way while being
 held by the
When she leaves,
they usually are parent or
not distressed, approach her
and they react to with flat,
the stranger in depressed
much the same emotion.

way as to the Most
parent. Communicate
 their
During reunion
they avoid or are disorientation
slow to greet the with a dazed
parent, and when expression on the
picked up, they face.

often fail to A few cries out
cling. after having
 calmed down or
Resistant Before
attachment separation, these display odd,
infants often frozen postures.
seek closeness to
the parent and CAREGIVING STYLES AND
fail to explore. ATTACHMENT:

When she
returns, they
Dozens of studies report that sensitive
display angry,
caregiving- responding promptly,
resistive
consistently and appropriately to infants
behavior,
and holding them tenderly and carefully-
sometimes
is moderately related to attachment
hitting and
security in diverse cultures.
pushing.
 Caregivers of avoidant babies tend to be
In addition,
many continue to unavailable or rejecting (Posada and
cry and cling Kaloustian, 2010). They often don’t
after being respond to their babies’ signals and have
picked up and little physical contact with them. When
cannot be they do interact with their babies, they
comforted easily. may behave in an angry or irritable way.
Resistant infants often experience
inconsistent care. Their mothers are
unresponsive to infant signals. Yet when
the baby begins to explore, these mothers
interfere, shifting the infant’s attention
back to themselves. In general, the
caregivers tend not to be very affectionate

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with their babies and show little synchrony about 46 inches and weigh about 46
when interacting with them. pounds. Of course, these figures are
Caregivers of disorganized babies often averages and differ from child to child,
neglect or physically abuse them (Bernard depending on socioeconomic status,
and others, 2012; Bohlin and others, 2012; nourishment, health, and heredity factors.
Groh and others, 2012).
b. BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
Across several studies, a special form of
communication called interactional
Brain and nervous system developments
synchrony separated the experiences of during early childhood also continue to be
secure and insecure babies. It is best dramatic. The better developed the brain
described as a sensitively tuned and nervous systems are, the more
“emotional dance” in which the caregiver complex behavioral and cognitive abilities
responds to infant signals in a well-timed, children are capable of.
rhythmic, appropriate fashion.
The brain is comprised of two halves,
THE CHILDHOOD STAGE: the right and left cerebral
hemispheres. Lateralization refers to the
localization of assorted functions,
Ages 2 through 6 are the early childhood competencies, and skills in either or both
years, or preschool years. This stage hemispheres. Specifically, language,
includes two sub-stages: one is early writing, logic, and mathematical skills
childhood and another is late childhood. seem to be located in the left hemisphere,
This period covers the period between the while creativity, fantasy, artistic, and
age of 3 to 11 years. Sometimes the girls at musical skills seem to be located in the
13 years right hemisphere. Although the
andboysat14yearsofageareconsideredasado hemispheres may have separate functions,
lescentsandtillthenthechildisconsidered these brain masses almost always
[Link] coordinate their functions and work
dsignificantphysicalandpsychologicalchan together.
ges take place.
The two cerebral hemispheres develop at
different rates, with the left hemisphere
a. PHYSICAL CHANGES
developing more fully in early childhood
(ages 2 to 6), and the right hemisphere
Children begin to lose their baby fat, or
developing more fully in middle childhood
chubbiness, around age 3. Toddlers soon
(ages 7 to 11). The left hemisphere
acquire the leaner, more athletic look
predominates earlier and longer, which
associated with childhood. The child's
may explain why children acquire
trunk and limbs grow longer, and the
language so early and quickly.
abdominal muscles form, tightening the
appearance of the stomach. Even at this
early stage of life, boys tend to have more Another aspect of brain development is
muscle mass than girls. The preschoolers' handedness, or preference for using one
physical proportions also continue to hand over the other. Handedness appears
change, with their heads still being to be strongly established by middle
disproportionately large, but less so than in childhood. About 90 percent of the general
toddlerhood. population is right‐handed, while the rest
of the population is left‐handed
and/or ambidextrous. A person is
Three‐year‐old preschoolers may grow
ambidextrous if he or she shows no
to be about 38 inches tall and weigh about
preference for one hand over the other.
32 pounds. For the next 3 years, healthy
Typically, right‐handedness is associated
preschoolers grow an additional 2 to 3
with left‐cerebral dominance and left‐
inches and gain from 4 to 6 pounds per
handedness with right‐cerebral dominance.
year. By age 6, children reach a height of

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The nervous system undergoes changes in  Form a mental image of the behavior.

 Imitate the behavior.
early childhood, too. The majority of a 
 Practice the behavior.
child's neurons, or cells that make up 
Be motivated to repeat the behavior.
nerves, form prenatally. However, the glial
cells, (nervous system support cells
In other words, children must be ready,
surrounding neurons) that nourish,
have adequate opportunities, and be
insulate, and remove waste from the
interested in developing motor skills to
neurons without actually transmitting
become competent at those skills.
information themselves, develop most
rapidly during infancy, toddlerhood, and
early childhood. The myelin sheaths that d. FAMILIAL RELATIONSHIPS
surround, insulate, and increase the
efficiency of neurons (by speeding up the DIANA BAUMRIND'S (1966, 67)
action potential along the axon) also form PROTOTYPICAL DESCRIPTIONS
rapidly during the first few years of life. OF 3 PARENTING STYLES
The postnatal developments of glial cells
and myelin sheaths help to explain why The permissive parent attempts to behave
older children may perform behaviors that in a nonpunitive, acceptant and affirmative
younger children are not capable of. manner towards the child's impulses,
desires, and actions. She [the parent]
consults with him [the child] about policy
c. MOTOR SKILLS
decisions and gives explanations for
family rules. She makes few demands for
Motor skills are physical abilities or
household responsibility and orderly
capacities. Gross motor skills, which
behavior. She presents herself to the child
include running, jumping, hopping,
as a resource for him to use as he wishes,
turning, skipping, throwing, balancing, and
not as an ideal for him to emulate, nor as
dancing, involve the use of large bodily
an active agent responsible for shaping or
movements. Fine motor skills, which
altering his ongoing or future behavior.
include drawing, writing, and tying
She allows the child to regulate his own
shoelaces, involve the use of small bodily
activities as much as possible, avoids the
movements. Both gross and fine motor exercise of control, and does not
skills develop and are refined during early encourage him to obey externally defined
childhood; however, fine motor skills standards. She attempts to use reason and
develop more slowly in preschoolers. If manipulation, but not overt power to
you compare the running abilities of a 2‐ accomplish her ends (p. 889).
year‐old and a 6‐year‐old, for example,
you may notice the limited running skills
The authoritarian parent attempts to
of the 2‐year‐old. But the differences
shape, control, and evaluate the behavior
are even more striking when comparing a
and attitudes of the child in accordance
2‐ year‐old and 6‐year‐old who are tying
with a set standard of conduct, usually an
shoelaces. The 2‐year‐old has difficulty
absolute standard, theologically motivated
grasping the concept before ever
and formulated by a higher authority. She
attempting or completing the task.
[the parent] values obedience as a virtue
and favors punitive, forceful measures to
Albert Bandura's theory of observational curb self-will at points where the child's
learning is applicable to preschoolers' actions or beliefs conflict with what she
learning gross and fine motor skills. thinks is right conduct. She believes in
Bandura states that once children are keeping the child in his place, , in
biologically capable of learning certain restricting his autonomy, and in assigning
behaviors, children must do the following household responsibilities in order to
in order to develop new skills:  inculcate respect for work. She regards the
Observe the behavior in others.

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preservation of order and traditional but recognizes the child's individual

structure as a highly valued end in itself. interests and special ways. The
She does not encourage verbal give and authoritative parent affirms the child's
take, believing that the child should accept present qualities, but also sets standards
her word for what is right (p. 890). for future conduct. She uses reason,
power, and shaping by regime and
The authoritative parent attempts to direct reinforcement to achieve her objectives,
the child's activities but in a rational, issue- and does not base her decisions on group
oriented manner. She [the parent] consensus or the individual child's desires.
encourages verbal give and take, shares [... but also, does not regard herself as
with the child the reasoning behind her infallible, or divinely inspired.]
policy, and solicits his objections when he
refuses to conform. Both autonomous self- [Note that portions in brackets are
will and disciplined conformity are valued. significant additions to the prototype in
[She values both expressive and Baumrind (1967).]
instrumental attributes, both autonomous
self-will and disciplined conformity] ... CONSEQUENCES OF PARENTING
Therefore, she exerts firm control at points STYLES
of parent-child divergence, but does not
hem the child in with restrictions. She
enforces her own perspective as an adult,

Authoritative Authoritarian Permissive

Parenting Parenting parenting
anxious, withdrawn,
lively happy disposition and unhappy poor emotion
self-confident about disposition regulation (under
ability to master tasks. poor reactions to regulated)
frustration rebellious and
girls likely to give up defiant when desires
Well developed boys become hostile are challenged.
emotion regulation
Developed social skills
do well in school (studies
may show authoritative
parenting is comparable)
low persistence to
less rigid about gender- not likely to engage in challenging tasks
typed traits (exp: antisocial activities (exp:
sensitivity in boys and drug and alcohol abuse, antisocial behaviors
independence in girls) vandalism, gangs)

be complied with and [Link]

WHY DOES AUTHORITATIVE parents who are secure in the standards they
PARENTING WORK? hold for their children provide models of
caring concern as well as confident, self-
controlled behavior. A child's modeling of
Control that appears fair and reasonable (i.e.
these parents provides emotion regulation
not arbitrary) to the child is far more likely to
skills, emotional understanding, and social
[Link] who combine warmth
and rational and reasonable control are likely

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to be more effective reinforcing agents. They

praise children for striving to meet their NEGLECTFUL OR UNINVOLVED
expectations and making good use of PARENTING
disapproval, which works best when applied th
by an adult who has been warm and caring.  4 style  
 Added by Maccoby & Martin (1983)
Parents, because of stress or depression
Authoritative parents make demands that fit  focus  own needs rather than on
on their
their child.
with children's ability to take responsibility Related with a number of behavioral
for their own behavior. Children subsequently 
disorders in childhood & adolescence
learn that they are competent individuals who (Baumrind, 1991)
can do things successfully for themselves.
This fosters high self-esteem, cognitive
development, and emotional maturity.

PEERS- PLAY:

The significance of peers is made evident inculcates initiative taking and adherence
very early on. Play is a voluntary, to social rules.
intrinsically motivated, usually non-literal Piaget (1951) and Parten (1932) divided
activity which helps children develop new playing behaviour on the basis of content
skills, mastery over their own body, and social dimension:
cognitive skills, physical health and
PIAGET (1951) PARTEN (1932)

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these processes are associated with

adolescent development depends on how
and when adolescents grow.

Adolescence typically describes the

1. Functional 2. Constructive years between ages 13 and 19 and can
Play: Play: product
Manipulate oriented play be considered the transitional stage
objects and (Eg: building a
repeat actions lego house) from childhood to adulthood. However,
the physical and psychological changes
4. Games with
3. Dramatic
that occur in adolescence can start
Rules: require
problem
Play: pretend earlier, during the preteen or "tween"
solving abilities
play years (ages 9 through 12). As this is the
transitional phase of life adolescents’
rebel against their parents and society
most often. Therefore, this period is
labelled as storm and stressperiod.
Adolescence can be a time of both
disorientation and discovery. This
transitional period can bring up issues of
independence and self-identity; many
adolescents and their peers face tough
choices regarding
schoolwork, sexuality, drugs, alcohol,
and social life. Peer groups, romantic
interests, and appearance tend to naturally
increase in importance for some time
during a teen's journey toward adulthood.

PHYSICAL CHANGES

Pubescence refers to the two years before

puberty. The adolescent growth spurt
actually begins during pubescence, at
ADOLESCENCE STAGE about age eleven in girls and about age
thirteen in boys. At this time, children get
taller and heavier and develop secondary
ThetermadolescenceisderivedfromtheLatin
sex characteristics. Secondary Sex
wordadolescere,whichmeanstosproutinto
Characteristics are sex-specific physical
maturity. Adolescence is a transitional
characteristics that are not essential for
period in the human life span, linking
reproduction. Girls develop breasts,
childhood and adulthood. Understanding
widened pelvic bones, and wider hips.
the meaning of adolescenceis important
Boys develop facial hair, broader
because adolescents are the future of any
shoulders, and deeper voices. After
[Link] researchers currently
pubescence and at the beginning of
involved in adolescent research agree that
adolescence, Puberty occurs. Puberty is
development includes a combination of
the point at which sexual organs mature.
socioemotional, cognitive, and biological
Sexual organs include the ovaries in girls
processes. However, the balance of how

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and the penis and testes in boys. abstract and hypothetical ways, young
Menarche, or the first menstrual period, adolescents often get caught up in a mental
marks the onset of puberty in girls. The world far removed from reality. This may
average age of menarche for American entail the belief that things just can’t or
girls is about twelve and a half. The won’t happen to them and that they are
beginning of Nocturnal Emissions, so- omnipotent and indestructible.
called wet dreams, marks the onset of
puberty in boys. American boys typically ERIKSON AND IDENTITY
 5th stage: Identity vs. Role confusion
begin to produce sperm by fourteen years
of age. Girls reach full sexual maturation
around age sixteen, and boys reach sexual Developing a coherent sense of self and
role one has to take up
 Modifying & synthesizing earlier 
maturity at around eighteen.
 identificationsintoanew
PSYCHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE
IDENTITY greater than the sum of its parts
 (Kroger, 1993)
Organizing abilities, needs, interests,
David Elkind [1967, 1976, 1978]:
 desires  be expressed in a
that can
IMMATURE ASPECTS OF social context.
of
ADOLESCENT THOUGHT:  Danger
confusion
this stage is: identity or role

Imaginary audience is the belief that o Confusion takes 2 forms:

others are as pre-occupied with the isolation or lost identity in the
adolescent’s behavior as he or she is.  crowd
Attention-seeking behavior, so common in Some degree of identity confusion
always present: accounting forthe
early adolescence, may reflect this interest chaos associated with this stage.
in an, imaginary audience, that is the
desire to be noticed, visible, and on stage.
MARCIA'S THEORY
Particularly during early adolescence,
individuals see themselves as constantly Probably the most famous person who
on stage, believing they are the main actors studied the formation of identity is a man
and all others are the audience. named James Marcia. Marcia decided to
The construction or representation interview lots of different people to ask
personal fable on the other hand refers to how they developed their beliefs,
the adolescent’s sense of personal preferences, and so on. He believed that
uniqueness and indestructibility. Their identity is mostly based on two things. The
sense of personal uniqueness makes them first is what he called occupation, which
feel that no one can understand how they refers to the main role one has in society.
really feel - their perception that they are Occupation might refer to a job, like a
special. Another aspect of the personal doctor or bus driver, but it could also
fable involves the belief that one is apply to roles such as father, student, or
indestructible. This results in feelings of celebrity. The second base for identity,
invulnerability or insusceptibility and according to Marcia, is ideology, which
therefore risk–taking behaviors such as refers to a person's fundamental beliefs
alcoholism, drug and substance abuse as
well as sexual promiscuity. For reasons
likely tied to an emerging interest in
idealism and the ability to think in more

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about topics like religion or politics. Are or degrees to which a person has achieved
you religious? Are you involved in a set identity. As we go through them,
politics? Marcia tried to identify different think about your own identity.
people's occupations and ideologies in
IDENTITY STATUS
order to identify their current identities.
Based on his interviews, Marcia proposed
that there are four major identity statuses,
COMMITMENT

PRESENT ABSENT

Exploration Present Identity Achievement Identity Moratorium

Description: Has committed to Description: Has not
an identity after exploring committed to an identity but is
multiple possibilities exploring alternatives
Characteristics: Active Characteristics: Information-
problem-solving style, high seeking, active problem-
self-esteem, feelings of control, solving style, open to
high moral reasoning, and experience, anxiety,
positive views of work and experimentation with alcohol
school or substance use
Absent Identity Foreclosure Identity Diffusion
Description: Has committed to Description: Has neither
an identity without having committed to an identity nor
explored multiple possibilities explored alternatives
Characteristics: Avoid Characteristics: Avoidance;
reflecting on their identity tend to not solve personal
choice, not open to new problems in favor of letting
information, especially if issues decide themselves,
contracts their position, rigid academic difficulties, apathy,
and inflexible and alcohol and substance use
enough that all members interact. Often
ADOLESCENT-PEER RELATIONS cliques are made up of same sex and same
The phase of adolescence in dominated by age individuals with similar interests. The
peer influence and the formation of more choice of membership in certain cliques is
intense and intimate bonds between evidence of a child's increasing control of
individuals. their choice in their peer interactions.

PEER PRESSURE AND Crowds are more reputation based. The

CONFORMITY: Adolescents conform to individuals in these crowds may not
peer standards much more than children necessarily be friends. They are often
do. Students of approximately 9 th grade groups that have been labelled and
peak at adolescent peer conformity, stereotyped. There are three ways in which
especially to antisocial standards (Brendt, crowds influence adolescent social life:
1979). This influence can be both positive help themlearn about alternative social
and negative. identities that are available to them, they
strongly influence whom they are likely to
CLIQUES AND CROWDS: A clique is a
meet and spend time with and end up
group of several people, but it is small

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shaping their members interpersonal interacting and this leads to the formation
relations. of unisex cliques (especially comprising of
ADOLESCENT GROUPS V/S CHILD high-status members of the former
GROUPS: The number of cross-sex cliques). These unisex cliques are closely
relations increase in adolescent groups. associated with other such cliques, making
These adolescent groups include a broader a cohesive crowd. As adolescence
array of members and have more defined progresses, these crowds disintegrate and
rules. Dexter Dunphy’s (1963) supports become loosely associated groups of
the notion that while late childhood sees couples.
the development of same-sex cliques,
during early adulthood these cliques start

(Nansel and others, 2001). The same study

BULLYING found that girls where bullied more for
their looks, speech and are subject to
rumors and sexual comments or gestures.
Bullying is defined as verbal or physical Boys where bullied more for their religion,
behavior that is intended to disturb race and were hit, slapped and pushed.
someone less powerful (Nansel& others, Children who were bullied reported more
2001). A national US survey found that loneliness and difficulty in making friends.
nearly one in three students have had Research has also shown that anxious,
occasional or frequent involvement as socially withdrawn (since they won’t
either victim, or perpetrator of bullying retaliate) and aggressive children (since

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they irritate the perpetrators) are more Group size: From age 5 onwards, boys
likely to get bullied (Hanish and Guerra,  tend to having larger groups  of
playmates as compared to girls.
2004). A 2004 Netherlands study found Interactions in same-sex groups- Boys
that victims of bullying are prone to are more likely to participate in
having from headaches, sleeping problems, organized group games and rough and
abdominal pain, lethargy and depression tumble play. They engage in
(Fekkes et. al., 2004). Perpetrators where competition, conflict, ego display, risk
more likely to have low grades and smoke taking, dominance seeking, and group
and drink alcohol. Children who’ve been goal oriented behaviours. Girls are
more likelyto engage in “collaborative
both bullies and victims display the highest discourse”.
level of conduct, school and relationship
problems and bullies enjoyed the highest
ADULTHOOD STAGE
standing among classmates (Juvonen,
Graham and Schuster, 2003). An adult is someone who is
responsible, mature, self-supporting
and well-integrated into
[Link],peopledonotdevelopthesea
The following methods can be adopted to
ttributesandcharacteristicsatthesametim
curb bullying:
  eand with same skills. This adult stage
Get older peers Policy level has three sub-stages of development.
to monitor and changes in First stage is early adulthood, second
intervene institutions stage is middle adulthood, and third

Widespread
Provide peer stage is lateadulthood.
advertising of
support groups In early childhood period adults are at
anti-bullying the peak of physical health, strength
for those
messages at a and energy. Sensory and motor systems
who’re bullied are at their highest functioning. Adults
community level

Using social
Involving
 gain weight and their
skills training [Link]
parents to ationships,theymarryandbegintheirfami
help bullies in [Link] this period of life adults take
inculcate
early stages to many important decisions of life like
positive choice of career, type of friends,
modify residence, etc. independently and
behaviour
behaviour accept responsibility and consequences

Reinforce for their own decisions. Every adult

Take help form positive tries for recognition, job security and to
mental health behaviour and excel in hisjob.
professionals model positive
behaviour Middle adulthood period is explained
in terms of a gradual decline in one’s
physical abilities, physical health,
GENDER AND PEER RELATIONS
stamina etc., but the decline is gradual
Gender influences the children’s group in nature. Both men and women feel
composition, size, and interactions, It has tired easily. In this period people
been seen that gender typed behaviors experience stress due to the double
increase in children if their playmates are responsibility of caring for the aged
of the same sex. parents and the growing children.
Group Composition: Even from the tender Women usually experience hormonal
age of 3 years, preference for
changes which results in the loss of
same-sex playmates is evident and
ability to reproduce, a process called
increasingly prominent. This menopause. Many psychological and
preference continues to increase from
age 4-10.

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intellectual changes occur in middle In the middle adulthood period (during

age. 20s) there is a decline in our physical
Duringthisperiod,womenexpressmoreas stamina and health. At that time
[Link] physical functioning are generally
eterm “late adulthood” is roughly perfect, but physical attractiveness
equivalent to old age. This is the final declines and biological changes in the
stage of physicalchange. sexual life occurs. The physical
changes like loss of
elasticityoftheskin,resultinginfaciallines
Robert Havinghurstlists major tasks in aswellasloosenessinotherpartsofthebod
the middle years:
yare easily noticeable through external
 physical appearance. There is a marked
Accepting and adjusting to
change in visual activity. People suffer
physiological changes, such
from presbyopia – the far sightedness
asmenopause.
 associated with aging. The
Reaching and maintaining
one’soccupation.
satisfaction in
auditoryproblemisalso associated
to and possibly caring for aging
Adjusting withincreasingage,[Link]
parents.
Helping 
teenage children to become nsprogressive loss of hearing. In this
responsible adults. period loss of taste, smell and
 and
Achieving adult, social
sensitivity to touch also occurs. Some
 civicresponsibility. 
Relating to one’s spouse as aperson.  physiological changes like enlargement
Developing leisure timeactivities.
of prostrate gland, less enzyme
secretion in the
Somepeoplesufferfromdepressiondueto
gastrointestinaltract,diminishedabilityto
middleagecrisisbythinkingthatsomeimp
pumpblood,reducedkidneyfunctioning,e
ortant
[Link] place.
yearsoftheirlivesareoverwhilesomeothe
rstryhardtoachievetheirgoalsbychangin
gtheir
[Link] PSYCHO-SOCIAL
sincreativeactivitiestogetself- DEVELOPMENT
[Link] people get worried During early years of adulthood,
about the future of their children and people face the problem of choosing,
some start worrying about their post preparing for and
retirementactivities. enteringintocareersbrings a lot
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT [Link]
dialrelationships with their siblings.
Physical growth and development is at They spend very few times with friends
its maximum during this period. because their energies are consumed
Physical strength usually is more than for family and work. Middle adulthood
previous years due to mature physical people have children of adolescent age.
structures. strength, speed, coordination It is very difficult to handle their
and endurance for activity is greatest problems. Conflicts occur between
during this period. A number of parents and children regarding “giving”
sensory and “getting” independence. Parents
andneuralfunctionsareoptimallevelsduri have to help their children in their
[Link] search for identity. Middle aged adult
brain wave patterns are observed at this also has important responsibilities
stage of development. Changing life towards their
style pattern has an impact on growth [Link],theyalsotrytobesati
anddevelopment. [Link]
ut their jobs and pay packages because
they have to meet the daily needs of
themselves and of the family.

