MODULE 1

Control System Basics

Detailed Study Notes with Diagrams, Derivations and Solved Numericals

Topics covered:
• 1. Open Loop Control System
• 2. Closed Loop Control System
• 3. Servomechanism
• 4. Physical Examples — Mechanical, Electrical and Electromechanical Systems
• 5. Solved University-Level Numericals (5 Marks & 10 Marks)
1. Open Loop Control System
1.1 Definition
A control system in which the output has no effect on the control action is called an open loop control system.
In simple words, the system does its job by only looking at the input. It never checks whether the output it
produced is actually correct or not.

Because there is no path for the output to come back and inform the controller, an open loop system is also
called a system without feedback.

1.2 Block Diagram Representation

Fig 1.1 — Open loop control system: signal flows in one direction only, input to output.

The input command travels through the controller to the plant (the process being controlled) and comes out as
the output. Notice that there is only one signal path, from left to right. Nothing travels back to check the result.

1.3 Characteristics
• There is no feedback path from output to input.
• The accuracy of the system depends completely on the calibration of the controller.
• Output is never compared with the desired input.
• Disturbances (unwanted external effects) change the output directly, and the system cannot correct itself.
• Generally simple, cheap, and easy to build and operate.

Real-life connection: A washing machine is a very common open loop system. You set a
wash-and-rinse time, and the machine washes for exactly that time. It does not check
whether your clothes have actually become clean; it just follows the timer. An electric
toaster is another example: it toasts bread for a fixed time set by a knob and does not
measure how brown the bread has become.

1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages

Simple in construction and design Not accurate; errors are never corrected
 Advantages Disadvantages

Economical (low cost) Sensitive to disturbances and noise

Easy to maintain Needs recalibration from time to time

Generally stable in operation Cannot adapt to changes in load or

environment

2. Closed Loop Control System

2.1 Definition
A control system in which the output is measured and fed back so that it can be compared with the input is
called a closed loop control system. Because the output affects the control action, this type of system is also
called a feedback control system.

2.2 Block Diagram Representation

Fig 2.1 — Closed loop control system with feedback path and error detector.

2.3 Feedback Path and Error Detector

The error detector (drawn as a summing circle) is the heart of a closed loop system. It continuously does one
simple job — subtraction:

e(t) = r(t) − b(t)

Here r(t) is the reference input (what we want), b(t) is the feedback signal (a measured version of the actual
output), and e(t) is the error signal. The controller acts on this error, not on the raw input. When the error
becomes zero, the controller stops applying extra correction because the output has already reached the
desired value.

The feedback element H(s) usually contains a sensor, such as a thermocouple, tachometer, or potentiometer,
which converts the physical output into a signal that can be compared with the input.
2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages (Comparison with Open Loop)
Advantages Disadvantages

Highly accurate; error is continuously corrected More complex in design and construction

Less affected by external disturbances and Costlier than open loop systems
noise

Can adapt automatically to changes in load May become unstable if not designed carefully

Improves overall system response and Requires extra sensors and feedback hardware
bandwidth

Real-life connection: An air conditioner with a thermostat is a classic closed loop system.
You set the desired room temperature, and a sensor keeps measuring the actual
temperature and feeds it back. If the room is warmer than the set value, the compressor
switches on; once the set temperature is reached, it switches off automatically. The human
body works the same way: the brain constantly compares body temperature with the
normal set point of 37 degrees Celsius and triggers sweating or shivering to remove the
error.

3. Servomechanism
3.1 Definition
A servomechanism is a closed loop control system in which the output is a mechanical quantity such as position,
velocity, or acceleration. The word 'servo' comes from a Latin word meaning 'to serve'; the system serves the
purpose of accurately following a mechanical command.

In short: every servomechanism is a closed loop system, but it specifically controls motion-related quantities
using feedback.

3.2 Block Diagram

Fig 3.1 — A position control servomechanism using a DC motor and a position sensor.
3.3 Position Control and Velocity Control Concept
• Position control system: the goal is to make the shaft or load reach and hold a desired angular or linear
position. A potentiometer or rotary encoder measures the actual position and feeds it back. Example: the
read/write head positioning in a hard disk drive.
• Velocity control system: the goal is to make the shaft rotate at a desired constant speed. A tachogenerator
measures the actual speed and feeds it back. Example: spindle speed control in a lathe machine.

3.4 Applications
• Robotic arms in a manufacturing plant, where each joint must reach an exact angle.
• Radar antennas and satellite dishes that must track a moving target.
• CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machines that cut metal to precise shapes.
• Automatic steering (autopilot) systems in ships and aircraft.
• Elevator (lift) position control in tall buildings.
4. Physical Examples of Control Systems
To analyse any control system mathematically, we first convert the real physical system into a differential
equation, and then into a transfer function using the Laplace transform. The three classic systems below build
this foundation.

4.1 Mechanical Systems — Mass-Spring-Damper

Fig 4.1 — A mass connected to a wall through a spring and a damper, pushed by an external force F(t).

This is the most basic mechanical system, used to study vibrations, vehicle suspensions, and building sway
during earthquakes. It has three elements:

• Mass (M): opposes acceleration; stores kinetic energy.

• Spring (k): opposes displacement; produces a restoring force proportional to displacement; stores
potential energy.
• Damper (b): opposes velocity; dissipates energy as heat; represents friction or oil resistance.

Derivation of the Equation of Motion

Applying Newton's second law to the mass M, the applied force F(t) is balanced by three opposing forces: the
inertia force, the damping force, and the spring force.

F(t) = M·a + b·v + k·x

Writing acceleration and velocity as derivatives of displacement x(t):

F(t) = M d²x/dt² + b dx/dt + k x(t)

This is a second-order linear differential equation. Taking the Laplace transform on both sides, assuming zero
initial conditions (differentiation in time becomes multiplication by 's' in the s-domain):
F(s) = M s² X(s) + b s X(s) + k X(s) = (M s² + b s + k) X(s)

The transfer function is defined as output divided by input, with zero initial conditions:
 X(s) / F(s) = 1 / (M s² + b s + k)
This matches the standard second-order form. Comparing coefficients gives the natural frequency ωn = √(k/M)
and damping ratio ζ = b / (2√(kM)). These two numbers decide whether the mass oscillates, settles smoothly, or
returns slowly to rest after a disturbance