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actual age, are vital, vigorous

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT andactive.
Intellectual ability and cognitive skills The Old Old: Those older
are high in early adulthood. Middle individuals who are infirm, inactive
adulthood people cannot learn new
 problems
and suffer from physical
include in thisgroup.
skills. Recent research suggests that
intellectual development continues into As most of older persons suffer from
late adulthood. Intellectual physical problems, they became less
development continued and that are active. There are
influenced by the accumulation of the changesinbodylikewrinklesinface,rough
experiences of life, i.e. verbal skills, skin,grayhairs,problemsinhearingandey
social knowledge and moral esight, bones and joints problems,
[Link] change in voice, etc. They may suffer
[Link] from various diseases. Old
edthat peoplealsosufferfromirreversiblemental
creativitypeaksintheearlyadulthoodbutf problem,whichisorganicinnatureandisca
ormsofcreativitythatrequireexperience,r lled Alzheimer’s disease.
evision and interpretation either remain
unchanged or increase in middle age.
People utilize their
cognitiveskillsandcreativityparticularly
attheworkplaceinordertogetrecognition.
Studies During late adulthood period significant
revealedthatintelligencedeclineswithag changes take place which are mentioned
e,butthereisnocertaintythatintelligencea below.
ndage are related with each other.
a. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
The experiences of old age are not
LATEADULTHOOD STAGE
same for everybody. Some people are
The term late adulthood is rightly worried about old age particularly those
equivalent to old age. This is the final who are single or there is nobody in the
stage of physical change. It is difficult family to support them economically or
to consider the exact age of a person for have continued physical ailments. It is
being old. The onset of old age may a period in one’s life span that is
vary from country to country. Although characterized by physical decline.
the retirement age is considered as one There are two types of physical
of the criteria of old age, it varies from changes during old age. They are (a)
job to job. For example, in India the Primary ageing and (b) Secondary
retirement age for government ageing. Primary ageing is that in which
organization is 58 years while for bodily deterioration occur by the
Universities it is 62 years and in some passage of time or by genetic factors
other institutions like IIT and IIM it is which is gradual and inevitable.
years. Now-a-days people beyond Secondary ageing results from disease,
years are considered as old. It is the disuse or abuse of body which is
period of decline where the person [Link]
thinks that he has done what he wanted [Link]
to do and most of his life span is over. mmon physical changes like decrement
in sensory abilities of vision, hearing,
Today researchers used two categories to taste, smell and other senses, skin
describe old age people. becomes inelastic, decrease in fat and
The young Old: This category of older muscle tissue, loss of teeth,
people irrespective of their deterioration of bone tissue, decline in

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height due to compression of spinal This undue dependence makes them

disc and postural strop etc. occur due to sad. But those people who are
primary ageing. Physical changes occur independent and less expectations from
due to secondary ageing are also their children and other support system,
different for different people. For they are happy in their old age and they
example, physical changes of diabetic engage themselves in various activities.
people are different They think that old age is the golden
frompersonswhoaresufferingfromarthrit age because they are free from family
[Link] responsibilities and burdens of job.
-motor There are many social and cultural
[Link] factors
hysicaldemandsofstressfulsituationsasq
uickly or efficiently as possible. They Influences the process of successful
are prone to accidents due to decline of ageing. Financial security and close
reserve capacity of physical energy. relationship with children or other
Thus, ageing affects appearance, relatives or good friends make people
healthy in old age.
sensation and motor abilities of
aperson. Ageing is a process of growing old.
The most important theory that
However,despitetheproblemsof old age
explains the psychosocial aspects of
somepeopleleadahappylifeduetotheirpo
ageing are:
sitive thinking towards life and they are
physically fit by doing yoga and
exercises. Theyare developing and
enjoying their hobbies and their
perception of old age for relaxation
help them free from differentailments.
(I) THE ACTIVITY THEORY, AND
PSYCHO-SOCIAL (II) THE DISENGAGEMENT
DEVELOPMENT THEORY.

Many psycho-social changes happen to

TheActivityTheory:Thistheorystate
people during old age. The statement
stherelationshipbetweenkeepingact
that old age is a period for waiting
iveandageing well. According to
death can prove to be a myth.
this theory, persons who age
Commonly people believe that old age
successfully keep themselves busy
is a curse so far as physical and
in many activities and they find
psychological aspects of life
substitutes for activities which they
areconcerned.
have lost due to retirement and also,
According to Erikson during late they perform many roles. As role
adulthood the outcome of a well- decreases, ageingincreases.

integrated person is wisdom. Wisdom The Disengagement Theory: This
means accepting life as it is, accepting theory reveals that successful
imperfections in self, parents and in life ageing by mutual withdrawal
and having no regrets. Old people between society and the older
remain in a state of inward depression person. Generally, older people
and dissatisfaction. These internal voluntarily minimize their
feelings are manifested in reaction activities by retiring and also
formations for which they become over society encourages this by
sensitive and demanding. Some old making individuals retire.
people depend on their children to a 
large extent. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

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People commonly believe that with old remember and use learned information.
age intellectual decline occurs. Fluid intelligence includes reasoning,
Intellectual decline is associated with memory and information, processing
respect to certain functions such as; capabilities, whereas
speed, perceptual integration ability, crystallizedintelligenceistheacquiredkn
memory and inductive reasoning. [Link]
People show variability in intellectual leforget that may lead to dementia or
functioning in late adulthood period. Alzheimer’s disease which is possible
Researchers classified intelligence into due to Fluid intelligence, because it
two types. They are: (1) Fluid relates to neurological functioning. On
intelligenceand(2)Crystallizedintelligen the other hand, crystallized intelligence
[Link] helps in storing information. Therefore,
[Link] intelligence involves ability to in old age people should keep their
perceive relations, form concepts and minds active by mental exercises such
reason abstractly. Crystallized as problem-solving analysis and other
intelligence involves the ability to operationsetc.

Just like pathology is the study of the

PSYCHOPATHOLOGY nature of disease (including causes,
development, and outcomes),
The term "psychopathology" was first used psychopathology is the study of the same
in 1913 when this scientific discipline was concepts within the realm of mental health
introduced by Karl Jaspers, a (or illness).
German/Swiss philosopher and
psychiatrist. This new framework for What we might consider normal behavior
understanding the mental experience of is difficult to define. Equally difficult is
individuals followed a long history of understanding what abnormal behavior.
varied attempts at making meaning out of The American Psychiatric Association, in
the "abnormal experiences." its publication, the Diagnostic and

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Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th indicates a move away from what is
edition (DSM-5 for short), states that normal, or the mean (i.e. what would
though “no definition can capture all be considered average and in this case
aspects of all disorders in the range in relation to behavior), and so is
contained in the DSM-5” certain aspects behavior that occurs infrequently (sort
are required. These include: of an outlier in our data). Our culture,
or the totality of socially transmitted
o DYSFUNCTION– includes behaviors, customs, values,
“clinically significant disturbance in an technology, attitudes, beliefs, art, and
individual’s cognition, emotion other products that are particular to a
regulation, or behavior that reflects a group, determines what is normal and
dysfunction in the psychological, so a person is said to be deviant when
biological, or developmental processes he or she fails to follow the stated and
underlying mental functioning”. unstated rules of society, called social
Abnormal behavior, therefore, has the norms. What is considered “normal”
capacity to make our well-being by society can change over time due to
difficult to obtain and can be assessed shifts in accepted values and
by looking at an individual’s current expectations. For instance,
performance and comparing it to what homosexuality was considered taboo
is expected in general or how the in the U.S. just a few decades ago but
person has performed in the past. As today, it is generally accepted.
such, a good employee who suddenly
The APA (2000) defines a psychological
demonstrates poor performance may be
disorder as “a clinically significant
experiencing an environmental demand behavioral or psychological syndrome or
leading to stress and ineffective coping pattern that occurs in an individual and
mechanisms. Once the demand that is associated with present distress
resolves itself the person’s (e.g., a painful symptom) or disability (i.e.,
performance should return to normal impairment in one or more important
according to this principle. areas of functioning) or with a
significantly increased risk of suffering
o DISTRESS– When the person death, pain, disability, or an important
loss of freedom”
experiences a disabling condition “in
social, occupational, or other important
ATTEMPTS TO DEFINE
activities”. Distress can take the form ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR ARE:
of psychological or physical pain, or
both concurrently. Alone though, 1. VIOLATION OF SOCIAL
distress is not sufficient enough to NORMS
describe behavior as abnormal. Why is
that? The loss of a loved one would What is considered socially acceptable
cause even the most “normally” changes overtime (e.g. homosexuality)
functioning individual pain. An athlete and differs between cultures. Also, a
who experiences a career ending injury lot of great leaders violate social
would display distress as well. norms (Martin Luther King)
Suffering is part of life and cannot be
avoided. And some people who display 2. STATISTICAL DEVIATION
abnormal behavior are generally Many behaviors are normally
distributed (bell shaped curve).
positive while doing so.
Not all statistically infrequent qualities
considered bad e.g. Superior
DEVIANCE– Closer examination of intelligence
the word abnormal shows that it

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3. MALADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR

- Behavior that causes impaired

functioning for people
- Not necessarily the behavior which is
the problem, it’s the outcome

CRITICISM-

Definition doesn’t consider personal

context/distress i.e. John’s gambling
may be causing him a lot of distress, but
it isn’t affecting his work, relationship
or health, is it still normal?Another
criticism that it is difficult to identify
what may be considered a maladaptive
behavior with reference to
psychological processes (i.e.
thought/cognition)

4. PERSONAL DISTRESS

Cause a person to be upset or

uncomfortable
- Assumes it is normal not to feel upset
- Emphasisessubjectiveexperienceandon
thereactiontoasituationasopposedtothe
outcome
- Criticism- person could feel no distress
(lack of insight) but behaviour could
still be considered abnormal (i.e.
psychopath) Also, distress is not
necessarily abnormal

NORMALITY - IS EVEN MORE

DIFFICULT TO DEFINE, BUT MOST
WOULD AGREE ON:

Efficient perception of reality

Self-knowledge
Voluntary control of behavior
Self-esteem & acceptance
Ability to form affectionate
relationships
Productivity

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ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY: The given period of time, typically the past

scientific study of abnormal behavior, with year.
the intent to be able to reliably predict, Lifetime prevalence indicates the
explain, diagnose, identify the causes of, proportion of a population that has had
and treat maladaptive behavior is what we the characteristic at any time during
refer to as abnormal psychology. their lives.
Abnormal behavior can become
pathological in nature and so leads to the
scientific study of psychological disorders, Incidence indicates the number of new
or psychopathology. Mental disorders cases in a population over a specific period
are characterized by psychological of time. This measure is usually lower
dysfunction which causes physical and/or since it does not include existing cases as
psychological distress or impaired prevalence does.
functioning and is not an expected Finally, comorbidity describes when two
behavior according to societal or cultural or more mental disorders are occurring at
standards. the same time and in the same person.
Epidemiology is the scientific study of the The etiology is the cause of the disorder.
frequency and causes of diseases and other There may be social, biological, or
health-related states in specific populations psychological explanations for the
such as a school, neighborhood, a city, disorders beginning which need to be
country, and the world. understood to identify the appropriate
Psychiatric or mental health treatment. Likewise, the effectiveness of a
epidemiology refers to the occurrence of treatment may give some hint at the cause
mental disorders in a population. In mental of the mental disorder.
health facilities, we say that a patient The course of the disorder is its particular
presents with a specific problem, or the pattern. A disorder may be acute meaning
presenting problem, and we give a that it lasts a short period of time, or
clinical description of it which includes chronic, meaning it lasts a long period of
information about the thoughts, feelings, time. It can also be classified as time-
and behaviors that constitute that mental limited, meaning that recovery will occur
disorder. We also seek to gain information in a short period of time regardless of
about the occurrence of the disorder, its whether any treatment occurs.
cause, course, and treatment possibilities.
Prognosis is the anticipated course the
Occurrence can be investigated in several mental disorder will take. A key factor in
ways. First, prevalence is the percentage determining the course is age, with some
of people in a population that has a mental disorders presenting differently in
disorder or can be viewed as the number of childhood than adulthood.
cases per some number of people. For
instance, if 20 people out of 100 have Treatment is any procedure intended to
bipolar disorder, then the prevalence rate is modify abnormal behavior into normal
20%. Prevalence can be measured in behavior. The person suffering from the
several ways: mental disorder seeks the assistance of a
trained professional to provide some
degree of relief over a series of therapy
 Point prevalence indicates the sessions. The trained mental health
proportion of a population that has the professional may prescribe medication or
characteristic at a specific point in utilize psychotherapy to bring about this
time. In other words, it is the number change.
of active cases.
MENTAL STATUS EXAMINATION:
Period prevalence indicates the
proportion of a population that has the
characteristic at any point during a

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The mental status examination (MSE) is a

is based on your observations of the client. APPEARANCE AND BEHAVIOUR
It is not related to the facts of the client's Age, sex, race, body build, posture,
situation, but to the way the person acts, eyecontact, dress, grooming,
how the person talks, and how the person manner,attentiveness to examiner,
looks while in your presence. The purpose distinguishingfeatures, prominent
is to evaluate, quantitatively and physical abnormalities,emotional facial
qualitatively, a range of mental functions expression, alertness
and behaviors at a specific point in time.
The MSE provides important information SPEECH
for diagnosis and for assessment of the Rate, rhythm, volume,
disorder’s course and response to amount,articulation, spontaneity
treatment. Observations noted throughout
the interview become part of the MSE, EMOTION (MOOD AND AFFECT)
which begins when the clinician first meets Stability, range, appropriateness,
the patient. Information is gathered about intensity,affect, mood
the patient’s behaviors, thinking, and
mood. At an appropriate point in the
evaluation the formal MSE is undertaken PERCEPTION
to compile specific data about the patient’s Hallucinations,
cognitive functioning. Earlier informal illusions,depersonalization,
observations about mental state are woven derealization
together with the results of specific testing.
For example, the interviewer will have THOUGHT CONTENT AND
considerable information about attention PROCESS
span, memory, and organization of thought Suicidal ideation, death wishes,
from the process of the interview. Specific homicidal ideation, depressive
questions during the formal exam clarify cognitions, obsessions, ruminations,
more precisely the degree of attention or phobias, ideas of reference, paranoid
memory dysfunction. ideation, magical ideation,delusions,
overvalued ideas.
To assess properly the patient’s mental Thought content- Associations,
status, it is important to have some coherence, logic, stream, clang
understanding of the patient’s social, associations, perseveration, neologism,
cultural, and educational background. blocking, attention.
What may be abnormal for someone with
more intellectual ability may be normal for
someone with less intellectual ability.
Patients for whom English is a second
language may have difficulty INSIGHT AND JUDGEMENT
understanding various components of the
MSE, such as the proverbs. Age may be a
Insight Assuming the patient has
factor. In general, patients over the age of
difficulties and/or an illness,
60 years tend to do less well on the
does the patient understand
cognitive elements of the MSE. Often this
this?
is related to less education rather than to
aging alone.
Good insight: Patient
understands they are ill and
MAIN COMPONENTS OF MSE ( need treatment (similar to
MENOMONIC- ASEPTIC) being in action phase))
Partial insight may indicate
that the patient acknowledges
a problem, but is not willing

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to seek appropriate help or Can the patient

treatment (similar to being recall distant
contemplative) events?
Poor insight means that the
patient does not see that they Intelligence (globally Based on your
are ill nor does the patient and intellectual observations
need any help or treatment functions) and patient’s
(similar to being pre- use of speech,
contemplative) does the
patient’s
overall
Judgment Is patient able to use facts and intelligence
make reasonable decisions? and cognition
May be good, fair, impaired appear to be 1)
below average,
2) average, or
7. COGNITION 3) above
average?
Level of consciousness Alert,
confused,
lethargic, Several shortened forms of the MSE have
stuporous been developed as screening instruments.
All are composed of a combination of
measures to detect cognitive impairments
Orientation in 3 spheres Name: What is
more accurately. Although helpful, such
your name?
exams must be combined with clinical
Place: Where history. The diagnosis of dementia and
are you right delirium also requires the demonstration of a
now? Time: decline in cognitive functioning from a
What year, higher baseline. All screening exams have
month, day is
difficulty in identifying patients with mild
it?
cognitive impairment and patients with
focal neurologic lesions, such as subdural
Attention/Concentration How well hematomas or meningiomas. The key
does the point is that MSEs should not be used as
patient the sole criteria fordiagnosing delirium or
seem to be dementia.
able to
focus?
(Good,
poor)

Memory How well can

the patient OTHER SCREENING EXAMS-
remember?
Short-term: The Mini-Mental State Examination
Can the patient (MMSE) is probably the best known.
recall recent The MMSE tests orientation,
things that immediate and short-term memory,
have concentration, arithmetic ability,
happened?
language, and praxis. It takes about 10
Long-term: minutes to administer.

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We say “a person with autism” instead of

The Cognitive Capacity Screening an “autistic person” for very good reasons.
Examination (CCSE) tests People are not their disorders, & much is
happening in this child's life that has
orientation, serial subtraction, memory,
nothing to do with autism.
and similarities. It is less sensitive to
Similarly, we say a person with
delirium or dementia in the elderly. schizophrenia rather than a schizophrenic.

Neurobehavioral Cognitive Status

CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
Examination (NCSE) is especially
good for medically ill patients; it There are two classification systems in use
currently in the world: DSM and ICD.
focuses on consciousness, orientation,
attention, language, construction,
memory, calculations, and reasoning. It DSM: The Diagnostic and Statistical
tends to be more sensitive in detecting Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
impairment because it is more detailed.  given by American Psychiatric 
Association (APA). This is different
from American psychological
association also referred to as APA).
CLASSIFICATION-
ICD: International Statistical
Classification of Diseases (ICD)
The term classification refers to any effort developed by WHO
to construct groups or categories and to
assign objects or people to these categories DSM (DIAGNOSTIC AND
or groups on the basis of their attributes, STATISTICAL MANUAL OF
characteristics or relations. MENTAL DISORDERS)
Emil Kraepelin (late 19th century): The
"father of psychiatry" (Weckowicz, 1984) The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
gave the first truly comprehensive system Mental Disorders is the handbook widely
medical classification scheme. In it he used by clinicians and psychiatrists in the
defines two major groups of mental United States to diagnose psychiatric
disorders: the manic-depressive psychoses, illnesses. Published by the American
and dementia praecox (i.e. schizophrenia) Psychiatric Association (APA), the DSM
with further subdivisions. Kraepelin's covers all categories of mental health
system is important because it defined the disorders for both adults and [Link]
discipline of psychiatry as distinct from contains descriptions, symptoms, and
neurology, and as a part of the general other criteria necessary for diagnosing
field of medicine. mental health disorders. It also contains
statistics concerning which gender is most
Considering the difficulty in affected by the illness, the typical age of
distinguishing normal from abnormal, onset, the effects of treatment, and
categorizing & diagnosing different common treatment approaches.
types of abnormalities can be difficult.
DSM HISTORY
TERMINOLOGYIn the past decade or
so, psychologists have begun to change the The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual has
terminology used in referring to people been updated seven times since it was first
with psychological disorders. published in 1952.
Version Year Number of diagnosesVersion Year Number of diagnoses
DSM-I 1952 106 DSM-II 1968 182

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Version Year Number of diagnoses disorder and histrionic personality

DSM-III 1980 265 disorder. Personality disorders cause
significant problems in how a person
DSM-III-R 1987 292 relates to the world, while mental
DSM-IV 1994 297 retardation is characterized by intellectual
DSM-IV-TR 2000 365 impairment and deficits in other areas such
as self-care and interpersonal skills.

The newest version of the DSM, the DSM-5, was AXIS III – GENERAL MEDICAL
published in May of 2013. This latest revision CONDITIONS
was met with considerable discussion and some
controversy. Axis III was used for coding medical
conditions that influence or worsen Axis 1
DSM-IV-TR MULTIAXIAL and Axis II disorders. Some examples
SYSTEM include HIV/AIDS and brain injuries.
The DSM-IV was originally published in AXIS IV – PSYCHOSOCIAL
1994 and listed more than 250 mental AND ENVIRONMENTAL
disorders. Anupdated version, called the PROBLEMS
DSM-IV-TR, was published in 2000. This
version utilized amultiaxial or Any social or environmental problems that may impact
multidimensional approach for diagnosing Axis I or Axis II disorders were accounted for in this
mental disorders. axis. These include such things as unemployment,
relocation, divorce, or the death of a loved one.
The multiaxial approach was intended to
help clinicians and psychiatrists make AXIS V – GLOBAL
comprehensive evaluations of a client's ASSESSMENT OF
level of functioning because mental FUNCTIONING
illnesses often impact many different life
areas. Axis V is where the clinician gives their
impression of the client's overall level of
It described disorders using five DSM functioning. Based on this assessment,
"axes" or dimensions to ensure that all clinicians could better understand how the
factors—psychological, biological, and other four axes interacted and the effect on
environmental—were considered when the individual's life.
making a mental health diagnosis.
CHANGES IN THE DSM-5
AXIS I – CLINICAL SYNDROMES
Axis I consisted of mental health and The DSM-5 contains a number of significant
substance use disorders that cause changes from the earlier DSM-IV. The most
significant impairment. Disorders were immediately obvious change is the shift from
grouped into different categories such as using Roman numerals to Arabic numbers.
mood disorders, anxiety disorders, or eating
disorders. Perhaps most notably, the DSM-5
eliminated the multiaxial system. Instead the
AXIS II – PERSONALITY DSM-5 lists categories of disorders along
DISORDERS AND MENTAL with a number of different related disorders.
RETARDATION Example categories in the DSM-5 include
anxiety disorders, bipolar and
Axis II was reserved for mental retardation related disorders, depressive disorders,
and personality disorders, such feeding and eating
as antisocial personality

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disorders, obsessive-compulsive and While the DSM is an important tool, only

related disorders, and personality those who have received specialized
disorders. training and possess sufficient experience
are qualified to diagnose and treat mental
A few other changes in the DSM-5: illnesses.

Asperger's disorder was removed and ICD 10 (INTERNATIONAL

incorporated under the category of CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES)
 autism spectrum disorders. The International Classification of
Disruptive mood dysregulation Diseases (ICD) is published by the WHO
 disorder was added, in part to in Geneva, Switzerland. The latest ICD is
decrease over-diagnosis of ICD-10 (1992). This classification system
 childhood bipolar disorders. includes diagnoses for all the systems in
Several diagnoses were officially the human body. Of the 21 chapters in
added to the manual including ICD 10, Chapter V is devoted to mental
 binge eating disorder, hoarding health disorders. Chapter V is divided into
disorder, and premenstrual 10 groups with every main group has the
dysphoric disorder identification letter “F”. The ICD (for clinical
practice - CDDG) and the DSM are now
broadly similar.

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 character if it is necessary to subdivide
further.
All of the diagnostic codes start with the
letter F and, like the other chapters, it has
10 major divisions, each of which can be
divided into 10 subdivisions, and so on.
For example, F20 schizophrenia can be
followed by a further number for the DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DSM AND
category within the group (e.g. F20.1, ICD
disorganized schizophrenia), and a fourth

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 obvious external cause, to an extent that
MAJOR CATEGORIES OF itaffects routine functioning of the
DISORDERS IN DSM-IV-TR [Link] is the part of daily routine in
a person’s life but the reactions to stress
Anxiety disorders vary fromindividual to individual.
Somatoform disorders Anxiety is one of the various reactions to
stress. Whether or not one will develop
Dissociative disorders anxiety, and to what extent, will depend on
Mood disorders the nature of stress faced, family history,
Schizophrenia and fatigue or over work, and the person’s
coping strategies.
Personality disorders
Sexual disorders
Substance-related disorders MAJOR SYMPTOMS OF STRESS
INCLUDE:
Delirium, dementia, amnesia, and other
Sleeplessness, Headaches, Twitching and
cognitive disorders.
trembling,Dry mouth,Memory
problems,Nightmares, Irritability, Fatigue,
ANXIETY DISORDERS Sweating, Muscle tension, Insomnia

Disorders in which anxiety becomes an SUBCATEGORIES OF ANXIETY

impediment in a person’s routine DISORDERS:
[Link] is a reaction to real or Panic Disorder consists of recurrent
imagined threat that may hamper the daily unexpected Panic Attacks. A panic
functioning andresults in uneasiness, attack is generally accompanied by
worry, and [Link] anxiety physical symptoms, such as a
disorders, anxiety occurs without an pounding  heart, sweating, and rapid
breathing.

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 Person suffers from panic Have a fear of embarrassing

attacks (brief attacks of
themselves.
intense terror &

apprehension, often marked
 by trembling, shaking, SIMPLE PHOBIAS
confusion, dizziness,
nausea, and/or difficulty Is a fear of an animal, object
 breathing).  orsituation.
 40% of young adults have Over 300 have been named.
occasional attacks. Example:
In addition to panic attacks, 
this diagnosis requires that Animals
 
the attacks have chronic
Zoophobia
consequences, either:
worry over the attacks' Being touched
potential implications Aphephobia
persistent fear of future Blood
attacks Hemophobia
significant changes in
behavior related to the Confinement
attacks Claustrophobia

 33-50% develop agoraphobia. Darkness
 Nyctophobia
A phobia is an irrational fear that Death
produces a conscious avoidance of the Thanatophobia
feared object. The affected person Dirt
usually recognizes that the reaction is
excessive. Specific phobias (formerly Mysophobia
 known as “simple phobias”) involve  Dog
fear of specific objects; social phobias Cynophobia
– involves fear of social situations and Fire
agoraphobias (fear of situations where
Pyrophobia
 escape is difficult). God
AGORAPHOBIA (GREEK - Theophobia
“FEAR OF Heights
MARKETPLACE”) Acrophobia
Marriage
Fear anyplace where Gamophobia
mightbe trapped or
unable to Money
receive help in an Chrematophobia
emergency.
Often accompanies
panicdisorder.
Are usually very
dependentpeople.
Is the most common &
thehardest to treat.

SOCIAL PHOBIAS

Are insecure in
socialsituations.

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Naked body Diagnosis of GAD is made

Gymnophobia when a person has been
excessively worried about
Robbers
 an everyday problem for
Harpaxophobia >6 months. 
 Anxiety here is free floating.
Sex
Genophobia It is the most common
anxietydisorder in older
Sin  adults.
Harmartophobia
OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE
Sleep DISORDERis marked by the presence
Hypnophobia of either an obsession or a compulsion
Spiders that interferes with their life, either by
 their ability to function adequately.
Arachnephobia taking up too much time or impairing
Strangers 
Xenophobia Obsession - an idea you 
cannot get out of your head.
Thunder   
Compulsion - a behavior
Brontophobia you cannot stop
Travel  performing.
Hodophobia 
Washing, cleaning, &
Women checking are the most
Gynophobia common.

Work
Ponophobia POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS
DISORDER (PTSD) often occurs
 after the person has been exposed to a
GENERALIZED ANXIETY
 traumatic  the
effect. It involves
DISORDER is defined by excessive persistent reexperiencing of a
worry about a number of events or traumatic event (flashbacks,
activities, accompanied by restlessness, nightmares), avoidance of stimuli
fatigue, or other physical symptoms. associated with the event, and
symptoms of increased arousal lasting
Characterized by long- at least 1 month. Acute Stress Disorder
 
lasting anxiety that is not
focused on any one object  involves similar features lasting less
than 1 month.
or situation. Those  
Results from a traumatic
suffering from generalized experience. Post-traumatic
anxiety disorder experience stress can result from an
non-specific persistent fear extreme situation, such as
and worry, & become combat, natural disaster, rape,
overly concerned with hostage situations, child abuse,
everyday matters. bullying or even a serious
accident. It can also result from
chronic exposure to a severe
 stressor.
Symptoms - avoidance &
 numbing, intrusive  memories,
anxiety & emotions.
Became widely accepted asa
diagnostic category because of

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difficulties experienced by Dissociative Disorders: The essential

Vietnam War veterans. feature of Dissociative Disorders is a
disturbance in the integrative functions of
SOMATOFORM DISORDERS identity, memory, and consciousness. All
of the disorders are trauma-based (such as
rape, wartime trauma or severe
A disorder in which psychological accident.)(Dissociation is the
problems take the physical (somatic) form disconnection from full awareness of self –
without anyapparent physical cause; a state don’t know who you are, time – don’t
where there are physical symptoms present know what time is it, and/or external
but no medicalcause. circumstances –don’t know where you are)
Somatization Disorder involves a history
of multiple physical complaints over a
TYPES OF DISSOCIATIVE
period of several years without any organic DISORDER
pathology, pain in at least four different
sites on the body (head, abdomen, back,
joints etc.) two gastrointestinal problems 1- DISSOCIATIVE AMNESIA
(e.g. diarrhea, vomiting, bloating) one A state when a selective loss of memory
sexual symptom (impotence, sexual occurs. The person is unable to recall
indifference, irregular menses), and one specific events often as a result of extreme
pseudo-neurological symptom similar to stress. Significant memory loss occurs
those seen in Conversion disorder about personal information that is not due
(fainting, blindness). They have no organ to an organic cause. This disorder vanishes
pathology to account for their multiple abruptly as it begins and rarely re-occurs.
symptoms.
2- DISSOCIATIVE FUGUE
Conversion Disorder is distinguished
Fugue means, “Flight” Fugue is a form of
by the development of a symptom
amnesia. The sufferer takes sudden
suggestive of a neurological disorder
impulsive trips, at times assuming a new
affecting senses (e.g. blindness, double
identity. Dissociative fugue includes
vision, deafness, loss of touch or pain
forgetting as well as fleeing from one’s
sensation), or voluntary motor function
home for days and weeks, also being
(e.g. aphonia, impaired coordination or
unable to remember one’s identity.
balance, paralysis or localized
Unconscious wandering in which the
weakness, difficulty swallowing,
person has limited social contacts.
urinary retention, seizures). However,
the underlying cause is not In some instances, person may take over
another personality that is more sociable
 conflict.
neurological but severe psychological

than theprevious one.
 Pain Disorder is characterized by pain
3- DISSOCIATIVE IDENTITY
occurring in association with DISORDER/MULTIPLE
 psychological factors.
PERSONALITY
Hypochondriasis is the fear of, or the
 idea  one has, a serious physical
that Rare disorder in which the person may
illness. take over two or more personalities that
Body Dysmorphic Disorder is a are entirelydifferent from one another The
preoccupation with an imagined defect first one is usually restrained, restricted
in appearance
and dull but the other one is entirely
different from the previous one; one’s
DISSOCIATIVE DISORDER mannerisms, vocal, movements are
entirely different from one another.

MOOD DISORDERS

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Disturbances of mood are the primary There is a deep division between

manifestation of Mood Disorders. The the real world and the
schizophrenic’s world. Have
primary Mood Disorders are divided into difficulty sorting out the real
unipolar and bipolar disorders. from unreal, in keeping track of
 their thoughts, & responding to
the everyday events in life.
 personality disintegration
In unipolar disorders, patients  Involves
& a loss of contact with reality.
experience emotional extremes at just  Thisbeds the
group occupies about half
in mental hospitals.
one end of the continuum i.e. Occurs equally in men & women,
depression. The unipolar Depressive  but tends to occur at an earlier
age in men than women. 
Disorders include Major Depressive  Typical age of onset is 15 - 35.
Disorder (severe depression) and 
 Major Symptoms
Dysthymic Disorder (mild depression 
Disordered Thinking
that lasts for at least two years) 
Bipolar disorder mayinvolve both 
Autistic Thinking -
depressive and manic periods or only  Absorption in fantasy.
manic period. Even though the patient  Prelogical Thinking -
may be exhibiting only manic Thought processes are
symptoms, it is assumed that a  primitive & incomplete.
depressive episode will eventually  Delusions - False beliefs.
occur and so no “unipolar” mania  Several types: Persecution,
exists. These are divided into Bipolar - Grandeur, Control, &
I disorder (most severe form of mania),  Identity. 
 Disturbances of Perception
Bipolar - II disorder (mild form of
mania) and Cyclothymic disorder

Attention & Filtering -
(mildest form of mania). Bipolar - I is
 Seem to have trouble
characterized by episodes of both focusing attention &
severe depression (usually but not filtering out irrelevant
always) and severe mania; BP II by  stimuli.
severe depression with occasional  Louis Wain (1860-1939) -
episodes of "mild" mania, called A famous animal artist. His
hypomania and cyclothymic disorder drawings of a cat show his
alternates between hypomania and progressive deterioration &
mild depression. (BP-I; pronounced some disturbing distortions
 of perception.
"type one bipolar disorder"). 
 Hallucinations - False
perceptions. Are usually
SCHIZOPHRENIA
auditory (hear voices), but
may also be visual or
Schizophrenia is a category of mental
 olfactory. 
disorders marked by severe distortion of Disturbances of Emotion
[Link] is a disorder with a 
minimum of 6 months' duration and is  Flattened emotions (blunted
characterized by an active psychotic phase affect).
for at least 1 month: delusions,
hallucinations, disorganized speech, grossly
disorganized behavior, and negative
symptoms (e.g. alogia or little speech, or
avolition or lack of motivation).

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
 Inappropriate emotions. 
 Bizarre Motor Behavior
 Communication Difficulties
Unusual Motions - May
Echolalia - Repeating the grimace or gesture in
last word or phrase spoken  peculiar ways.
 by another. Catalepsy - Holding a
Neologisms - Made up particular posture for a long
 words.  time.
 Word Salad - Words Waxy Flexibility - Posture
haphazardly thrown  can be molded.
 together. Cataplexy - Loss of muscle
 Verbal Exhibitionism - A tone.
grandiose manner of
speech.

TYPES OF SCHIZOPHRENIA
Disorganized or Marked by inappropriate emotion: inappropriate giggling, laughter,
Hebephrenic Type silliness, incoherentspeech, infantile behavior, and strange and at
times obscene behavior.
The patient experiences delusions and hallucinations of his own
Paranoid
greatness.
Schizophrenia
Behavior is unpredictable, and erratic.
Sense of judgment is lost.

Catatonic schizophrenia is marked by disturbances in the motor

Catatonic activity and muscularcontrol. Major disturbances occur in movement.
Schizophrenia At times all motion stops and the patient just freezes in one position.
This frozen posture may last for hours and even days. In some phases
the patient exhibits wild, free floating, and even violent movement.

This variety of schizophrenia involves a combination of the major

Undifferentiated symptoms found in othervarieties. This diagnosis is used when
Schizophrenia patients do not fit into any one of the major categories of
schizophrenia.
Residual
Residual schizophrenia consists of minor signs of schizophrenia after
Schizophrenia
a major, more serious,episode.

Taken together, these data suggest

Genetics a very strong genetic
component to the disorder.
 is to
The more closely related a person
a patient with schizophrenia,
the more likely that person is to PERSONALITY DISORDERS
develop schizophrenia (Gottesman,
1991). as “an enduring pattern of inner

Adopted children with experience and behavior that deviates
schizophrenia are the most likely to markedly from the expectations of the
have symptomatic biological individual's culture.” This pattern is
relatives. manifested in two (or more) of the
following areas-

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Cognition (i.e., ways of perceiving and

interpreting self, other people, and events):
e.g. suspicious, self-critical.
Odd or
Schizotypal -
eccentriccluster
Affectivity (i.e., the range, intensity,
behavior odd
lability or abnormal sudden rapid shifts in which leads to
mood, and appropriateness of emotional socialisolation
response) e.g. indifferent, flattened affect
Schizoid - social
isolation by
Interpersonal functioning: Does not
choice(loner)
have healthy and satisfying relationships
with friends and family members. Paranoid -
suspicious,
Impulse control: This is mistrusting,
jealous, andcold
characterized by an inability to resist the
impulse to perform an action that is
harmful to one's self or others e.g. Dramatic, emotional Histrionic -
aggressive outbursts, sudden changes of or erraticcluster Dramatic and
jobs, residences, or relationships. Attention seeking,
Shallow and
Superficia
CLUSTERS OF PERSONALITY
l
DISORDERS inrelationships

Cluster A (odd or eccentric): Paranoid Narcissistic -

| Schizoid | Schizotypal (treatment overcompensat
e for low self-
resistant category)
esteem by
Cluster B (dramatic, emotional, or building self-
erratic): Histrionic/ Antisocial | up/self-
Borderline//Narcissistic (mixed preoccupation
results) Borderline -
attention seeking,
Cluster C (anxious or fearful): manipulative,
Avoidant | Dependent | mood swings,
Obsessive-Compulsive (treatment struggles
responsive category) withidentity
Antisocial - no
conscience/remors
e, regularly violate
the rights of
others,superficial

Anxious/fearfulclust Avoidant - fear

er rejection therefore
socially isolated
though
desireintimacy
Obsessive -
compulsive -
preoccupied with

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organization environment in utero, trauma at birth,

andperfection and social and psychological factors in
infancy and childhood. Precipitating
Dependent - factors are events that occur shortly
inability to take before the onset of a disorder and
responsibility for appear to have induced it. They may be
self, need others physical, psychological, or social.
to makedecisions Physical precipitating factors include
diseases such as cerebral tumor,
CAUSES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL traumatic brain injury that is caused by
DISORDERS accidents, and the effects of drugs
taken for treatment or used illegally.
Knowledge of the causes of As for psychological causes, there are
psychological disorders is important for many as for example a psychological
two main reasons. First, in everyday cause can be bereavement ,losing a
clinical work it helps the psychologist very near and dear [Link] causes
to understand possible causes of an [Link] moving home is a
individual patient’s psychological social cause, some causes may act in
disorder. Second, it adds to the general more than one way; for example, a
understanding of mental disorders, head injury may induce a psychological
which may contribute to advances in disorder through physical changes in
diagnosis, treatment, or prognosis. the brain and through psychological
effects.
A necessary cause is a condition that
must be there for a disorder to occur. Perpetuating factors (or maintaining
For example, general paresis,a factors) prolong a disorder after it has
degenerative brain disorder cannot begun. Sometimes a feature of a
develop unless a person had syphilis.A disorder makes itself perpetuating (e.g.
necessary cause is not always sufficient some ways of thinking commonly
to cause a disorder and therefore other prolong anxiety disorders). Social
factors may also berequired. factors are also important (e.g.
overprotective attitudes of parents or
A sufficient cause is a condition that care givers or relatives). Awareness of
guarantees the occurrence of a disorder. perpetuating factors is
For example, one theory says that particularlyimportantinplanningtreatme
hopelessness is a sufficient cause of ntbecausetheymaybemodifiableevenwh
depression (Abramson et al 1995). enlittle can be done about predisposing
According to this theory if you are and precipitating factors.
hopeless enough about your future then
you will become
[Link] BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
ncreasestheprobabilityofdevelopingadis
order. For example, parental rejection According to this view, mental
could increase the probability that the disorders are seen as disorders of the
child may have problems in handling central nervous system and thus are
close relationships later. When there sometimes inherited or caused by some
are multiple causes it is useful to group medical factors like injuries or physical
them into predisposing, precipitating, diseases. These are given below:
and perpetuatingfactors.
Neurotransmitter and Hormonal
Predisposing factors determine the imbalances in the brain,
vulnerability to other causes that act
close to the time of the illness. Many Genetics,
predisposing factors act early in life,
Constitutional liabilities, Brain
for example, genetic endowment, the

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structure, fortheoffspring of an affected person it

becomes 10% and in bipolar disorder
Physical deprivation or is20%.
disruption.
For many years, twin studies served as
Neurotransmitter and Hormonal the most direct way of determining
Imbalances in the Brain whether or not a disorder has a genetic
basis. In the classic twin study design,
Factors affecting neurotransmitter the similarity of monozygotic
imbalance include: (‘identical’) twins and dizygotic
Excessive production and release of (‘fraternal’) twins are compared.
the neurotransmitter substance into Because monozygotic twins share all of
the synapses, causing an excess  in their genes and dizygotic twins share
 Dysfunctionsinthenormal
levels of that neurotransmitter. only half their genes, greater similarity
among monozygotic twins than among
processes by which dizygotic twins implies a genetic
neurotransmitters are deactivated component for most major mental
after they are released into the disorders (e.g., schizophrenia, the
synapse. This deactivation is done major mood disorders, anxiety
in two ways. They are either disorders,alcohol-
deactivated by enzymes present in usedisorders),twinand/oradoptionstudie
the synapse or reabsorbed or sucked shavedemonstratedsignificant genetic
back into the presynaptic axon
 button, a process called re-uptake. effects. However, these studies also
demonstrate equally, if not more,
Dysfunctions can important environmental effects.
occurwhentheenzymesinthesynapse However, psychologists often assume
aredeficientorthereisslowingofthepr
that ‘environment’ means the family or
 ocess ofre-uptake. psychosocial environment and this is
Problems in the receptors in the not necessarily the case. Factors such
postsynaptic neuron, which may as the prenatal environment and viral

either be abnormally sensitive or infections are all part of the
insensitive.
‘environment’ in geneticterms.
HORMONAL IMBALANCE
Hormones are chemicals messengers Usingseveraldifferenttechniquestoanaly
secreted by the endocrine glands zeDNA(themolecularbasisofgenes),rese
(e.g.,pituitary).Theyplayaroleinthefunct archers are now in a position to
ioningofthenervoussystemandintheregu correlate the presence of specific genes
with specific mental disorders. The task
lation of behavior
is complicated because existing
(e.g.,duringadolescence,changesinthehy
pothalamicpituitary-adrenalaxisare research suggests that most mental
involvedintheincreaseincortisol,astress- disorders are caused by multiple genes
relatedhormone).Malfunctionofthissyst (polygenic), making it very difficult to
emhas been said to be responsible for discover each individual gene that is
various forms of psychopathology. associated with adisorder.
Hormonal influences are also
responsible for the differences in CONSTITUTIONAL
behaviour between men andwomen. LIABILITIESThe term
‘constitutional’ is used to describe any
GENETICSGenes play an important characteristic that is either innate or
role in determining risks for both acquired early in life often at prenatal
psychotic and non- stage and in such strength that it is
[Link],thelifeti functionally similar to a genetic
meriskofschizophreniais1%,but characteristic. Physical handicaps and
temperament are some of the traits
included in this category Embryonic

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abnormalities or environmental feelings of depersonalization.

conditions operating before or after Prolonged food deprivation also affects
birth may result in physical defects. psychological health. Severe
The most common birth difficulty malnutrition in children not only
associated with learning disabilities and impairs physical development
behavioural and emotional disorders andlowersresistancetodiseasebutitalsost
[Link] untsbraingrowth,resultsinloweredintelli
canleadtoprematurebirthandlowbirthwe gence and increases risk for disorders
ights include nutritional deficiencies, like attention-deficitdisorder.
disease, and exposure to radiation,
drugs, severe emotional stress or
PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS
mother’s excessive use of alcohol or
tobacco. Socio-economic status is also Personality ‘traits’ are usually defined
related to fetal and birth difficulties. as those aspects of how one person
The temperament of an infant or young relates to others,
child has profound effects on a variety reactstointerpersonalstimuliandevaluate
of important developmental processes [Link],aperson
(Rothbart &Ahadi,1994). may laugh, cry, be angry, be thoughtful
and act unkindly at different times.
BRAINSTRUCTURE
Knowledge about brain structure has This does not mean
increased with thattheir‘personality’isconstantlychangi
the advances in ng–
computedtomography(CT)scanningand itistheoverallbalanceofthinking,feelinga
magneticresonanceimaging(MRI).This nd behaviour that is important, not how
hasleadto many notable observations. they react in any specificsituation.
For instance, neuroimaging in some PSYCHODYNAMICS AND THE
patients with schizophrenia shows PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIP
dilated cerebral ventricles and reduced
frontal lobe density. This evidence Freud emphasized the role of the early
indicates that schizophrenia may be parent–child relationship in the
neurodevelopmental in origin. development of mental illness.
Exposure to adverse conditions According to Freud, to the extent that
whichcanaffectbraindevelopment(inute the child did not successfully negotiate
roorinearlylife)mayleadtochangesinthef the psychosexual stages, mental illness
rontal lobes that increase the risk of would develop.
schizophrenia. Neuroimaging also
Contemporary psychodynamic models
helps us to distinguish between
(e.g., Kohut, 1977; Kernberg, 1976;
different types of dementia. Also, some
Mitchell, 1988) also suggest that the
older people experiencing severe
early parent child relationship is the
depression for the first time might have
original source of mental illness, and
underlying cerebro-vasculardisease.
that what goes on in the mind of the
PHYSICAL DEPRIVATION OR child (and the adult) is important. The
DISRUPTIONThe most basic human attachment model of psychopathology,
requirements are those of food, water, developed by Bowlby (1969; 1973;
oxygen, sleep and elimination of 1980) resembles the contemporary
wastes. Insufficient rest, inadequate psychodynamic models in that it also
diet or working too hard when ill, can emphasizes the early parent child
all interfere with a person’s ability to relationship and how the resulting
cope and might predispose him or her
to a variety of [Link]
studies of volunteers who have gone
without sleep for 72 to 98 hours show
psychological problems like
disorientation for time and place and
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models of self and others guide Lidz et al. (1958) suggested that
development abnormalities in the relationships
between the parents of mentally ill
LEARNED BEHAVIOUR patients were primarily responsible for
Behavioral models suggest that all their developing psychological
behaviours, abnormal included, is a [Link] coined the terms skew
product of learning, that is mainly and schism to describe such
learning by association. For example, relationships. Skew describes a
according to the classical conditioning marriage where one partner is dominant
model of learning (e.g. Pavlov, 1928), and the other submissive, while schism
if a person experiences chest pain describes the relationship in which
which results in parents are emotionally distant from
anxietywhileshoppinginadepartmentalst one another.
ore,hemaydevelopafearofdepartmentals
tores
andbegintoavoidthembecauseheassociat SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS
[Link]
ently One, called social causation, suggest
frighteningaboutdepartmentalstores,but that lower economic class people are
thispersonfearsthembecauseoftheassoci more prone to
ation that he has formed with his earlier mentaldisorderbecausetheyaremorelikel
anxiety about having a possible ytoexperiencesocialstress (e.g.
heartattack unemployment, separation), to suffer
from psychic frailty, infectious
DISTORTED THINKINGCognitive diseases, neurological impairments, and
models of abnormal behaviour focus on to lack good medical treatment, coping
the way people think ability and social support. Through an
aboutthemselves,othersandtheworld(e.g accumulation of these problems, and
.Becketal.,1979).Distortedcognitivepro the stresses that result, low social status
cesses–such as selectively attending to becomes a cause of mental
some information and ignoring other [Link]
information, exaggerating negative [Link]
feelings, expecting the worst, or mentally ill people from higher social
making inaccurate attributions about classes often drift downward into the
eventshavebeenshowntoplayanimportan lower-class areas, (due to job loss,
troleinvarioustypesofpsychologicaldiso unemployment) helping to increase the
rders. rate of mental illness in such
neighborhoods. This explanation
FAMILY THEORIES suggests that being lower economic
Fromm-Reichmann (1948) coined the class is a result of mental illness among
term schizophrenogenic mother, to formerly higher status individuals. Both
describe a parent who was cold, explanations may be true to some
domineering and manipulative, and extent.
who had a marked tendency to induce GENDER
conflict in others around her.
The female role is relatively restrictive
Bateson et al. (1956) argued that and oppressive, likely to confine the
schizophrenia develops as a result of woman to her inner self, such that she
repeated exposure to a process called tends to keep her frustration and anger
the double-bind. This term means to herself rather than aggressively pour
communications that are inherently it out on others. Hence women are
contradictory or conflicting, and which more likely to fall victim to depression
put the child in a ‘no win’ situation [Link],ontheotherhand,havea
moreliberatedrole,andtheyareencourage

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dto be bold, assertive and aggressive in psychosocial factors to predict the

social relations. If frustrated and angry, likelihood of a disorder. This diathesis-
they are more likely to take it out on stress model suggests that people with an
others — behaving as antisocial and underlying predisposition for a disorder
paranoidindividuals. (i.e., a diathesis) are more likely than
others to develop a disorder when faced
AGE with adverse environmental or
Anothersocialfactorthathasbeenassociat psychological events (i.e., stress), such as
[Link] childhood maltreatment, negative life
ucted before the 1980’s suggested that events, trauma, and so on. A diathesis is
older persons were more likely to suffer not always a biological vulnerability to an
from mental disorders. This was illness; some diatheses may be
attributed to societal neglect of the psychological (e.g., a tendency to think
elderly eventually resulting in about life events in a pessimistic, self-
institutionalization, where the neglect defeating way).
can continue. Yet, more
recentstudiesinthe1980’sand1990sshow The key assumption of the diathesis-stress
thattheelderlyaretheleastlikelyamongall model is that both factors, diathesis and
age groups to become mentallyill. stress, are necessary in the development of
a disorder. Different models explore the
RACE AND ETHNICITY relationship between the two factors: the
A third social factor in mental level of stress needed to produce the
disorders is race and ethnicity. Like disorder is inversely proportional to the
gender, level of diathesis.
thesehavenotbeenconsistentlyfoundtobe
[Link]
any studies have shown higher rates of TREATMENT OF DISORDERS
psychological stress among minorities,
the standard explanation has been that There are different approaches to therapy
these groups experience more social but they can be basically divided into two
stresses stemming from discrimination, groups:
poverty and cultural conflict. 1) pharmacological and 2) psychotherapy

THE DIATHESIS-STRESS MODEL

OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS DRUGS:
Antipsychotic medications are used in
Despite advances in understanding the
psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia,
biological basis of psychological disorders,
the psychosocial perspective is still very and bipolar disorder. They reduce or
important. This perspective emphasizes the eliminate symptoms such as delusions and
importance of learning, stress, faulty and hallucinations. Patients begin to feel better
self-defeating thinking patterns, and within six weeks of starting antipsychotic
environmental factors. Perhaps the best medication.
way to think about psychological
disorders, then, is to view them as
originating from a combination of ANTIPSYCHOTIC
biological and psychological processes. MEDICATIONS:There are two types of
Many develop not from a single cause, but
antipsychotic medications. These are
from a delicate fusion between partly
biological and partly psychosocial factors. known as:

The diathesis-stress model (Zuckerman, ST

1999) integrates biological and TYPICAL / 1 GENERATION
ANTIPSYCHOTICS (E.G.

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CHLORPROMAZINE (THORAZINE)
–this refers to the older type of  Selective serotonin reuptake
medications that first appeared in the mid- inhibitors (SSRIs): They act by
1950s that work by blocking the action of increasing the amount of
dopamine. These medications were likely serotonin in the brain. The SSRIs
to cause side effects called ‘extrapyramidal include drugs such as Fluoxetine
symptoms’ or EPS, such as: Rigidity (Prozac) and Sertraline (Zoloft).
(muscle stiffness) and ‘Tardive dyskinesia’
Atypical/Serotonin-norepinephrine
– movement of the mouth, tongue and reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs): These

sometimes other parts of the body over target serotonin and
which the person has no control. norepinephrine.

ND Serotonin,noradrenalin,and
ATYPICAL / 2 GENERATION 
ANTIPSYCHOTICS (E.G. dopamine reuptake inhibitor (or
TM
CLOZAPINE (CLOZARIL) AND  SNDRI). Drugs like Wellbutrin
RISPERIDONE (RISPERDAL).This TM
andEffexor blockthe
works on both dopamine and serotonin and reabsorption of the three
also have fewer side effects. Clozapine is neurotransmitters – serotonin,
considered a very effective but it can cause dopamine and norepinephrine.
‘agranulocytosis’, a loss of the white blood
cells and hence blood cell need to OLDER/CLASSICAL
bemonitored every week. Common side- ANTIDEPRESSANTS
effects of atypical antipsychotic include
diabetes and weight gain. Tricyclic antidepressants:
Tricyclics are among the older
antidepressants. They work by
INJECTIONS – DEPOT inhibiting the brain’s reuptake
MEDICATION:Depot medication is of dopamine, serotonin and
given by injection, which releases the drug norepinephrine. Because the
slowly over some weeks. Some people tricyclics have such a broad
prefer injections as they find remembering mechanism of action, they tend
to take tablets difficult. to cause more side effects than

the other classes of
antidepressants.
ANTIDEPRESSANT DRUGS:These 
drugs are used for treating depression, Monoamine oxidase inhibitors
anxiety, eating disorders and certain (MAOIs): MAOIs are not
personality disorders such as borderline. typically chosen as a first-line
There are several types of antidepressants depression treatment because
available to treat depression, such as: of their side effects.

NEWER/SECOND GENERATION ANTIANXIETY/ANXIOLYTIC

TREATMENT;They have less DRUGS:These reduce anxiety and are
severe side effects than the older also prescribed as sleeping pills and
drugs. Common side effects of newer muscle relaxants.
antidepressants include: Feeling sick, Benzodiazepines: they enhance the
dry mouth, insomnia and weight gain activity of GABA which then
promotes relaxation by slowing the

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CNS. They include:  TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC

Valium(diazepam), Xanax STIMULATION (TMS):Transcranial
(alprazolam). magnetic stimulation (TMS) creates a
magnetic field to induce a much
 Beta blockers. Trade
smaller electric current without
names: Inderal, Tenormin. These
causing seizure or loss of
cardiac drugs counteract the effect
consciousness.
of adrenaline and alleviate certain
anxiety symptoms such as shaking,  VAGUS NERVE STIMULATION
(VNS):Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS)
palpitations and sweating.
works by sending electrical pulses
through the left vagus nerve. The vagus
buspirone (Buspar®): Buspar, or
nerves carry messages from the brain to
buspirone hydrochloride, is in a
the body's major organs like the heart,
class of its own. It stimulates both
lungs and intestines, and to areas of the
serotonin and dopamine.
brain that control mood, sleep, and
LITHIUM AND OTHER MOOD other functions.
STABILIZING DRUGS (E.G.,
DEPAKOTE): Lithium is used to treat the NEUROSURGERY:
mania Lithium affects the flow of sodium During neurosurgery a small piece
through nerve and muscle cells in the of brain is destroyed. In lobotomy fiber
body.
tracts connected to the frontal lobe are
destroyed. It was believed that this could
BRAIN STIMULATION help could reduce problems, such as
TECHNIQUES: depression and anxiety. Unfortunately, the
technique left some patients with severe
Brain stimulation therapies involve
side effects, including seizures, and
activating the brain directly with electricity
changes in personality. By the 1980s, the
(ECT), magnets (TMS), or implants (VNS)
neurosurgery field moved away from
to treat depression and other disorders like
destruction to deep-brain stimulation
bipolar, schizophrenia and OCD. These are
where electrodes are placed into the neural
usually considered only after a patient's
tissue and current is passed to activate or
illness has not improved after other
inactivate patches of the brain.
treatment options.

Evaluation: Many pharmacological

ECT: With ECT, electrodes are put on
treatments are effective (especially for
the patient's scalp and a finely
major depression and bipolar disorder) but
controlled electric current is applied
side effects need to be controlled.
causing a brief seizure. In Unilateral
Moreover, they need to be combined with
ECT current flow is applied to only
psychotherapy for long term results.
one side of the brain (nondominant
side) while in bilateral ECT (which is
considered more effective), electrical PSYCHOTHERAPY-
current is applied to both sides. ECT is
much safer today; it still causes some Psychotherapy is a form of treatment for
side effects such as temporary problems of an emotional nature in which
memory loss and confusion. a trained person deliberately establishes a
professional relationship with a patient for

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the purpose of removing, modifying, or Psychoanalytic theory grew out of the

retarding existing symptoms, of mediating work of the famous psychoanalyst
disturbed patterns of behavior, and of Sigmund Freud who began developing his
promoting positive personality growth and therapeutic techniques in the late 1800s. In
development (Wolberg, 1967). 1885, Freud began to study and work with
Jean-Martin Charcot at the Salpêtrière in
Psychologists generally draw on one or Paris. Charcot used hypnosis to treat
more theories of psychotherapy. women suffering from what was then
known as hysteria. Symptoms of the
A theory of psychotherapy acts as a illness included partial paralysis,
roadmap for psychologists: It guides them hallucinations, and nervousness.
through the process of understanding
clients and their problems and developing Freud continued to research hypnotism in
solutions. treatment, but his work and friendship
with colleague Josef Breuer led to the
development of his most famous
Psychoanalysis and psychodynamic
therapies. therapeutic technique. Breuer described
his treatment of a young woman, known in
This approach focuses on changing the case history as Anna O., whose
problematicbehaviors,feelings,andthou symptoms of hysteria were relieved by
ghtsbydiscoveringtheirunconsciousmea talking about her traumatic experiences.
ningsand motivations. Freud and Breuer collaborated on a book
Psychoanalytically oriented therapies called Studies on Hysteria and Freud
are characterized by a close working continued to develop his use of this "talk
partnership between therapist and therapy." This approach proposed that
patient. Patients learn about themselves simply talking about problems could help
by exploring their interactions in the relieve psychological distress.
therapeutic relationship. While
psychoanalysis is closely identified THE PROCESS
with Sigmund Freud, it has been
extended and modified since his
Psychoanalytic therapy is insight driven,
earlyformulations.
and therefore looks to foster change by
helping you understand your past and how
The goal of psychoanalytic therapy is events from your early life could be
to help patients better understand the affecting you now. Sessions will vary
unconscious forces that can play a role according to why you are seeking therapy,
in current behaviors, thoughts, and and where you are in the therapy journey,
emotions. This type of therapy is based but much of the time will be spent talking
upon the theories and work of Sigmund freely to your therapist in a safe, non-
Freud, who founded the school of judgmental environment.
thought known as psychoanalysis.
Freud described the unconscious as the The therapist will listen to your concerns
reservoir of desires, thoughts, and and look out for patterns or certain events
memories that are below the surface of that may hold significance. In this type of
conscious awareness. He believed that therapy, it is believed that our unconscious
it was these unconscious influences that feelings and certain childhood events play
could often lead to psychological a key role in mental distress.
distress and disturbances.
As well as listening to you talk about your
THE HISTORY OF experiences and your concerns, the
PSYCHOANALYTIC THERAPY therapist may use other techniques to help
you understand and identify potential
causes for your concerns, such as free

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association, therapeutic transference and quick, solution-focused therapies.

interpretation. Psychoanalytic therapy is a gradual
process that takes time, yet the results are
FREE ASSOCIATION said to be life changing.

Free association involves you talking Some believe that due to the nature of
about whatever comes into your mind therapy, psychoanalytic work is better
without censoring or editing the flow of suited to more general concerns such as
memories or ideas. Your therapist will anxiety, relationship difficulties, sexual
encourage you to speak freely to help you issues or low self-esteem. Phobias, social
return to an earlier emotional state, so they shyness and difficulties sleeping are
can better understand any recurrent further examples of areas that may be
patterns of conflict you may be effectively managed with the help of
experiencing. psychoanalytic therapy.

THERAPEUTIC TRANSFERENCE Psychoanalytic therapy can also be applied

in a group setting. This is called group
Transference relates to the way you may analysis. This form of therapy brings
be transferring thoughts or feelings together psychoanalytic techniques with
connected to influential figures in your life interpersonal functions.
(for example your parents or siblings) onto
your therapist. While this may not happen
in every case, if it does, your therapist
should discuss transference with you to BEHAVIOR THERAPY.
help you gain further insight into the way
you deal with people in your daily life. This approach focuses on learning's
role in developing both normal and
abnormalbehaviors.
INTERPRETATION

A key element of psychoanalytic therapy Ivan Pavlovmade important

is interpreting and 'reading between the contributionstobehavior
lines'. While your therapist is likely to stay therapybydiscovering
relatively quiet and allow you to talk classical conditioning, or
freely, they will occasionally interject with associative learning. Pavlov's
thoughts or interpretations of the topics famous dogs, for example, began
you discuss. They may also ask you about drooling when they heard their
your dreams; freud wrote a lot on the dinner bell, because they
subject of dream analysis and believed associated the sound withfood.
that dreams were important resources for "Desensitizing" is classical
understanding the unconscious. conditioning in action: A
therapist might help a client with
APPLICATIONS OF a phobia through repeated
PSYCHOANALYTIC THERAPY exposure to whatever it is that
causesanxiety.
Psychoanalytic therapy can be used by AnotherimportantthinkerwasE.L.
those with a specific emotional concern, as Thorndike,whodiscoveredopera
well as those who simply want to explore ntconditioning. This type of
themselves. Understanding why we are the learning relies on rewards and
way we are, often brings with it a sense of punishments to shape
well-being and a strong sense of self. As people'sbehavior.
psychoanalytic therapy is considered one Severalvariationshave
of the more long-term therapy types, it is developed since behavior
perhaps less useful for those seeking therapy's emergence in the

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
1950s. One variation is Edward Thorndike was one of the first to
cognitive-behavioral therapy, refer to the idea of modifying behavior.
which focuses on both thoughts Other early pioneers of behavior therapy
and behaviors. included
 psychologists Joseph Wolpe
and Hans Eysenck. Behaviorist B.F.
In behavioral therapy, the goal is to Skinner's work had a major influence on
reinforce desirable behaviors and eliminate the development of behavior therapy and
unwanted or maladaptive ones. Behavioral his work introduced many of the concepts
therapy is rooted in the principles of and techniques that are still in use today.
behaviorism, a school of thought focused
on the idea that we learn from our Later on, psychologists such as Aaron
environment. The techniques used in this Beck and Albert Ellis began adding a
type of treatment are based on the theories cognitive element to behavioral strategies
of classical conditioning and operant to form a treatment approach known as
conditioning. cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT).

One important thing to note about the THE FOUNDATION OF

various behavioral therapies is that unlike BEHAVIORAL THERAPY
some other types of therapy that are rooted
in insight (such as psychoanalytic and In order to understand how behavioral
humanistic therapies), behavioral therapy therapy works, let's start by exploring the
is action-based. Behavioral therapists are two basic principles that contribute to
focused on using the same learning behavioral therapy: Classical and operant
strategies that led to the formation of conditioning.
unwanted behaviors.
 Classical conditioning involves
Because of this, behavioral therapy tends forming associations between
to be highly focused. The behavior itself is stimuli. Previously neutral stimuli
the problem and the goal is to teach clients are paired with a stimulus that
new behaviors to minimize or eliminate naturally and automatically evokes
the issue. Old learning led to the a response. After repeated pairings,
development of a problem, and so the idea an association is formed and the
is that new learning can fix it. previously neutral stimulus will
come to evoke the response on its
There are three major areas that also draw own.
on the strategies of behavioral therapy: Operant conditioning focuses on how
reinforcement and punishment can
Cognitive-behavioral be utilized to either increase or
therapy relies on behavioral decrease the frequency of a
techniques but adds a cognitive behavior. Behaviors followed by
element, focusing on the desirable consequences are more
problematic thoughts that lie likely to occur again in the future,
behind behaviors. while those followed by negative
Applied behavior analysis uses consequences become less likely to
operant conditioning to shape and occur.
modify problematic behaviors.
Social learning theory centers on BEHAVIOR THERAPY BASED ON
how people learn through CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
observation. Observing others
being rewarded or punished for Classical conditioning is one way to alter
their actions can lead to learning behavior, and a number of techniques exist
 and behavior change. that can produce such change. Originally
known as behavior modification, this type
of therapy is often referred to today as

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applied behavior analysis. There are For example, an individual with a fear of the
several different techniques and strategies dark might start by looking at an image of a
used in this approach to therapy. dark room, before moving on to thinking
 about being in a dark room, and then
 actually confronting his fear by sitting in a
FLOODING dark room. By pairing the old fear-
producing stimulus with the newly learned
This process involves exposing people to relaxation behavior, the phobic response can
fear-invoking objects or situations be reduced or even eliminated.

intensely and rapidly. It is often used to AVERSION THERAPY
treat phobias. During the process, the
individual is prevented from escaping or This process involves pairing an
avoiding the situation. undesirable behavior with an aversive
stimulus in the hope that the unwanted
For example, flooding might be used to behavior will eventually be reduced. For
help a person who is suffering from an example, someone suffering from
intense fear of dogs. At first, the client alcoholism might take disulfiram, a drug
might be exposed to a small, friendly dog which causes severe symptoms (such as
for an extended period of time during headaches, nausea, anxiety, and vomiting)
which they cannot leave. After repeated when combined with alcohol.
exposures to the dog during which nothing
bad happens, the fear response begins to BEHAVIOR THERAPY BASED ON
fade. OPERANT CONDITIONING

SYSTEMATIC  Many behavior techniques rely on the

DESENSITIZATION
principles of operant conditioning, which
In this technique, a client makes a list of means that they use reinforcement,
fears and then learns to relax while punishment, shaping, modeling and related
concentrating on these fears. The use of techniques to alter behavior. These
this process began with psychologist John methods have the benefit of being highly
Watson and his famous Little Albert focused, which means that they can
produce fast and effective results.
experiment in which he conditioned a 
young child to fear a white rat. Later, Mary TOKEN ECONOMIES
Cover Jones replicated Watson's results
and utilized counterconditioning This type of behavioral strategy relies on
techniques to desensitize and eliminate the reinforcement to modify behavior. Clients
fear response. are allowed to earn tokens that can be
exchanged for special privileges or desired
Systematic desensitization is often used to items. Parents and teachers often use token
treat phobias and other anxiety disorders. economies to reinforce good behavior.
The process follows three basic steps.

First, the therapist teaches the client Kids earn tokens for engaging in preferred
relaxation techniques. behaviors and may lose tokens for
Next, the individual creates a ranked displaying undesirable behaviors. These
list of fear-invoking situations. tokens can then be traded for rewards such
Starting with the least fear-inducing as candy, toys, or extra time playing with a
item and working their way up to favorite toy.
the most fear-inducing item, the
CONTINGENCY
client confronts these fears under MANAGEMENT
the guidance of the therapist while
maintaining a relaxed state.

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This approach uses a formal written

contract between a client and a therapist COGNITIVE THERAPY.
(or parent or teacher) that outlines
behavior-change goals, reinforcements,
rewards, and penalties. Contingency Cognitive therapy emphasizes what
contracts can be very effective in people think rather than what they do.
producing behavior changes since the rules Cognitive therapists believe that it's
are spelled out clearly, preventing both dysfunctional thinking that leads to
parties from backing down on their dysfunctional emotions or behaviors.
promises. By changing their thoughts, people can
 change how they feel and what they do.
MODELING
Major figures in cognitive therapy
This technique involves learning through include Albert Ellis and Aaron Beck.
observation and modeling the behavior of
others. The process is based on Albert AN OVERVIEW AND SUMMARY
Bandura's social learning theory, which OF CBT
emphasizes the social components of the
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy is utilized in
learning process.
treating multiple types of psychiatric
problems. The treatment is typically done
Rather than relying simply on between 3 and 6 months, depending on the
reinforcement or punishment, modeling problem. The following is a list of
allows individuals to learn new skills or psychological problems where CBT has
acceptable behaviors by watching someone been utilized.
else perform those desired skills. In some
cases, the therapist might model the depression
desired behavior. In other instances,  anxiety
watching peers engage in sought-after eating disorders
behaviors can also be helpful.
 anger management
EXTINCTION marital crisis
obsessive-compulsive disorder
Another way to produce behavior change schizophrenia
is to stop reinforcing a behavior in order to post-traumatic stress disorder
eliminate the response. Time-outs are a chronic pain
perfect example of the extinction process.
There are 5 five areas that are believed to
During a time-out, a person is removed be interconnected and affecting one
from a situation that provides another. For instance, how one feels about
reinforcement. For example, a child who a certain situation can cause physical and
starts yelling or striking other children emotional feelings, resulting in varying
would be removed from the group and behaviors in response.
required to sit quietly in a place where
there are no opportunities for attention and situations
reinforcement. By taking away the thoughts
attention that the child found rewarding, emotions
the unwanted behavior is eventually physical feelings
extinguished. behaviors

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 understanding that they will be utilized in
their future.
CBT breaks problems down into smaller
pieces to give detailed attention to each In cognitive behavior therapy,
part. The techniques aid patients psychological problems are believed to
in disrupting negative, automatic develop through the use of cognitive
thoughts, and replacing them with more distortions. Aaron Beck’s work suggests
helpful ones. The overall goal is to teach that by correcting these distortions, a more
the skill of breaking down negative accurate experience of events is created.
thought patterns and changing them into a Through this work, a patient is better able
more helpful approach to handling daily to develop skills to properly process
life. exposure to life events.

KEY CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES Here is a list of Cognitive Distortions.

OF THE APPROACH
Personalization means the attribution
The patient’s active participation in of the negative feelings of others and
therapy is a key principle in CBT. Without the world around them. For instance,
it, this goal-oriented and problem focused a gymnastics coach is cross, so a
approach would not be effective. Sessions gymnast automatically feels it is her
in CBT are well structured and the client’s fault.
better understanding of the role of 
cognition in correcting behavioral Fallacy of change is assuming that
dysfunctions is paramount to their success. other people will change to suit them
This educative approach allows the client- if pressured enough. This is a common
therapist relationship to deepen, which is distortion found in relationships. For
also an important principle in this therapy. instance, a woman feeling that if her
partner improved himself, she would
CBT is a time limited approach, and work be happier.
outside of the therapy office is vital to 
success. While this approach is initially Emotional reasoning is the
present focused, an emphasis on adaptive distortion that occurs when feelings
thinking allows for relapse prevention. It are considered as facts. For example,
allows the patient to be saying, “I feel that way, it must be
taught techniques to change their true.”
thinking, mood, and behavior with the

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Fallacy of Fairness is a distortion that Magnification means exaggerating the

measures all things by an imaginary importance of an undesirable event.
ruler of fairness. A person may feel For instance, allowing getting cut off
resentful because they feel that they by another driver as the impetus to ruin
have a clear definition of fairness, but your entire day. Filtering also includes
that others might not agree with them. selective abstraction. This is focusing
 on a single aspect of a situation and
 Polarization or “Black and White” ignoring others.
Thinking is a distortion that occurs
when things are all or nothing. Blaming occurs when a person holds
Someone might believe they have to someone else responsible for their
be perfect, or they are a failure. emotional pain, or hold themselves
 responsible for every problem.
Overgeneralization means coming to 
broad negative conclusions based on a Global labeling is a distortion that
single, insignificant event. An example occurs when a person generalizes single
would be telling yourself you’re a  qualities into a global judgment.
terrible baker based on failing at one For instance, “I failed a test,
recipe attempt. therefore I’m stupid.”
 
Control fallacies are distortions in Heaven’s Reward Fallacy is the
which a person would feel that distortion that self-sacrifice will
everything that happens to you is a eventually pay off.
result of external actions or of their 
own behavior. For instance, Shoulds are distortions that occur when
believing that your work is not good a person has hard set rules about how
because you’re dealing with every person should behave. An
disruptive coworkers. example would be saying, “I should
work out. I shouldn’t be so lazy.” The
Jumping to Conclusions is a distortion resulting emotional consequence is
that occurs when assumptions about guilt.
 another’s feelings or beliefs are made.
An example might be a child feeling Albert Ellis developed the ABC
that they know how someone else feels technique that is still utilized in CBT
about them. It can also be described as today. The ABC Technique of Irrational
perceived mind reading. Beliefs analyzes the first three steps in
 which someone might develop an
Catastrophizing is a distortion that irrational belief: A) Activating event B)
assumes the expectation that the Belief C) Consequences.
worst is going to happen. An example
is believing that a small error at work Activating Event. This is an event that
is going to result in you being fired. would lead someone to a type of high
 emotional response, and/ or negative
Always Being Right is a distortion that  dysfunctional thinking.
occurs when the person is always Beliefs. The client would write down
putting others on trial to prove their the negative thoughts that occurred to
opinions are absolutely correct.  them around the activating event.
 Consequences. These are the negative
Filtering is a distortion that includes feelings and behaviors that occurred as
both Minimization and Magnification. a result. The beliefs are to be viewed
Minimization means underplaying the as a bridge to the negative feelings and
significance of an event. For instance, behaviors that occurred as a result of
you are praised for your job the activating event.
performance, but you see it as trivial.

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Ellis believed that it was not the activating scenario is explored with actionable steps
event (A) that causes the negative beliefs attached, so that control over behavior is
and consequences (C), but rather how the realized.
patient interprets or misinterprets the
meaning of the event (B) that helps cause A recent, popular technique being utilized
the consequences (C). in CBT is called Acceptance and
Commitment Therapy. It differs from
Helping a patient reinterpret their irrational traditional CBT in that it is not trying to
belief system helps to forge new ways for teach people to better control their
them to interpret their beliefs resulting in thoughts around their activating events;
alternative behaviors. A person can utilize instead this approach is teaching people to
this technique, even in the absence of a “just notice,” accept and embrace the
therapist. feelings around the activating events. This
approach utilizes techniques from CBT as
Journaling for the awareness of cognitive well, but ACT focuses on freeing the
distortions is a powerful way to better patient from the grip of the event itself.
understand personal cognition. A person
keeps track of their automatic thoughts Mindfulness techniques like deep
and an analysis of the presence of various breathing and Progressive Muscle
distortions is detected. Relaxation (PMR) play a big role in CBT.
These techniques allow the person to be
Once better understood, a person can present in the moment and calmly soothe
utilize different methods to reevaluate the unfocused mind. With the relaxation
these automatic thoughts with evidence. comes the stronger ability to tune in and
Well trained practitioners in CBT can aid alter automatic negative thoughts.
someone who has difficulty in unraveling
these distortions.
Cognitive restructuring is a
Rescripting is a technique used to help CBT technique that helps people examine
patients suffering from nightmares. When their unhelpful thinking. It helps them to
the emotion that is brought to the surface redevelop ways to react in situations that
from the nightmare is exposed, a therapist have in the past proven problematic.
can help the patient to redefine the Keeping a daily record of the automatic
emotion desired and to develop a new negative thoughts creates a way to find the
image to elicit that emotion. patterns in these thoughts. With an
identified pattern, alternative reactions and
Exposure therapy is used in OCD and adaptive thoughts can be forged.
anxiety phobias. Exposing yourself to the
trigger reduces the response to the trigger. Treating thoughts as guesses is a
Many therapists recommend mild exposure technique that helps to gather evidence to
3 times daily. While this may be combat automatic negative thoughts.
uncomfortable during the first exposures, When a person takes their thoughts to
the increase in exposure reduces phobic “court” proof of truth must be found for
reactions. the thought to be held as accurate. If any
proof against the thought is found, it must
The Worst Case/ Best Case/Most Likely be tossed and replaced with a more
Case Scenario technique is used to help accurate thought.
people overcome fear or anxiety. Allowing
the brain to ruminate to the point of A cognitive pie chart is a fun way for kids to
ridiculousness allows the person to “play utilize CBT. The first step is identifying the
out” the fear to an unrealistic end. Then automatic negative thoughts. For example,
the person is brought to the best case and “I’m dumb because I failed a test.” Step two
again allowed to let their thoughts “play is devising a list of alternative explanations
out” to the ridiculous. Then, a most likely to those ANTs.

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Finding as many alternatives as possible is productive behavior, allowing you to

helpful. The third step is giving each develop more successful personal and
explanation a percentage in the professional relationships.
contribution to the outcome of failing the
test. Step four is placing these explanations Ellis theorized that many of our emotional
in a pie chart. and behavioral problems spring from basic
irrational assumptions or assumptions that
Activity Scheduling is a powerful are not totally grounded in reality and
technique in CBT. It helps people engage influence people to act in ways that are
in activities that they are not normally used inappropriate, unhelpful, or even
to doing. It presents as a way to slowly destructive (McLeod, 2015).
reintroduce rewarding behavior that has
been excluded from people’s routines. The Based on this idea, Ellis developed a
technique is helpful in increasing positive model to help explain, describe, and treat
emotion when performed incrementally. emotional and behavioral disturbances.

Graded exposure is a technique used to THE ABCDE MODEL OF

help expose anxiety sufferers to contact EMOTIONAL DISTURBANCE
with what is feared. The underlying theory
is that people who avoid situations that Ellis hypothesized that irrational beliefs
induce fear or anxiety will increase the are the result of a person’s goals or desires
anxiety. The slowly increased exposure being inhibited or blocked. When we don’t
aids to decrease that fear. get or accomplish what we wanted to, we
may develop irrational beliefs about
Many deficits in social skills can be ourselves or the world that help explain
improved through CBT techniques. what happened.
Modeling, role playing, and instruction
can be used to increase social For example, imagine you are dead set on
skills like communication and getting a job you applied for. You study up
assertiveness. Communication skills, or on the company, practice your interview
rather the lack of, are a massive obstacle answers, and make sure you’re looking
for many. Improving these skills bolsters extra sharp the day of the interview.
confidence and abilities to interact with Although you prepared extensively, the
others, dramatically reducing levels of hiring manager decided to go with another
anxiety inducing situations. candidate.

RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIOR You may accept that this just wasn’t meant
THERAPY to be, or that you just weren’t the right fit
for the job. However, you may also be
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy heavily impacted by the decision and
(REBT) is a short-term form of develop an irrational belief about why you
psychotherapy that helps you identify self- didn’t get the job.
defeating thoughts and feelings, challenge
the rationality of those feelings, and You might think, “I didn’t get this job
replace them with healthier, more because they can see that I’m a loser. I’m
productive beliefs. REBT focuses mostly not good at anything and I never will be.”
on the present time to help you understand
how unhealthy thoughts and beliefs create Or, you might think, “The only reason I
emotional distress which, in turn, leads to didn’t get this job is because the hiring
unhealthy actions and behaviors that manager had it out for me. It’s like the
interfere with your current life goals. Once universe has it out for me!”
identified and understood, negative
thoughts and actions can be changed and Both of these are thoughts that can help you
replaced with more positive and explain why you didn’t get the job, but

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they are irrational and can lead to negative consequences may be that you lose your
emotions and behavior down the road. self-confidence or frequently feel sad
(emotional) and stop applying to any jobs
Using this scenario as an example, this is (behavioral).
how the ABCDE model can explain the
development (and the solution) of such D – DISPUTES OR ARGUMENTS
problems:
At some point, you may realize that you
A – ACTIVATING EVENT / have an irrational belief that is causing you
ADVERSITY problems. You notice your loss of self-
confidence and negative thoughts about
An activating event or adversity is yourself and begin to argue against your
something that triggers you to form an irrational belief. If you’re working with a
irrational belief, such as being turned therapist, the therapist may help guide you
down for the position. It is the first step in in developing arguments against the belief
developing an irrational thought because and help you come up with evidence to the
the irrational thought is formed to help contrary, such as “I have an amazing
you deal with the event. spouse. My spouse wouldn’t be with a
‘loser’ so I must not be a loser.”
B – IRRATIONAL BELIEF
E – NEW EFFECT
The “B” stands for the irrational belief that
is formed in response to the activating When you have successfully countered the
event. This is a belief that you use to cope irrational belief, you will notice new
with the event, such as “I’m a loser, I’m (hopefully more positive!) consequences
useless, and I wouldn’t be able to do the or effects. In our scenario, these effects
job anyway.” While this is, of course, an might be increased confidence, applying to
incredibly hurtful thought, it can still be more jobs, and feeling good about your
more comforting than having no idea why abilities. These effects are the positive
you didn’t get the job. Irrational beliefs are outcomes of holding more rational
surprisingly easy to develop. thoughts, like “I just wasn’t a good fit for
that job, but I’ll find another” or “Maybe
C – EMOTIONAL AND the hiring manager really didn’t like me,
BEHAVIORAL CONSEQUENCES but that’s her loss” (McLeod, 2015).

The third component is the consequences The ABCDE model can be extremely
of this irrational belief. Irrational beliefs helpful in tracing the development of
always have consequences, sometimes irrational thought and providing a high-
emotional, sometimes behavior, and level outline of how to challenge and
sometimes both. In this case, the replace it.

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 ourselves and others only leads to
disappointment, recrimination, regret, and
THE BASIC STEPS OF REBT anxiety.

In order to better understand how REBT CHALLENGE

looks, it is important to take a closer look IRRATIONAL BELIEFS
at the therapeutic process itself.
Once these underlying feelings have been
IDENTIFY IRRATIONAL THOUGHT identified, the next step is to challenge the
PATTERNS AND BELIEFS mistaken beliefs. In order to do this, the
therapist disputes these beliefs using very
The very first step in the process is to direct and even confrontational methods.
identify the underlying, irrational thoughts, Ellis suggested that rather than simply
feelings, and beliefs that lead to being warm and supportive, therapists
psychological distress. In many cases, need to be blunt, honest, and logical in
these irrational beliefs are reflected as order to push people toward changing their
absolutes, as in "I must," "I should," or "I thoughts and behaviors.
cannot." According to Ellis, some of the
most common irrational beliefs include:
GAIN INSIGHT AND CHANGE
Feeling excessively upset over other BEHAVIOR
 people's mistakes or misconduct
Believing that you must be 100% As you might imagine, REBT can be a
competent and successful in everything daunting process for the client. Facing
to be valued and worthwhile irrational thought patterns can be difficult,

Believing that you will be happier if especially because accepting these beliefs
you avoid life's difficulties or as unhealthy is far from easy. Once the
challenges client has identified the problematic

Feeling that you have no control over beliefs, the process of actually changing
your own happiness, that your these thoughts can be even more
contentment and joy are dependent challenging.
.
upon external forces 
While it is perfectly normal to feel upset
Holding such unyielding beliefs makes it when making a mistake, the goal of REBT
almost impossible to respond to activating is to help people respond rationally to such
situations in a psychologically healthy way. situations. When faced with this type of
Possessing such rigid expectations of situation in the future, the emotionally

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healthy response would be to realize that it perceive themselves consciously, rather

is not realistic to expect success in every than how a counsellor can interpret their
endeavor. You made a mistake, but that's unconscious thoughts or ideas.
okay. Everyone makes mistakes. All you
can do is learn from the situation and move Created in the 1950s by psychologist Carl
on. Rogers, the person-centred approach
ultimately sees human beings as having an
While REBT uses cognitive strategies, it innate tendency to develop towards their
focuses on emotions and behaviors as full potential. However, this ability can
2 become blocked or distorted by certain life
well. In addition to identifying and
disputing irrational beliefs, therapists and experiences, particularly those the
clients also work together to target the experiences which affect our sense of
emotional responses that accompany value.
problematic thoughts. Clients are The therapist in this approach works to
encouraged to change unwanted behaviors understand an individual’s experience
using strategies such as meditation, from their perspective. The therapist must
journaling, and guided imagery. positively value the client as a person in
all aspects of their humanity, while aiming
to be open and genuine. This is vital in
HUMANISTIC THERAPY. helping the client feel accepted, and better
able to understand their own feelings. The
approach can help the client to reconnect
This approach emphasizes people's
with their inner values and sense of self-
capacity to make rational choices and
worth, thus enabling them to find their
develop to their maximum potential.
own way to move forward and progress.
Concern and respect for others are also
important themes. Humanistic The core purpose of person-centred
philosophers like Jean-Paul Sartre, therapy is to facilitate our ability to self-
Martin Buber and Søren actualise - the belief that all of us will
Kierkegaard influenced this type grow and fulfil our potential. This
oftherapy. approach facilitates the personal growth
and relationships of a client by allowing
them to explore and utilise their own
a. Threetypesofhumanistic therapy strengths and personal identity. The
[Link]- counsellor aids this process, providing
centeredtherapyrejects the idea of vital support to the client and they make
therapists as authorities on their their way through this journey.
clients' inner experiences. Instead,
The person-centred counsellor is not an
therapists help clients change by
expert; rather the client is seen as an
emphasizing their concern, care
expert on themselves and the person-
andinterest.
centred counsellor encourages the client to
Gestalt therapy emphasizes what it
explore and understand themselves and
calls "organismic holism," the
their troubles.
importance of being aware of the
here and now and accepting
There are three conditions believed to help
responsibility foryourself.
achieve this environment, particularly in
Existential therapy focuses on free will,
the therapy room.
self-determination and the search
formeaning.
Congruence - the counsellor must be
completely genuine.

Person-centred therapy, also known as Empathy - the counsellor must strive
person-centred or client-centred to understand the client's
counselling, is a humanistic approach that experience.
deals with the ways in which individuals

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Unconditional positive regard - the B. GESTALT THERAPY

counsellor must be non-judgmental
“I do my thing and
and valuing.
you do your thing.
I am not in this
THE IMPORTANCE OF SELF- world to live up to
CONCEPT your expectations
And you are not in
Self-concept also plays an important role this world to live up
in person-centered therapy. Rogers defined to mine.
self-concept as an organized set of beliefs You are you and I
and ideas about the self. The self-concept am I,
play an important role in determining not And if by chance we
only how people see themselves, but also find each other, it’s
how they view and interact with the world beautiful.
around them. If not, it cannot be
helped.”
Sometimes self-concept lines up well with (Fritz Perls, 1969,
reality, which Rogers referred to as in Gladding, 2000)
congruence. In other cases, self-
perceptions are sometimes unrealistic or
Gestalt Therapy was developed in the
not in tune with what exists in the real
1940’s by Fritz and Laura Perls and
world. Rogers believed that all people
further influenced by the likes of Kurt
distort reality to some degree, but when
Lewin and Kurt Goldstein (Corsini&
self-concept is in conflict with reality,
Wedding, 2000). It was developed as a
incongruence can result. For example, a
revision to psychoanalysis and focuses on
young boy might perceive himself as a
an experiential and humanistic approach
strong athlete, despite the fact that his
rather than analysis of the unconscious
actual performance on the field reveals that
which was one of the main therapeutic
he is not particularly skilled and could use
tools at the time Gestalt Therapy was
extra practice.
employed.
Through the process of person-centered Gestalt Therapy rejects the dualities of
therapy, Rogers believed that people could mind and body, body and soul, thinking
learn to adjust their self-concept in order to and feeling, and feeling and action.
achieve congruence and a more realistic According to Perls, people are not made
view of themselves and the world. For up of separate components, this is, mind,
example, imagine a young woman who body and soul, rather human beings
views herself as uninteresting and a poor function as a whole. In doing so, one
conversationalist despite the fact that other defines who one is (sense of self) by
people find her fascinating and quite choice of responses to environmental
engaging. Because her self-perceptions are interactions (boundaries). The word
not congruent with reality, she may “Gestalt” (of German origin) refers to a
experience poor self-esteem as a result. “whole, configuration, integration, pattern
The client-centered approach focuses on or form” (Patterson, 1986).The form of
providing unconditional positive regard, Gestalt Therapy practiced today utilizes
empathy, and genuine support in order to ideas, data and interventions from multiple
help the client reach a more congruent sources, as well as some of the original
view of herself. techniques known to be ‘Gestalt Therapy
techniques. It is noted that Gestalt Therapy
has a history of being an approach which
creates or borrows specific techniques that
are focused on

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assisting the client to take the next step in This enables the individual to grow in
their personal growth and development. his or her environment through
reacting to the environment and
KEY CONCEPTS changing.
Here and now: This is the individual
Several key concepts underlie Gestalt
living in and being conscious at the
Therapy, many of which are similar to that
present moment rather than worrying
of person-centred and existential therapy.
about the past or the future.
However, what does differentiate Gestalt
Responsibility: This refers to the
Therapy from these therapies are some of
individual taking responsibility for his
the ideas added by Perls and associates as
or her own life rather than blaming
well as distinctive therapeutic techniques
others.
that will be covered further down
(Seligman, 2006). The following are the
key concepts of Gestalt Therapy: Energy and blocks to energy: Gestalt
Therapists often focus on where
Wholeness and Integration: Wholeness energy is in the body, how it is used,
refers to the whole person or the and how it may be causing a blockage
individual’s mind and body as a unit (Corey, 2005). Blocked energy is a
rather than as separate parts (Seligman, form of resistance, for example,
2006). Integration refers to how these tension in a part of the body, not
 parts fit together and how the breathing deeply, or avoiding eye
individual integrates into the contact. Gestalt Therapy is about
environment. Often people who come finding and releasing the blockages
to therapy do not have these parts that may be inhibiting awareness.

fitting together in their environment,
Gestalt Therapy is about facilitating Growth Disorders: Growth disorders
clients to integrate themselves as refer to emotional problems that are
whole persons and help restore balance caused by people who lack awareness
in their environment. and do not interact with their
 environment completely. In doing so,
Awareness: Awareness is one of the people are unable to cope with the
 most important elements in Gestalt changes in their lives successfully and,
Therapy as it is seen as a “hallmark of instead deal with the problems in a
the healthy person and a goal of defensive manner (Seligman, 2006).

treatment” (Seligman, 2006). When
individuals are “aware”, they are able Unfinished business: Unfinished
to self-regulate in their environment. business refers to people who do not
finish things in their lives and is often
THERE ARE TWO MAIN CAUSES related to people with a “growth
LACKING AWARENESS: disorder” (Seligman, 2006). People
with unfinished business often resent
1. Preoccupation with one’s past, the past and because of this are unable
fantasies, flaws and strengths that the to focus on the here and now. One of
individual becomes unaware of the the major goals of Gestalt Therapy is
whole picture. to help people work through their
2. Low self-esteem. unfinished business and bring about
closure.

GENERAL IDEAS ABOUT

There are three ways people may achieve PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
awareness through therapy:
Gestalt Therapy deems that people cannot
be considered as separate from their
Contact with the environment: This
environment or from interpersonal
is through looking, listening, touching,
relations. The individual is seen as being
talking, moving, smelling, and tasting.

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self-regulating and is able to motivate communication is seen to provide more

oneself to solve problems. Individuals are information about the real essence of the
able to work towards growth and develop person.
as their environments allow.
Thus, an important function of the Gestalt
A psychologically healthy person is Therapist is paying attention to the client’s
someone who is self-regulating through body language such as the client’s posture,
the changes in life and has developed a movements, gestures, voice, and
sense of “wholeness” between mind and hesitations as the body language is
body (Corsini& Wedding, (2000). considered to be reflective of what the
client is going through at that point in
THERAPEUTIC TECHNIQUES & time.
METHODS OF WORKING
Experiments: Gestalt Therapists use
The most important goal of Gestalt the technique of experiments or
Therapy is that Gestalt Therapists do not learning experiences with their clients.
aim to change their clients. The therapist’s The experiments are designed for the
role is to assist clients in developing their individual and take the form of an
own self-awareness of how they are in the enactment, role play, homework, or
present moment. This will therefore allow other activity which promotes the
them to rectify issues affecting his or her  self-awareness (Seligman,
individual’s
2006).
life.
An example of this technique is with a
“The therapist’s job is to invite clients into man who feels insecure in social
an active partnership where they can learn situations. He has a work function to go to
about themselves by adopting an in two weeks’ time so the therapist gives
experiential attitude toward life in which him the experiment of starting a
they try out new behaviours and notice conversation at the function with someone
what happens” (Perls, Hefferline and he does not normally speak to. Spending
Goodman, 1954, in Corey, 2005). time thinking about what he might say
A focus of developing awareness is that of promotes self-awareness and the
clients’ awareness of their own realities. In experiment itself gives him more
order to do this, clients must first accept confidence in social situations.
responsibility for choosing their present
situations. Language plays a big part in Use of Language: Gestalt Therapists
accepting responsibility. The client may choose language that will encourage
attempt to use avoidance responses or change in the client. The following are
project individual traits onto other people
ways that this can be accomplished
(Seligman, 2006):
or external causes, for example “She
makes me so angry”; “It’s his fault”. Both Emphasis on statements rather than
avoidance responses and projection of questions to highlight a collaborative
traits attempt to displace ownership and client-therapist relationship.
responsibility onto an external cause.
“What” and “How” questions (when
Another goal of Gestalt Therapy is that questions are used) to keep the client
therapists should work to create an “I- in the present and promote integration.
thou” relationship with clients in which “I” statements are used to promote
both the therapist and client are present in client’s ownership of feelings rather
the here-and-now rather than focusing on than placing blame on others.
the past or future (Seligman, 2006). The present tense is used so the focus
is on the present rather than the past.
Also, an understanding of the whole of the Encouraging responsibility for clients
client’s experience is required by the of their words, emotions, thoughts, and
therapist. This involves considering the
client’s verbal and non-verbal
communication. In fact, the nonverbal

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behaviors so they recognize and accept unconscious, rather on projections or

what they are feeling. aspects of the dreamer (Seligman,
2006). The therapist would get clients
Empty Chair: The empty chair to talk about their dream/s in terms of
technique is a “method of facilitating the significance of each role in the
the role-taking dialogue between the dream and this allows clients to take
patient and others or between parts of
responsibility for the dreams and
 the 
patient’s personality. It is generally
increase awareness of their thoughts
used in a group situation” (Patterson,
1986). Two chairs are placed facing and emotions.
 Fantasy: 
each other: one represents the patient Fantasy is used in Gestalt
or one aspect of the patient’s Therapy to increase clients’ self-
personality, and the other represents awareness of their thoughts and
another person or the opposing part of emotions and to bring about closure to
the personality. As the patient unfinished business (Seligman, 2006).
alternates the role, he or she sits in one Therapists use guided imagery
or the other chair. techniques (fantasy) to encourage
clients to imagine situations such as
The therapist may simply observe as the what they would do in a certain
dialogue progresses or may instruct the situation or by projecting themselves
patient when to change chairs, suggest  into different roles.
sentences to say, call the patient’s attention
to what has been said, or ask the patient to The Body as a Vehicle of
Communication: Gestalt Therapy sees
repeat or exaggerate words or actions.
that not only are thoughts and
In the process, emotions and conflicts are emotions important to creating a
feeling of “wholeness” for the client,
evoked, impasses may be brought about the physical sensations are also
and resolved, and awareness and important. Seligman (2006) has
integration of polarities may develop – identified three strategies to help with
polarities or splits within the patient, 
focusing attention on the physical
between the patient and other persons, or  sensations:
between the patient’s wants and the social
norms (Patterson, 1986). Identification: Gestalt Therapists
should be able to recognize physical
Topdog – Underdog: A commonly signs of their clients. For example, a
utilized Gestalt technique is that of the  client might be tapping their feeton
 top dog-underdog dialogue. This  the ground. The therapist may say
technique is used when the therapist “Become your leg and give it a voice?”
notices two opposing This creates awareness of the client’s
opinions/attitudes within the client.  physical sensations and emotions.
The therapist encourages the client to
distinguish between these two parts Locating emotions in the body: Gestalt
and play the role of each in a dialogue Therapists may ask clients where they
between them (Patterson, 1986). are experiencing the emotion in their
body. For example, a client may say
The tyrannical ‘top dog’ demands that they are feeling nervous about
things be a particular way whilst the something. The therapist may ask
where this is coming from in the body
‘underdog’ plays the role of disobedient
and the response from the client may
child. The individual becomes split be that the feeling is butterflies in the
between the two sides struggling for stomach. This helps the client to bring
control. about more awareness into sensations
Dreams: Dreams are used to bring and their emotions.
about integration by the client. The 
focus of a client’s dream is not on the

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Repetition and exaggeration: If there is There is empirical research to support

repetition such as the example of the Gestalt Therapy and its techniques
client tapping their feet on the ground, (Corsini& Wedding, 2000).
the therapist would get them to Gestalt Therapy is equal to or greater
exaggerate the movement and talk
about feelings that come up. This in than other therapies in treating
various disorders, Gestalt Therapy
turn focuses on the emotion and should 
 help to release the blocked awareness. has a beneficial impact with
personality disorders, and the
Confusion: The technique of dealing effects of therapy are stable.
with confusion of the client is about Works with the past by making it
drawing attention to the client’s relevant to the present (Corey,
hesitation in talking about something 2005).
unpleasant. The hesitation can be
shown through avoidance, blanking Versatile and flexible in its approach
out, verbalism and fantasy (Patterson, to therapy. It has many techniques
1986). By drawing attention to the and may be applied to different
hesitation, it creates self-awareness for therapeutic issues.
 the client to work
the client and allows
 through the issue. WEAKNESSES
Confrontation: In Gestalt Therapy, For Gestalt Therapy to be effective, the
confrontation means ‘to challenge or therapist must have a high level of
frustrate the client’. The client is
personal development (Corey,
challenged with sensitivity and
empathy on the part of the therapist to 2005).
face the issues important to them. It is Effectiveness of the confronting and
an invaluable tool for bringing clients theatrical techniques of Gestalt
into clear awareness of their realities, Therapy is limited and has not
when used appropriately. However, been well established.

confrontation is not a technique that It has been considered to be a self-
can be used with all clients. centered approach which is
concerned with just individual
development.
Potential danger for therapists to abuse
the power they have with clients
APPLICATIONS (Corey, 2005).
Lacks a strong theoretical base.
Originally Gestalt Therapy was Deals only with the here and now.
predominantly used to treat individuals Does not deal with diagnosis and
who were anxious and/or depressed and testing.
who were not showing serious
pathological symptoms. Although still CONCLUSION
used in the treatment of anxiety and
depression, Gestalt Therapy has been Gestalt Therapy focuses on the integration
effective in treating clients with between the “whole” person and his or her
personality disorders such as borderline environment. This therapy sees a healthy
personality disorder. individual as being someone who has
awareness in his or her life and lives in the
Gestalt Therapy is also effective in here and now rather than focusing on the
counselling groups, couples, and families past or future. Gestalt Therapy has a
(Corsini& Wedding, 2000). number of successful techniques that are
applicable in therapy today and may be
STRENGTHS
utilized across a broad spectrum of
emotional issues.

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EXISTENTIAL THERAPY
THEORIES OF THE EXISTENTIAL
Existential therapy is a unique form of APPROACH
psychotherapy that looks to explore
difficulties from a philosophical A key element of existential counselling is
perspective. Focusing on the human that it does not place emphasis on past
condition as a whole, existential therapy events like some other therapy types. The
highlights our capacities and encourages approach does take the past into
us to take responsibility for our successes. consideration and together, the therapist
and individual can understand the
Emotional and psychological difficulties implications of past events.
are viewed as inner conflict caused by an Instead of putting blame on events from
individual's confrontation with the givens the past, however, existential counselling
of existence. Rather than delve into the uses them as insight, becoming a tool to
past, the existential approach looks at the promote freedom and assertiveness.
here and now, exploring the human Coming to the realization that you are not
condition as a whole and what it means for defined by your history and that you are
an individual. not destined to have a certain future is
often a breakthrough that offers liberation.
On this page, we will look at the
background of existential therapy, Practitioners of existential therapy say that
including the philosophers who influenced its role is to help facilitate an individual's
it, the associated theories and how it could own encounter with themselves and to
benefit you. work alongside them as they explore
values, assumptions and ideals. An
existential therapist will avoid any form of
EXISTENTIAL THERAPY:
BACKGROUND judgement and instead help the individual
speak from their own perspective.
The roots of existential psychotherapy lie
in philosophy from the 1800s, and more The therapist should enter sessions with an
importantly with philosophers whose work open mind and be ready to question their
dealt with human existence. The own biases and assumptions. The goal of
philosophers most commonly associated the therapist is to understand the
with existential therapy are Søren individual's assumptions with a clarity that
Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche. the individual themselves may not be able
While the two influential thinkers were in to muster.
conflict regarding the ideologies of their
time, they were committed to the A belief that lies at the heart of existential
exploration of reality and how it was counselling is that even though humans
experienced. are essentially alone in the world, they
long to be connected with others. This
Kierkegaard theorized that human belief can help to explain why certain
discontent could only be overcome via concerns appear and may help the
internal wisdom, while Nietzsche individual understand why they feel the
introduced the idea of free will and way they do sometimes.
personal responsibility. By the 1900s,
philosophers like Sartre and Heidegger had Another interesting theory is that inner
begun exploring the role interpretation and conflict stems from an individual's
investigation had in the healing confrontation with the givens of existence.
[Link] the next few decades, other These givens were noted by influential
contemporaries began to acknowledge the psychotherapist Irvin D. Yalom, and
importance of 'experiencing' in terms of include:
achieving psychological well-being.

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freedom and responsibility others), identity, personal characteristics

existential isolation and overall sense of self. Personal
meaninglessness strengths and weaknesses are also
death important as well as the question of being
authentic.
These four givens (also known as 'ultimate
concerns') are the cornerstones of The making realm:The final realm is
existential psychotherapy. Once the issue considered our 'ideal' world. Included
has been conceptualized by the therapist, a within it are religion, values, beliefs and
method of treatment can be [Link] transformation. This is the dimension
to the all-encompassing nature of where we make sense of our lives and is
existential therapy, it is near impossible to considered the realm of transcendence.
identify one single cause for psychological
upset. The therapy instead treats each One of the primary aims of existential
person as an individual, exploring their therapy is to help people face anxieties of
life and to embrace the freedom of choice
experience and relating it to the experience
of all humankind. humans have, taking full responsibility for
these choices as they do so. Existential
therapists look to help individuals live
THE FOUR REALMS more authentically and to be less
concerned with superficiality. They also
Within existential psychotherapy, there is a encourage clients to take ownership of
description of four different levels of their lives, to find meaning and to live
experience and existence with which fully in the present.
people are inevitably confronted. These
can often help individuals understand the Individuals who are interested in self-
context of their concerns. It is believed that examination and who view their concerns
a person's orientation towards the world as issues of living rather than symptoms
and the four realms define their reality. of a psychiatric illness are more likely to
There are various names for the four benefit from this approach. Existential
realms within existential therapy, however, therapy is also well suited to those facing
the following are perhaps the best-known: issues of existence, for example, those
with a terminal illness, those
contemplating suicide, or even those
The physical realm :This world or going through a transition in their life.
realm is centred around physicality. It is
the world we share with animals, the INTEGRATIVE OR HOLISTIC
world of bodily needs. It is the world that THERAPY OR ECLECTIC
stores desire, relief, sleep/wake cycles and APPROACH
nature. Birth, death and physical
feelings/symptoms are also part of this Many therapists don't tie themselves to
realm. any one approach. Instead, they blend
elements from different approaches and
2. The social realm:Within the social tailor their treatment according to each
realm lies everything to do with client'sneeds.
relationships. Culture, society and
language are here as well as work, MBCT (MINDFULNESS BASED
attitudes towards authority, race and COGNITIVE THERAPY)
family. Emotions, friendships and
romantic relationships are also part of the MBCT is based on Jon Kabat Zinn’s
social world. Stress Reduction program at the
University of Massachusetts Medical
The personal realm: The personal Center, which was developed to help
realm is concerned with issues of the self. people suffering with chronic physical
This includes intimacy (with self and pain and disease. It includes simple

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meditation techniques to help participants (Peterson, 2006a). Strongly influenced by

become more aware of their experience in Peterson’s seminal work Classification of
the present moment, by tuning into Virtues and Strengths (CVS; Peterson &
moment-to- moment changes in the mind Seligman, 2004), PPT which integrates
and the body. Participants learn the symptoms with strengths, resources with
practice of mindfulness risks, weaknesses with values, and hopes
meditationthroughacourseofeightweeklycl with regrets in order to understand
asses(theatmosphereisthatofaclass,rather inherent complexities of human
than a therapy group), and through daily experiences in a balanced way. Clients
practice of meditation skills while seeking therapy are neither mere
listening to tapes at home. MBCT also conglomerate of symptoms nor
includes basic education about depression embodiments of strengths. PPT
(and, in our new study, suicidality), and a systematically amplifies their positive
number of exercises derived from resources; specifically, positive emotions,
cognitive therapy that demonstrate the character strengths, meaning, positive
links between thinking and feeling and relationships, and intrinsically motivated
how best participants can care for accomplishments.
themselves when they notice their mood
changing or a crisis threatens to
overwhelmthem.

PLAY THERAPY

Play therapy is a therapeutic modality

wherein play is the principle therapeutic
factor. Because play is a child’s natural
medium of communication, play therapy
is an ideal modality in which to allow
children to express their feelings and deal
with their emotional problems. In essence,
play therapy is for children what ‘talk
therapy’ or counselling is for adults. Play
therapy provides the child with a
consistent and predicable therapeutic
relationship and environment in which to
explore their fears, difficulties, struggles
and pain, as well as hopes, dreams and
fantasies. The underpinning assumption of
play therapy is that, given this relationship
and environment, the child has the inner
resources to bring about growth and TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS
change in their own lives. (TA) (IMPORTANT TOPIC)

POSITIVE PSYCHOTHERAPY (PPT)

The development of counseling and
psychotherapy over last 100 years has drawn
PPT is a therapeutic approach based on a
a significant number of influential
premise, articulated and empirically psychological theories on mental illness
explored by Chris Peterson, who from different perspectives. Transactional
emphasized that psychology ought to be analytic (TA) therapy has its root in
concerned with strength as with weakness; psychodynamic therapy, shares its
as interested in building the best things in philosophy with humanistic approach, and
life as in repairing the worst; and as its characteristics with the behavioral
concerned with making lives of normal approaches (Stewart & Tilney, 2000). The
people fulfilling as with healing pathology fundamental teaching of this process, as

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determined by Berne (1961) is that there are change feelings, behavior, or

historical mal-adaptations embedded in what psychosomatic problems.
is known as the childhood script, namely the According to Claude
process of repeating childhood behaviors Steiner, a valid contract will
and ideas throughout life. These need to be fulfil the following four
addressed through problem solving as criteria:
opposed to avoidance or passivity in relation
to new challenges in the person’s life Mutual Consent: both parties (client
(Berne, 1961). and counselor) agree and commit
themselves to the terms of the
 contract
Transactional analysis is a type of Valid consideration: all parties
psychotherapy developed by Canadian involved need to have clear
psychiatrist Eric Berne in the 1940s. and specific benefits

Berne believed that communication Competence: all parties involved need
with others comes from three distinct
to be competent to enter into and
parts of self which he called ego states.
fulfil the terms of the contract
WHAT IS TA? Lawful object: all actions bound by the
contract need to be aligned with the
TA is a theory of personality and
law of the land, and accepted ethical
human relations offering systematic
norms of the individual, group,
methods for personal growth and
society or the organization.
professional development.
TA gives us a picture of how people
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF
are structured psychologically. EGO STATES
TA also provides a theory of
communication; how people An Ego State is a consistent pattern of
communicate and why feeling and experience directly related to
communication breakdowns occur. a corresponding consistent pattern of
TA offers a theory of child behavior.
development- the concept of life script
explains how our present life patterns Parent ego
originated in childhood- how state is the set
decisions made in childhood may of feeling s,
continue to influence behavior later in attitude s,
life despite painful consequences. values and
prejudi ces
and behavi ors
PHILOSOPHY OF TA:
taken in from
We all are born OK, as princes and parents and
princesses (I’m OK, You’re OK) significant
All of us have the capacity to think parental
except the severely brain damaged figures.
People decide their own destiny
and these decisions can be changed.
CONTRACTUAL METHODS:
A contract is an Adult commitment to
one’s self and/or to someone else to make
a change. Contracts can be established to

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ego state is the Blind part (concept Natural Child (FC or NC).
from Johari Window) or the
unconscious part which is
While in Critical Parent people manifest
uncovered by asking from others or
coming in contact with others themselves as disappointed, aggrieved,
(religion, society, parents, etc.). feeling ‘always’ right, patronizing,
moralistic, judgmental, authoritarian,
Adult ego state is those feelings,
controlling, critical, putting down others.
attitudes, behaviors which are
As Nurturing Parent, people act loving,
direct response to current here-and-
reassuring, caring, concerned,

now reality.
encouraging, supportive, understanding,
Child ego state is the archaic feelings,
etc.
emotions, attitudes, and behaviors,
which are remnants of the person’s From adult we are open-minded,
past, significantly from childhood interested, confident, reality-based,
and childhood decisions. It is the process data, organize information,
hidden part (concept from Johari estimate probabilities, make logical
Window) that we do not show to statements, and provide non-
the world. judgmental feedback.
Rebellious Child is defiant and/or
The goal of TA is to help clients
strengthen their Adult Ego State and complaining, disobeys,
enhance their communications with other throws temper tantrums,
people. feels bored and distracts.
Adapted Child acts
THE FUNCTIONAL MODEL OF EGO
STATES compliant, passive, loyal,
withdrawn, pleases others,
Functionally ego states manifest as Critical
feels hurt, sulks and
Parent (CP), Nurturing Parent (NP), Adult
(A), Adapted Child (AC) and Free or ‘always’ feels one down.

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(Sometimes RC and AC are seen as one one which responds. It can be from
and the same form that manifests rebellion any ego state to any other ego state.
and insecurity).
When we are in our Free Child (Natural
Child), we are curious, energetic, fun-
loving, spontaneous, excited and
enthusiastic, and we express our anger,
sadness and fear freelywithout any
inhibition.

TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS:
THE METHOD
Definition of Transaction:A transaction
is defined as a transactional stimulus plus a
transactional response. It is the basic unit
of social discourse or communication. The
stimulus and response could be either
verbal or non-verbal or both CROSSED TRANSACTIONS: When
the transactional vectors are not parallel,
or in which the ego state addressed is not
TYPES OF TRANSACTIONS: the one which responds, it is called a
crossed transaction. Here the response
COMPLEMENTARY comes from an unexpected ego state.
TRANSACTIONS:In a complementary
transaction the transactional vectors are
parallel and the ego state addressed is the

ULTERIOR TRANSACTIONS:They
happens when a person appears to be
sending one message overtly (social level)
but secretly sending the other
(psychological level).

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Ego States -Structural and

Functional Models in TA.
Structural – The basic idea of ego
states (Parent, Child and Adult)
Functional – How the theory of
ego states is applied (CP, NP, A,
FC, AC/RC)

Games. How a series of
interactions between two or
more people follow predicable
patterns and outcomes.

Racket feelings. Feelings that the
child learns are acceptable and/or
desired, which are used to replace
the real feelings which a parent
THE KEY CONCEPTS AND
may find unacceptable.
PRINCIPLES OF TRANSACTIONAL
ANALYSIS
 

Transference and Counter-
transference. How memories KEY TERMINOLOGIES:
from past relationships can impact 
on your current relationships. Egogram: The egogram is a relation
diagram, depicting the amount of energy
Phenomenology. How our individual a person uses externally, or actively, as
perception can impact on how we one relates to others. It is a bar chart
conduct relationships (this idea is representing the person’s entire
also the basis personality. It is also drawn as a way of
of Gestalt ) providing feedback to someone regarding
 how others experience him or her.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 


CONSTANCY

lesser energy available for his other
HYPOTHESIS:Egograms are based on ego states.

“constancy hypothesis”, which states that
STROKES: A stroke is defined as a “unit
the amount of psychic energy within a
of recognition”. They fulfil our hunger for
person remains constant. For example, if a
recognition. They can be verbal or
person starts to increase the energy in his
nonverbal, positive or negative, and
Natural Child (Free Child), there will be
conditional
 or unconditional.


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For e.g., a positive stroke invites us to feel parents, justified by subsequent

OK about others and ourselves whereas a events, and culminating in a
negative strokeinvites us to feel now OK chosen alternative.
about others and ourselves.
It is an on-going programme
developed in the early childhood
under parental influences, which
SCRIPT:
directs the individual’s behavior
“All the world is a stage and all men and in the most important aspects of
women the actors” said Shakespeare. From his life.
the TA perspective also, one’s life is a long
LIFE POSITION:
drama, right from childhood to death
– it begins, progresses and ends. According to Eric Berne, Life positions
are psychological senses regarding self,
DEFINITION OF SCRIPT:
others and life, which the person takes.
Life scripts consists of a set of These positions determine the person’s
decisions that are made by the attitudes and perceptions. Depending on
child in response to the parental the experience and message the child
messages about self, others and the encounters, each child takes one of the
world. four life positions under stressful

situations. This is called the Basic Life
Script is a life plan made in early
Position.
childhood, reinforced by the

TheI’m OK—You’re their essence, not necessarily their

OK position is known as the behavior. This position is
healthy position and is generally characterized by an attitude of trust
game-free. It is the belief that and openness, a willingness to give
people have basic value, worth, and and take, and an acceptance of
dignity as human beings. That others as they are. People are close
people are OK is a statement of to themselves and to others. There
are no losers, only winners.

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The I’m OK—You’re not OK is the TA therapists believe that past life events
position of people who project their (things that happened maybe in childhood)
problems onto others and blame hold the key to understanding what our
them, put them down, and criticize present difficulties are. This is known in TA
them. The games that reinforce this therapy as the presenting past.
position involve a self-styled
TYPES OF TRANSACTIONAL
 superior or one-up (the
ANALYSIS
“I’m OK”) who projects anger,
disgust, and scorn onto a Since the death of Eric Berne in 1970,
designated inferior, or scapegoat Transactional Analysis has developed

(the “You’re not OK”). This along differing theoretical paths,
sometimes referred to as 'Schools'.
position is that of the person who
needs an underdog to maintain his
The Classical School - sometimes
or her sense of “OKness.”
referred to as transactional
 analysis proper, includes ego
The I’m not OK—You’re OK is state analysis, life scripts and game
known as the depressive or one- analysis, is the original concept
down position and is characterized  based on the work of Eric
by feeling powerless in comparison Berne, Claude Steiner and several
with others. Typically, such people close associates.
serve others’ needs instead of their
own and generally feel victimized. The Re-decision School - developed
Games supporting this position by Bob and Mary Goulding who
include “Kick me” and “Martyr”— integrated TA with Gestalt to make
games that support the power of a powerful, vibrant means of
personal change.
others and deny one’s own.

The Cathexis School - developed
 The I’m not OK—You’re not initially by Jacquie Schiff who
 OK is known as the position of worked with clients who had been
hopelessness, futility and diagnosed with severe mental
frustration. Operating from this health problems. Her approach
place, people have lost interest in was very controversial and was
life and may see life as totally based on the theory of radical
without promise. This self- reparenting.
destructive stance is characteristic
of people who are unable to cope in Modern Schools of TA are referred to as
the real world, and it may lead to 'second wave' and have significantly
extreme withdrawal, a return to influenced TA practice in recent years.
Practitioners combine these new ideas
infantile behavior, or violent
with the Classical School to produce a
behavior resulting in injury or
contemporary, research-based approach to
death of themselves or others. client work.

TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS: Relational school - outlined by

MANY NAMES ONE MASTER Charlotte Sills and Helena
Hargaden in their book
The therapist analyses your past and how it “Transactional Analysis a Relational
affects the here and now, which is why it is Perspective”. This school draws
known as an Active Directive form of strongly on the humanistic idea that
therapy. the therapeutic relationship and
empathy are central to the healing
 process.

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Integrative psychotherapy - get ‘lost in translation” especially for those

developed by Richard Erskin. Like who are not familiar with western
the relational school, this approach psychology. This therapy stresses
emphasizes the empathic nature of achieving autonomy through a progressive
the relationship in helping clients process including social control,
regain the parts of self, which symptomatic relief, transference relief, and
become lost or fragmented due to script cure, hence, TA may seem
traumatic experiences. confrontational on some points, the
therapist has to make efforts to respect
SUMMARY OF TA others’ cultural beliefs and values while
encouraging them break free from old
Transactional therapy is developed on the “script” and live their life in a new and
philosophical assumptions that human more resourceful way.
interact with others by subconsciously
utilizing three ego-states (Adult, Parent,
and Child) based on the life-script once DIALECTICAL BEHAVIOUR
written to meet survival needs in childhood THERAPY (DBT)
but may no longer valid, and everyone has
the capacity to consciously make decisions
and change through therapy (Stewart & It is a type of talking therapy which
Tilney, 2000). In the Theory of TA, it’s was originally developed by an
believed that individuals have three American psychologist named Marsha
separate, functional ego states: Child, Linehan. It is based on cognitive
Adult, and Parent. Child Ego State: behaviour therapy (CBT), but has been
childlike behaviors and feeling, including adapted to meet the particular needs of
Free Child & Adaptive Child. Free Child: people who experience emotions very
spontaneous, creative, impulsive, feeling intensely. In a nutshell, ‘dialectics’
oriented, and self – centered. Adaptive means trying to balance seemingly
Child: the compliant self, follows the rules contradictory positions. For example, in
learned in childhood to get needs met. DBT you will work with your therapist
Parent Ego Sate is originated in early to find a good balance between: •
childhood interactions, are carried through Acceptance – accepting yourself as you
the life span, including Nurturing Parent are. • Change – making positive
(comforts, praises) and Critical Parent changes in your life. You might
(disapproves, finds faults). Adult Ego State eventually come to feel that these goals
approaches life events by gathering the are not as conflicting as they seem at
facts from external and internal ego status, first.
processing information, and maintaining
Art therapyinvolves the use of creative
balance among Parent and Child ego
techniques such as drawing, painting,
states. In TA therapy, both counselors and
collage, coloring, or sculpting to help
clients must understand which ego states
people express themselves artistically
are functioning in their specific problem
and examine the psychological and
areas.
emotional undertones in their art. With
the guidance of a credentialed art
One of the limitations of TA may be its therapist,clientscan"decode"thenon-
emphasis of cognitive aspect of human verbalmessages,symbols,andmetaphors
relationship and personality, and leave oftenfound
very limited attention for exploration of intheseartforms,whichshouldleadtoabett
emotions. If this approach can be utilized erunderstandingoftheirfeelingsandbeha
with Gestalt approach, both cognitive and vior so they can move on to resolve
emotional dimension can be explored and
deeperissues.
integrated. Another limitation of TA is that
it seems to have plenty of labels and jargon
in this therapy, some clients may

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Performing artgenerally includes According to Ryan and Deci, intrinsic

dance, music, songs, drama in motivation defines an activity done for its
organized fashion. Besides, painting, own sake without the anticipation of
sculpturing, Yoga, farming etc. are external rewards and out of a sense of the
the performing [Link] art sheer satisfaction it provides (2000).
therapyisthetherapeuticprocessinwhi
chperformingarttherapisttendstoexpl The right level of challenge, coupled with
oreone’sneeds, adequate skills, sense of control, curiosity,
values,crisisinthelifecycle;improvise and fantasy, are some key factors that can
performingartinsuchafashionthatclien trigger intrinsic motivation. And when
t can understand own needs and can combined with will power and positive
develop coping strategy to overcome attitude, these elements can help sustain
the crisis. In performing art, client is motivation over time.
not merely receptive but productive
and creative. Therefore, the Some studies show that intrinsic
objectiveoftherapistwillbetostimulate motivation and academic achievement
theclienttounderstandselfandsocially share significant and positive correlates
accepted coping strategies. It (Pérez-López &Contero, 2013). Intrinsic
develops adaptability motivation can direct students to
withinindividual. participate in academic activities to
experience the fun, the challenge, and the
novelty away from any external pressure
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION or compulsion and without expectations of
IN EDUCATION rewards (Ryan, & Deci, 2000).

Motivation itself has a vast scope to cater In contrast, extrinsic motivation describes
for, and several motivational theories are activities students engage in while
relevant to the learning domain. The anticipating rewards, be it in the form of
following theories contribute to the good grades or recognition, or out of
essential outcomes of the learning process compulsion and fear of punishment
without being dependent on any other (Tohidi, & Jabbari, 2021).
theories in the education domain:
Motivation can be cultivated extrinsically
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation at the initial stage, particularly when it
theory comes to activities that are not inherently
self-determination theory (SDT) interesting, as long as the ultimate goal is
the ARCS model to transform it into intrinsic motivation as
social cognitive theory the learning process unfolds. The rationale
expectancy theory for this has to do with a short shelf life and
a potential dependence on rewards.
Self-determination theory (SDT) and the
ARCS model are widely utilized in the Although extrinsic motivation can initially
motivation domain for learning discipline. spark a high level of will power and
The implementation level of theories such engagement, it does not encourage
as social cognitive theory and expectancy perseverance and is challenging to sustain
theory is still in initial stages but can over time due to hedonic adaptation.
significantly contribute to understanding Finally, external rewards or compliments
motivation in learning as well as other undermine the possibility that students will
aspects of life where motivation is crucial. engage in the educational activities for
their own sake or to master skills or
INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC knowledge.
MOTIVATION THEORY
Nevertheless, both types of motivation
have their place in the process of learning.

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While intrinsic motivation can lead to of external consequences on internal

greater levels of self-motivation, extrinsic motivation, draws our attention to the
motivation often offers that initial boost critical role autonomy and competence
that engages students in the activity and plays in fostering intrinsic motivation by
can help sustain motivation throughout the showing how it is vital in education, arts,
process of learning over time (Ti, & sports, and many other domains.
Lynch, 2016).
Second, Organismic Integration Theory
It is no easy undertaking to guide students (OIT) and Causality Orientations Theory
to learn how to be highly motivated, to (COT) further explain motivation as
face the challenges, understand the occurring along a spectrum from an
process, and to be able to apply their new- amotivational stage toward motivational
found knowledge in real-life states where the focus is on competence.
circumstances.
Next, Basic Psychological Needs Theory
2. SELF-DETERMINATION (BPNT), which classifies human needs
THEORY into three primary psychological needs for
autonomy, competence, and relatedness,
Self-determination Theory addresses shows how the satisfaction of those needs
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation further. It is crucial for engagement, motivation,
explains it in terms of self-regulation, healthy progress and well-being among
where extrinsic motivation reflects students (Gagne, & Deci, 2014).
external control of behavior, and inherent
motivation relates to true self-regulation Finally, Goal Contents Theory (GCT)
(Ryan, & Deci, 2000). shows the relationship between the
fundamental needs satisfaction and well-
SDT tells us that intrinsic motivation is being based on intrinsic and extrinsic goal
closely related to the satisfaction of basic motivation, where intrinsic goals lead to
psychological needs of autonomy, greater achievement and better academic
competence, and relatedness, and performance, especially within the social
illustrates how these natural human setting of the educational environment
tendencies related to several key features (Ryan, & Deci, 2000).
in the learning process.
3. ARCS MODEL
Here autonomy is related to volition and
independence, and competence is ARCS is an abbreviation for Attention,
associated with the feeling of effectiveness Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction.
and self-confidence in pursuing and The ARCS model is an approach to
accomplish academic tasks. Relatedness instructional design that focuses on the
provides the feeling of safety and motivational aspects of the learning
connectedness to the learning environment environment by addressing four
where such enables and enhances students’ components of motivation:
academic performance and motivation
(Ulstad, et al., 2016). arousing interest
creating relevance
Self-determination theory evolved out of developing an expectancy of success,
five other sub-theories that further support and
its [Link], the Cognitive Evaluation increasing satisfaction through
Theory (CET), which explains the effects intrinsic and extrinsic rewards
(Keller, 1983).

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 material that is relevant to their
experiences and needs.
The ARCS model stresses capturing
students’ attention as critical to gaining It recognizes how confidence is related to
and sustaining their engagement in the students’ anticipation of success and
learning and shows how this can be how positive feelings about the learning
accomplished through the use of attractive process lead to greater satisfaction from
and stimulating medium or learning the acquisition of knowledge (Keller,
2008).

4. SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY Social Cognitive Theory (SCT),

implemented today in various domains
from education and communication to
psychology, refers to the acquisition of
knowledge by direct observation,
interaction, experiences, and outside
media influence (Bryant, & Oliver, 2002).

It rests on the assumption that we construct

meaning and acquire knowledge though

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social influence from daily communication motivate employees, strives to show the
to the use of the internet and explains the relationship between the expectations of
relationships between behavior, social and success and anticipation of rewards and the
physical environment, and personal amount of effort expended on a task and
factors. how it relates to the overall performance
(HemaMalini, & Washington, 2014).Simply
SCT illustrates how people gain and put, it explains motivation as a choice based
maintain several behavioral patterns and on the expectation of the results of selected
provides basic intervention strategies like behavior.
interactive learning, which allows students
to gain confidence through practice The expectancy theory explains
(Bandura, 1997). motivation in terms of reasons we engage
in specific behaviors where we expect that
5. EXPECTANCY THEORY effort will lead to better performance,
which in turn will lead to valued rewards.
Expectancy theory, originally developed to
explain how the work environment can

ATTITUDE OF THE STUDENTS–

In secondary schools, the students are
In the educational context this would between 12 to 18 years of age. They
translate into the student perception that possess the abilities to differentiate
their effort will lead to good or better between what is appropriate and what
performance (expectancy) followed by is [Link]-
student’s belief that their performance will orientedstudentsusuallypossesspositivef
lead to achieving the desired goal and eelingsregardingtheirschool
rewards (instrumentality) and lastly, the experiences, they possess the traits of
value of the rewards is satisfactory and discipline, diligence, and
support the goals of the student (valence) resourcefulness, are avid readers and
(Bauer et al., 2016). tend to devote less time towards
recreation and leisure activities. It is
vital for the students to possess positive
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE thinking in terms of their schools,
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF teachers and academic subjects. With
THE STUDENTS: positive attitude, they will be able to
dedicate themselves wholeheartedly
The factors that influence the towards learning and generate the
academic performance of the desired academic outcomes
students have been stated as (Maina,2010).
follows:
SCHOOL RESOURCES– Within
schools, it is vital to make provision of

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resources that can be utilized to [Link]

enhance the academic performance of aitsof professionalism and
students. The textbooks, notes, learning conscientiousness. They need to
materials, hand-outs, technology, possess an approachable nature, listen
library facilities and laboratory and provide solutions to the problems
facilities, especially in science subjects experienced by the students. They
should include the essential materials. should possess adequate knowledge
When students will be provided the andinformationregardingthesubjectsthat
necessarytoolsandequipment,theywillbe theyareteaching,usageof technology,
abletoacquireabetterunderstandingregar modern and innovative methods in the
ding academic concepts and how to teaching and learning processes,
perform the experiments. In some managingdisciplineanddirectingallofthe
cases, especially the students belonging classroomaswellasschoolactivitiesandfu
to deprived, marginalized and socio- nctions in a well-organized manner.
economically backward sections of the The teachers in some cases are strict,
society, cannot afford the books and but strictness should be maintained
materials required for learning, hence, within limits. The main objective of the
they are dependent upon the library teachers should only be to enhance the
facilities and fellow students to obtain academic performance
the books and other materials ofthestudentsandleadtotheireffectivedev
(Maina,2010). elopment(Maina,2010).

LEADERSHIP ASPECTS– The CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT–

principal, teachers and the The academic concepts are made
administrative staff members of the known to the students by the teachers
school are vested with the authority to within classroom. Teachers have the
implement the managerial functions of main job duty of completing the subject
planning, organizing, controlling, and syllabus. Therefore, it is vital that
directing the activities. The principal classroom environment should be
primarily has the right to disciplined, and well- ordered (Kudari,
[Link] 2016). Within the classroom, it is vital
eitheratone’sowndiscretionortheymayc for the teachers and the students to
onsult others and seek ideas and implement the traits of morality and
suggestions from teachers and other ethics. It is vital to promote mutual
staff members of the school. The major understanding, amiability and co-
role of leadership aspects in influencing operation among the teachers and
the academic outcomes of the students students as well as among the fellow
is students. The efficiency in the
basedupontheadministrationandmanage management of the classroom,
[Link] introduces a well-organized and
les, policiesandmanagement efficient management of the lesson
isputintopracticeinanappropriatemanner ,thentherewouldbe plans, instructional strategies, teaching-
learning processes and so forth. When
improvement in academic performance of the students
there is discipline and effective
(Maina,2010). communication among the individuals,
then it would help the students learn
SKILLS AND ABILITIES OF THE better and improve their academic
TEACHERS– Teachers have an performance.
imperative role in influencing the
[Link] ROLE OF PARENTS–
yarebestowedwiththeauthoritytodirectal Homeisreferredtoastheplacefromwheret
lthe hefoundationoflearningand
classroomactivitiesandadministerlearni [Link]

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oodacademicoutcomes,itisvitalforthepa psychological and physical health.

rents, children and other family When a student is healthy, then he will
members to encourage a learning be able to contributeanactive
atmosphere within homes. For instance, [Link],fa
when students experience problems in ctorssuchas,stress,anxiety, fear, trauma,
certain subjects, then parents are depression or physical health problems
responsible for providing help. This prove to be impediments within the
help may be in the form of private course of their academic achievement.
tuitions or they themselves may teach It is vital for the students to take
their children. They make provision of pleasure and look
technology and other learning materials towardstheirschoolandclassroomactiviti
at home to enhance the academic [Link]
performance of their children. Parents healthy
play an important role in leading to andnutritiousdiet,gettingengagedinextra
operative growth and development of -
their children (Kudari, curricularactivities,stayingcalmandtaki
2016).Inschools,whateverproblemsthatc ng pleasure
hildrengo through instudyingaresomeoftheaspectsthathelpi
regardingacademicsandother areas, nmaintaininggoodpsychologicaland
they normally communicate to their physical health (Srinivas,
parents. Parents are sources of security, &Venkatkrishnan,2016).
encouragement and help their children
in providing solutions to theirproblems. MOTIVATING AND
ENCOURAGING STUDENTS– In
SOCIAL CIRCLE– Children get academic learning, some of the concepts
enrolled in schools not only to learn are difficult to learn and understand.
academic concepts, but they When problems and difficulties are
alsolearn,howtointeractandsocializewit experienced by the students, then they
[Link] need to obtain assistance from others.
msand relationships with the fellow When students are unable to achieve the
students. Forming a social circle and desired grades, then instead of getting
friendships have a positive angry on them, the teachers and parents
effectupontheacademicoutcomesofthest need to make provision of help and
[Link] assistance. They should motivate the
or students and encourage them to do well
prepareforatest,thengroupstudyisinmost in future. They need to understand their
[Link] weaknesses and help them. When
action and happiness in one’s student students find certain areas difficult to
life (Kudari, 2016). Forming a social learn, then teachers should repeat the
circle proves to be beneficial to the concepts, provide them class and
individuals in number of ways, such as, homework assignments, so that they are
solving academic problems, getting able to acquire complete understanding
involved in leisure activities, sharing
one’s joys and sorrows, and so forth. of the concepts (Srinivas,
&Venkatkrishnan, 2016).
HEALTH RELATED FACTORS–
Learningisnotaneasytaskforthestudents. VISUAL AND HEARING
Itisessentialforthem to possess IMPAIRMENTS– Visual and hearing
diligence, resourcefulness and impairments are stated as the disease
conscientiousness to enhance their related factors. There are students, who
learning. In order to generate positive experience these problems. But when
academic outcomes, it is essential for they are achievement-oriented, they do
the students to maintain their not let these problems become barriers

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within the course of achievement of Inordertoenhanceone’sacademicperfor

their academic goals. When these mance,itisvitalfor the individuals to
problems are severe and the students do develop study skills within themselves.
not have the necessary resources to The students themselves need to
facilitate learning, then it is likely that generateawarenessregardingstudyskills,
their academic performance may get sothattheyareableto produce
affected in a negative manner. Visual desiredacademic outcomes. Some of
impairment usually imposes problems the study skills include, memorizing
in handwriting and observing the black- from the textbooks or other materials,
boards. Hearing impairment imposes making notes, practicing writing essays
problems in listening to the instructions and articles, especially in languages,
and explanations given by the teachers practicing calculations in mathematics
within classrooms and it is associated and so forth. One of the important areas
with poor language development. It is, when one
impedes the communication abilities of isstudying,itisvitaltocompletelyconcent
the students and hence their academic ratetowardsone’[Link]
performance gets influenced in a pletely concentrate is one of the factors
negative manner (Srinivas, that leads to undesired academic
&Venkatkrishnan, 2016). outcomes. Memorizing is regarded as
one of the rare techniques, hence, the
COUNSELLING AND GUIDANCE teachers encourage students to acquire
SERVICES– understanding of the concepts instead
Insecondaryschools,therearenumerousp of memorizing.
roblemsand difficulties that students
experience. Some may even get TIME MANAGEMENT–
involved into violent and criminal acts, Studentsinsecondaryschoolshaveabusys
drug abuse, HIV, other sexually chedule,henceitisvitalfor them to
transmitted infections, teenage generate awareness in terms of
pregnancies, induced abortions and effective time management. Research
unemployment. These factors have a has indicated that the normal schedule
direct impact upon not only their of the secondary school students
academic performance, but also their comprises of school hours, then they
lives. These may hamper their need to spend some time in completion
psychological approach and they may of home-work assignments. They also
even experience problems of get involved in some kinds of extra-
depression, trauma or stress to a major curricular activities and sports. Playing
extent. Counselling and guidance and getting engaged in creative
services need to be established in activities, not only help them
schools to help the students to provide concentrate better, but they are able to
solutions to their problems, focus upon stimulate their mind-sets. For the
their studies, and become responsible secondary school students, it is
members of the community (Maganga, important to get engaged in
2016). It is vital for the individuals, extracurricular activities and for this
who work as counsellors to specialize purpose, they need to implement proper
in a particular area and possess time management skills. It is essential
adequate knowledge, expertise and for the students to create a balance
skills. Counselling is related to various between all the tasks and activities. The
areas, such as career, academics, activities that are more important
depression, stress, health, family issues should be given more time and lesser
and soforth. amount of time can be spent on the
activities that are lessimportant.
DEVELOPMENT OF STUDY
SKILLS–

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HOME ENVIRONMENT– The home APPROACHABILITY AND

environment should be amiable and PROFESSIONALISM– The teachers
pleasant in order to generate in school are required to be
appropriate academic outcomes. Within approachableandprofessionalintheircon
home, among the family members, it is [Link],whomstudents’ap
vitaltoinitiatemeasurestoformeffectivete proach,
[Link] incasetheyhaveanyproblemsanddifficult
unicate with each other in an [Link]
appropriate manner and minimize the rous, then the students feel comfortable
occurrence of conflicts and disputes. in not only approaching them, but also
Research has indicated that conflicts in clarifying their doubts. The
may take place with respect to the professionalism and approachable
Availability of attitude on the part of the teachers is of
Materials and amiable environmental cond utmost significance in influencing the
Itions within academic performance of the students
thehomeareessentialforthestudents to in a positive manner. On the other
focus upon studies and generate the hand, at home, parents or tutors are the
desired academicoutcomes. ones, who supervise their studies,
hence, it is vital for them to be
TEACHING-LEARNING professional in their conduct. Teaching
METHODS– The teaching-learning should be implemented in a calm and
methods and strategies should be pleasant manner. Any kind of harsh
appropriate and encouraging to the attitude should be avoided, as it may
students. The teachers in school are the demotivate thestudents
ones that contribute an imperative part
in promoting learning among the
TEACHER’S EFFECTIVENESS
students. It is essential for
themtoensurethattheteachingmethodsus There are various feedback devices to be
edshouldprovetobebeneficialtothestude used to modify the teacher behavior. The
nts. following are few commonly used such as
Forinstance,ifthestudentsareabletolearn Simulated Social Skill Training, Micro-
betterthroughdictationofnotes,thenteach Teaching, Programmed Instruction, Team
ers Teaching, Interaction Analysis and T.
[Link] Group Training. These are briefly
etolearnbetterthroughverbalexplanation explained as below:
,then they should promote verbal
Simulated Social Skill Training: The
explanation and so forth. Within home,
simulation technique is to induce
if students are taking
certain behavior in an artificial
privatetuitionsofcertainacademicsubject situation. Pupil teacher has to play
ssuchas,mathematicsorscience,ortheirp several roles as a teacher, as a student
arents and as a
teachthem,thentoo,itisvitalfortheparents [Link]’[Link]
andtutorstomakesurethateffectualteachi asocio-
ng learning methods are implemented, dramarelatedtopracticeandgivescontrol
which may encourage learning among over teaching variables. Important is
the students and help them pupil teacher is teaching in non-
understandbetter.
stressfulconditions.

Micro-Teaching:Micro-
Teachingprovidesteacherswithapractice
settingorinstructioninwhich the normal

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complexities of class room are reduced and cited often and rated highly by
and in which the teacher gets feedback other teachers. This includes a
on performance. growing repository of open
education resources – online open
ProgrammedInstruction:Themethodi source instructional materials that
saindividualizedinstructioninwhichstud can be modified and customized by
entsareactive and proceed at his own endusers.
pace and provided with immediate
knowledge of result. The programmed Collaborate with and learn from
learning is a strategy in which various one another across geographic
kinds of intellectual, emotional and boundaries: The web
motor experiences are provided to shouldenableteacherstofindexcellen
learner in a controlled situation through tlessonplanscreatedbyothers,viewvi
a variety of devices like book, teaching deosoftop- notch delivery, and tap
machines, teacher, radio, television, the wisdom of other teachers in
etc. meeting their toughest challenges
via online discussion boards and
blogs, and via direct
Team Teaching: It is an instructional communication with otherteachers.
situation where two or more teachers
possessing Use online and software-based
complementaryteachingskillscooperativ tools to assess students regularly,
elyplanand implement theinstructionfor diagnose learning challenges, and
a singlegroup of students using flexible select the best responses to the
scheduling and grouping techniques to barrier’s studentsface.
meet the particularinstruction. Benefit from the trove of data
that should be generated if more
Interaction Analysis: It is a technique instruction happens online. The
for analyzing and observing the more students receive instruction
classroom behavior. It provides the and do their work online, the more
structure, component and flow of possible
behavior of classroom activities. It is a itshouldbetocapturedatafromtheirex
feedback device. periencesaboutthemosteffectiveway
stoconveycontent,motivate
T-
students, and address
GroupTraining:Itisalsoafeedbackdevi
students’challenges.
[Link]
ngeight to twelve, discuss their own
problems of teaching without any ROLE OF A STATE FOR
agenda and suggest some solutions on IMPROVING TEACHER
basis of theirexperiences. EFFECTIVENESS
States are in a strong position to play
SUGGESTIONS TO IMPROVE several roles in this process:
TEACHER’S EFFECTIVENESS:
More easily access high-quality 
curricula aligned to the common, Committing to reaching
college and career- ready, increasing portions of students
with top-quintile instructors and
internationally-benchmarked instruction through various reach
standards: Teachers should extension methods (both in-person
increasingly be easily able to go and remotely with technology);
online and find a myriad of
resources linked to the specific Acceleratingprogressbycreatingde
standards they are teaching, with mandforoutstandingremoteinstructi
high-quality resources “rising to the
onwhereitcanhelp most (e.g., by 
requiring or encouraging districts to
top” because they are downloaded

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offer it if they cannot fill teaching We have briefly described here the
slots with effective instructors, and unstructured and structured guidance and
by requiring that remotely offered counselling programme.
instruction meet a top-tier learning
progressstandard); NEED FOR GUIDANCE AND
COUNSELLING PROGRAMME

Reducing state-level policy GuidanceandCounsellingprogrammeai
barriers to the use of these mstofulfillthefollowingneedsofstudents
mechanisms (e.g., rigid seat-time inschool system.
requirements, upper-grade class
size maximums, teacher Educational Guidance Need: In
certification requirements that educational guidance the emphasis
would block high-quality out-of- is on providing assistance to
state instructors from teaching students to perform satisfactorily in
remotely); and, their academic work. Other needs
include selection of appropriate
course of study, overcome learning
Directing the benefits to students
 by difficulties, foster creativity, and
 who need them the most
providing funding or other  levels of motivation and
improve
inducements for hard-to-staff  soon.
 schools in particular to make use of
the emerging opportunities. Vocational Guidance Need:
Otherwise, the benefits of new Students also need guidance in
selection of a vocation and
technologies should tend to flow 
more naturally to advantaged  preparation for the same. Vocational
guidance enables students to acquire
schools and students first. information about career
opportunities, career growth and
educational/ trainingfacilities.

GUIDANCE IN SCHOOLS:
NEEDS, ORGANIZATIONAL Personal,SocialandEmotionalGui
danceNeed:Guidanceconcernedwit
SET UP AND TECHNIQUES hpersonalneed of individuals enable
them to adjust themselves to their
InIndiavariouseducationcommissionsha environment so that they become
verecommendedimportanceoftheseservi productive and efficient human
cesinthe education system and thus two being. The main purpose of social
distinct points of view emerged. guidance is to make individual’s
effective and responsible citizen by
According to the first view point
enabling them to contribute to the
guidance and counselling services
society, assume leadership, conform
should be a integral part of the to social norms, develop healthy
educational process and positive attitude towards
andtheeducationalfunctionaries(namely different sections of the society, etc.
subjectteachers)shouldrendertheseservi Guidance also helps individuals in
cesduring attaining emotional maturity. In
[Link]
 assist individuals in maintaining
addition, guidance services also
pointemphasizesaseparateguidanceprog
rammeorganized by fully health, both
professionally trained guidance mentalandphysicalandspendingleisu
personnel. On the basis of these two retimemoremeaningfullybydevelopi
viewpoints guidance and counselling nggoodhobbies.
programmes can be categorized as
unstructured orstructured.

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ROLE OF GUIDANCE AND providing occupational information to

COUNSELLING students related to general and
FUNCTIONARIES  vocationalsubjects.
administering psychological tests such
Guidance and counselling services are as achievement, general and special
rendered by trained professionals. They ability, interest, personality, etc. to
identify personalcharacteristics.
play the following roles to fulfill the 
guidance and counseling needs of assisting students in changing their
individuals. These roles are related to  academic options, ifnecessary.
guidance needs of an individual such as helping students in developing
educational, vocational and personal acquaintance with occupations during
social and emotional.  educationalvisits.
orienting students about vocational
EDUCATIONAL ROLES:It includes subjects and the career opportunities
available through individual counselling
 and group guidance activities.
interpreting the educational 
programmes to the parents and PERSONAL SOCIAL ROLE:It deals
thecommunity. with the following:
 helping parents understand theabilities 
and interests of their children and counselling students with adjustment
respective educational  and behaviouralproblems.
 opportunitiesavailable. providing counselling to students and
providing assistance to children in the their parents who are on the verge of
 choice  – academic
of elective subjects droppingout.
and vocational courses. 
maintenance of record of the students’ keeping personal record of students
 records card
progress in the form of cumulative about their personal characteristics and
(CRC). family background.
assisting students in exploring their 
 potentials through hobby clubs, ensuring involvement of other teachers
students’ house,etc. in all round development ofstudents.
orienting new students about curricular
 and 
co-curricular activities of
Tocatertotheseguidancefunctions,acoun
theinstitutions.
 assisting students and parents in sellor/careerteachercan organize
appraising students’ academicprogress.  variousguidance services in a school
 diagnosing learning difficulties instudents.
setting. The planning and organisation

 organizing remedial teaching based upon
of these services depend upon the needs
thediagnosis.
 identifying (gifted and disabled)
students of the students and availability of
with specialneeds. resources (time, budget and support).
 assisting in adjustment to
students
Here we are briefly describing these
schoolsubjects. 
conducting follow-up of school pass-outs. guidanceservices.
 ORIENTATION
VOCATIONAL ROLES:It includes
SERVICE:Under the school
 organizing group guidance activities  guidance programme, orientation
such as talks (orientation/ career / service assists the
class), exhibition, field visits, etc. to newstudentstoknowabouttheinstituti
help students in exploring world  onthroughorientationtalk,tourofthes
ofwork. chool,students’ handbooks
 andassemblies.

INDIVIDUAL INVENTORY
SERVICE:Individual analysis is
the activity of the school guidance
programmewhichfollowssystematic

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assessmentprocedurestoidentifythec  PLACEMENT
haracteristicsand potentials of every SERVICE:Placement, as understood
student. Standardized test results, in the guidance field, usually
school records and observation indicates assistance offered to
reports such as anecdotal records, individuals in taking the next step,
rating scales, self-reporting whether toward further training, a
techniques, (questionnaires and job situation or a different course of
autobiography) are used for study. At present job placement in
collecting data about students’  selected areas is
family background, abilities, done by the employment
aptitudes, interests, achievements exchanges, however, many private
and other psychological variables. placement agencies are also
A counsellor/ guidance worker working to help people in their
takes help of teacher, peers and  proper placement. A counsellor/
parents to prepare a cumulative career teacher can
record (CRC) of students. provideinformation to students
  about such agencies.
CAREERS INFORMATION  
FOLLOW-
SERVICE:Careers information
UPSERVICE:Throughthisservice,
includes information about all types
arecordofschoolleavers(drop-
of occupations and industries,
outsandpass-outs) is kept. Before
educational and training facilities,
leaving the school, the students are
apprenticeship facilities,  told about follow-up and its
scholarships and stipends, local and
purpose and through
national employment trends and
questionnaires, interviews, letters
opportunities and occupational
and telephone calls, data is
structure of the country. For
collected. Professional institutions
providing such information to
use email for getting information
students, group guidance activities
 from the pass outs.
such as field trips, career
conference-cum-exhibition, career
REFERRAL SERVICE: Students
talks, etc. are organized. A Career with special needs and with specific
Information Corner may be set up problems (emotional, behavioural
to display career information or educational) may require special
materials such as booklets, referral to special institutions or
monographs, pamphlets and posters professionals for proper care and
and charts, newspaper cuttings on treatment. The counsellor or career
occupational and teacher keeps addresses of such
educationalopportunities. institutions/ agencies/ professionals
 COUNSELLING who can be  approached at the time
 of any need.
SERVICE:Counselling is generally
a one-to-one helping relationship
RESEARCH AND EVALUATION
which focuses upon the individuals’ IN GUIDANCE AND
growth and adjustment, and COUNSELLING:Research is
problem solving and decision- necessary for the advancement of the
making needs. The aim of profession of counselling, especially
counselling is self-understanding, to judge the effectiveness of various
self-acceptance and self-realization. techniques and methods being used
Counselling requires a high level of with particular groups. Evaluation is
professional training and skill a means of 
assessing
therefore; it should be done by theprogrammeeffectivenessandtoint
trained counsellors who have the
necessaryqualifications.

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roduceimprovementsintheprogram information of thebeneficiaries.

[Link] could be done by
obtaining feedback or follow-up of
recipients of guidance activities. COMPONENTS OF A
The findings of evaluation COMPREHENSIVE GUIDANCE AND
programmes can be used to COUNSELLING PROGRAMME
establish the validity of the
guidance programme. A Gysbers and Handerson (1994) are of
counsellor/career teacher should the opinion that School Guidance
plan this aspect while planning Programme shouldbe comprehensive.
guidance programme in school. According to them an educational and
vocational guidance programme
comprises following four components:
CHARACTERISTICS OF A
COMPREHENSIVE GUIDANCE
SCHOOL GUIDANCE AND
AND COUNSELLING COUNSELLING
PROGRAMME CURRICULUM:
SCHOOLguidance and
A comprehensive guidance and counselling curriculum is designed
counselling programme should be systematically according to grade
characterized with the following: level so that it serves all students
at the classroom or group level.
Careful and consistent The main emphasis of this
developmentprogramme curriculum is on decision-making,
 It should be developmental, self-knowledge, career exploration
preventative, remedial andcorrective and career development. The
 the needs of
It should address
 theindividuals curriculum is organized around
 It should be goal-oriented and accountable
three majorareas:

Itshouldbeintegralpartoftheschoolcu LearningtoLive(Understan dingandappreciatingtheself


 rriculumandshouldbecomplementin ,others,homeandfamily; developing a sense of
gotherschool activities
It should be balanced,
 fields/areas of guidance e.g.
encompassing the four fundamental community; making
decisions and setting goals;
personal, educational, social, understanding safety
 andvocational/career
andsurvival);
It should determine the services to LearningtoLearn(Makingd
 be 
offered such as orientation,
ecisions,settinggoals,andta
information, counselling, etc.
 It as per the
should involve staff members kingaction;understanding
requirement of theprogramme interaction between home,

It should create and demonstrate an
family,schooland
 atmosphere of teamwork

It must beflexible
  community;and
Should take into account age,
location/environment, cultural understandingfactors
background, sex, economic status which affect school
 of the targetgroup achievement); and
benefit all students rather than just
Should Learning to Work
afew  (Learning the relationship
Should be printed and displayed for
between personal qualities
and work; exploring
careers; learning how to
use leisure time; learning
the relationship between
educationandwork;learning

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toworktogether;andlearnin guidance curriculum, individual

ghowthecommunityrelates planning and responsive
towork). [Link]
equiredfortheseactivitiesincludeori
INDIVIDUAL entationofschool staff,
PLANNING:Individualplanningin identification and utilization of
cludesthe counseling community resources, budget,
activitiesmeanttoassist all students infrastructure and policy support.
to plan, monitor and manage their
own personal, educational, social ii) Activities implemented by
and career counsellor/teacher counsellor
[Link] support educational programmes.
onentoftheprogrammeareofferedto The counsellor / teacher counsellor
allstudentstoassist them in the provides support to the educational
development and implementation programme includes the assistance
of their personal, educational, through individual planning
social and career components, in activities such as selection of
accordance with the skills and courses/ subjects and co-curricular
information they gather. This activities by student; linkage with
component generally offers special education programme and
students the opportunity for self- preparation of students’ personal
appraisal, and to plan for the world information including curricular
of work. One way would be to /co-curricular achievementsrecord
help students to understand with the help of schoolstaff.
themselves through individual or
group activities.
COUNSELLING
RESPONSIVE
SERVICES:Abovetwocomponent Guidance and Counseling is defined
as a planned and organized work aimed
[Link]
rovides special help to those at assisting the trainee
students who are facing problems tounderstandhimself/herselfandhis/hera
bilitiesanddevelophis/herpotentialitiesin
that interfere with their
ordertosolve problems and achieve
educational, or career or healthy
psychological, social, educational and
personal social development. This
professional compatibility, and also to
component includes activities such
achieveobjectiveswithintheframeworko
as individual and small group
[Link]
counselling, consultation with staff
elpgiventothe individual especially
and parents and referral of students
students, on matters like choosing
and family members to other
course of study or career, work or
specialist or programmes, special
preparing for vocation, from a person
education, social worker, or
who is superior in the respective field
medical specialists, etc. Services
or an expert. It is the process of
like Counselling service, Referral
guiding,supervisingordirectingapersonf
service, Consultation service,
[Link]
Placement and Follow-up service,
isnotjustgiving advice or making a
Research and Evaluation service
judgment, but helping the client to see
are generally used for
clearly the root of problems and
responsiveservice.
identify the potential solutions to the
issues. The counselor also changes the
4) SYSTEM SUPPORT:This
viewpoint of the client, to help him/her
component has following twoparts:
take the right decision or choose a
course of action. It will also help the
i) Activities necessary to support

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client to remain intuitive and positive in messages and makes inferences

thefuture. about the counselor and the
counseling situation.
Counseling takes place in the context
of a helping relationship in which the STAGE TWO: IN DEPTH
counselor and the client work together EXPLORATION - PROBLEM
to resolve a problem, change behavior ASSESSMENT While the
or foster personal growth and counselor and the client are in the
awareness. Although clients may have process of establishing a
a number of helping relationships with relationship, a second process is
friends or family, the counseling taking place, i.e. problem
relationship is different in a number of assessment. This step involves the
ways – collection and classification of
information about the client’s life
The counseling relationship
is not reciprocal. The situation and reasons for seeking
counselor’sjobistofocusonth counseling. Assessment refers to
eclients’concernsandofferth anything counselors do to gather
eirsupportandencouragemen information and draw conclusions
[Link] the clients’ 
time to about the concerns of clients.
 focus onthemselves. Assessment takes place at the
The counselor is a trained beginning of the counseling
 professional who has spent process. But, some degree of
several years learning about assessment takes place throughout
different ways the counseling process with
tohelpclients,resolvetheirpar purpose of finding missing pieces
 ticularproblem. if the puzzle, i.e. the client.
Thecounselingrelationshipis According to Seligman (1996),
confidential. Whereas with assessment should attempt to
friends or family, clients recognize the importance and
 might hope that theywill uniqueness of the client. In a way,
respect their privacy, a
saying to the person, “You are
counselor is ethically
special and I want to get to know
andlegallyboundbyconfident
you and understand why you are
[Link]
the way you are”. The counselor
mediatedangertothemselves
needs such knowledge about the
orothers, their conversations
client so that nothing is left out.
with a counselor will be
For example, you might have left
 private.
out an important piece of
Clients can depend on the information about your client
counselor to meet them  at which may affect the counseling or
their set appointmenttimes
therapeutic process.

STAGE ONE: RELATIONSHIP STAGE THREE: GOAL

BUILDING - INITIAL SETTING - COMMITMENT
DISCLOSURE The first step TO ACTION Setting goals is
involves building a relationship very important to the
and focuses on engaging clients to [Link]
explore issue that directly affect kingacommitmenttoasetofconditio
them. The first interview is ns,toacourseofactionor an outcome.
important because the client is Goals are the results or outcomes
reading the verbal and nonverbal that client wants to achieve at the
end of counseling. Goals help the
counselor and client determine what
can and what

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cannot be accomplished through In other words, Stage One or the

counseling. In goal setting, the building of a relationship does not
client identifies with the help of stop but is ongoing until Stage
the counselor, specific ways in Five which involves termination or
which they want to resolve the perhaps the client is referred to for
issues and what course of action further action. In this stage -
should be taken to resolve Closure discussed and planned;
theproblem. Appointment intervals lengthened;
Available resources and referrals
identified and accessed; Assurance
STAGEFOUR:COUNSELINGI provided to the client of the option
NTERVENTIONTherearediffere to return to counseling ifnecessary.
ntpointsofviewconcerningwhatago
od THE TOP TEN BASIC
counselorshoulddowithclientsdepe COUNSELING SKILLS
ndingonthetheoreticalpositionsthat
thecounselorsubscribes Research is increasingly finding
[Link],theperson- that the type of therapy used is not
centeredapproachsuggeststhatthec a important to outcomes as are
ounselorgetsinvolvedratherthan specific counselor behaviors such
intervenes by placing emphasis on as (1) Enthusiasm, (2) Confidence,
the relationship. The behavioral Belief in the patient’s ability to
approach attempts to initiate change.
activities that help clients alter
their behavior. After completion of
the counseling intervention – Although there is nothing which
will ensure change, it would
appear that clients are more likely
to achieve their goals when a good
ilyfunctioning; and positive relationship exists
between them and their therapist.
In essence the counselor’s
supports being accessed; and interactions with the client are a
powerful tool in the helping
maintenance ofchange. relationship.

LISTENING
STAGEFIVE:EVALUATION,T [Link] - orienting
ERMINATIONORREFERRAL
oneself physically to the
Terminatingthecounselingprocess patient (pt) toindicate one
willhave to be conducted with is aware of the patient,
sensitivity with the client knowing and, in fact, that the
that it will have to end. Note that client has your full,
each of undivided attention and
theseStagescontinueseventhoughth that you care. Methods
ecounselorandtheclientmovetothen include eye contact;
[Link], after built a nods; not moving around,
relationship, the counselor moves being distracted, eye
to Stage Two which involves contact, encouraging
assessing the problem encountered verbalizations; mirroring
by the client. In the meantime, the bodyposturesand
counselor continues to strengthen language; leaning
the relationship that has been built. forward, etc. Researchers

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estimate that about 80 and implicitmessages

percent of
communication takes ATTENDING – involves our
place non-verbally. behaviors which reflect our paying
b. Listening/observing - full attention, in an accepting and
capturing and supportive way, to theclient.
understanding the verbal
and nonverbal PARAPHRASING - Selective
information focusing on the cognitive part of the
communicated by that pt. message – with the client’s key
words and ideas being
TWO PRIMARY SOURCES OF communicated back to the patient
INFORMATION: in a rephrased, and shortened form.
There are four steps in
• CONTENT - what is effectiveparaphrasing:
specifically said. Listen
carefully for, not only what Listen and recall. The entire client
a person says, but also the message to ensure you recalled it
words, expressions and in its entirety and do not omit any
patterns the person is using, significantparts.
which may give you a Identify the content part of the
deeper insight. Counselors message by deciding what event,
should develop their ability situation, idea, or person the client
to remember what was said, is talkingabout.
as well as to clarify what Rephrase, in as concise a manner as
was said or finding out what possible, the key words and ideas the
was notsaid. client has used to communicate their
PROCESS - all nonverbal concerns in a fresh or
phenomena, including how differentperspective.
content is conveyed, Perceptioncheckisusuallyinthefor
themes, body language, mofabriefquestion,e.g.,“Itsoundsli
interactions, etc. ke...,”“Let me see if I understand
this,” which allows the client to
EMPATHY agree or disagree with the
accuracy of yourparaphrasing.
The ability to perceive another's
experience and then to communicate that Effectively reflecting on
perception back to the patient’s feelings-
individualtoclarifyandamplifytheirown
[Link] Affective reflection in an open-ended,
yingwith them or sharing similar respectful manner
experiences-- not "I know how ofwhattheclientiscommunicatingverballyan
youfeel"! dnonverbally,bothdirectlythroughwords
and nonverbal behaviors as well as
PRIMARY SKILLS ASSOCIATED reasonable inferences about what the client
WITH THE COMMUNICATION OF might be experiencing emotionally It is
EMPATHY INCLUDE: important for the helper to think carefully
about which words he/she chooses to
• nonverbal and communicate these feelings back to the
verbalattending client. The skill lies in choosing words
• paraphrasing content of which use different words that convey the
clientcommunications same or similar. For example, if a poorly
• reflecting patient feelings skilledhelperreflectedtotheclientthathe/she

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was“veryangryanddepressed,”whentheclien Includes the following functions:

t had only said they were irritated by a
certain event, and had felt very sad over the a. Assisting client to identify and
death of a family pet, the result could be work on a specific problem
counterproductive to the process ofchange. from the various onespresented. b.
Reminding the client of the task
Genuineness and re-describing intent and
structure of thesession.
Ability of counselor to be freely themselves. Includes c. Using questions and suggestions
congruence between outer words or behaviors and to help the client clarify facts,
terms, feelings, andgoals.
innerfeelings;non-defensiveness;non-role-

playing;[Link] ,ifthehelper d. Use a here-and-now focus to

claims that they are comfortable helping a client explore emphasize process and content
occurring in current session,
a drug or sexual issue, but their behavior (verbally and
which may of help to elucidate
nonverbally) shows signs of discomfort with the topic the problem being worked on or
this will become an obstacle to progress and often lead to
improving the problem-solving
process.
client confusion about and mistrust of thehelper.

OPEN QUESTIONS
UNCONDITIONAL
POSITIVEREGARD A questioning process to assist the
client in clarifying or exploring
An expression of caring and thoughts or feelings. Counselor id
nurturance as well as acceptance. not requesting specific information
and not purposively limiting the
Includes conveying warmth natureof the response to only a yes
Also conveying acceptance by or no, or very briefanswer.
responding to the patient's
messages(verbaland a. Goal is to facilitate exploration –
nonverbal) with not needed if the client is already
nonjudgmental or noncritical doingthis.
verbal &nonverbalreactions. b. Have an intention or therapeutic
Respect- purpose for every question
abilitytocommunicatetothecou youask.
nselor'ssincerebeliefthateveryp c. Avoid asking too many
ersonpossesses questions, or assuming an
theinherentstrengthandcapacit interrogatoryrole.
ytomakeitinlife,andthateachpe
rsonhastherighttochoose his d. Best approach is to follow a
own alternatives and make his response to an open-ended
owndecisions. question with a paraphrase
or reflection which
CONCRETENESS encourages the client to
share more and avoids
Keeping communications specific -- repetitive patterns of
focused on facts and feelings of question/answer/question/an
relevant concerns, while avoiding swer,etc.
tangents, generalizations, abstract
discussions, or talking about 8. COUNSELOR’S SELF-
counselor rather than the client. DISCLOSURE
The counselor shares personal
feelings, experiences, or reactions

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to the client. Should include collaboration with the client

relevant identify possible solutions and
[Link] alternatives.
e,itisbettertonotself-
discloseunlessthereisapressingclini
cal ***
needwhichcannotbemetinanyother UNIT 9 IS COMPLETED
[Link]
ngsimilarexperiencesbut
conveying in a caring and
understanding manner what the
client is feeling andthinking

9. INTERPRETATION

Any statement to the client which

goes beyond what they have said
or are aware of. In interpretation
the counselor is providing new
meaning, reason, or explanation
for behaviors, thoughts, or feelings
so that patient can see problems in
a new way. Interpretations can
help the client make connections
between
seeminglyisolatedstatementsofeve
nts,canpointoutthemesorpatterns,
or can offer a new framework
[Link]
maybeusedtohelpaptfocusonaspeci
ficaspectoftheirproblem, or
provide a goal.

a. Keep interpretations
short, concrete (see
concreteness), and
deliver them tentatively
and with empathy.
b. Use interpretations
sparingly and do not
assume a patient's
rejection of your insight
means they are resistant
or that you areright.

10. INFORMATION GIVING

AND REMOVING
OBSTACLES TOCHANGE

Supplying data, opinions, facts,

resources or answers to questions.
Explore with client possible
problems which may delay or
prevent their change process. In

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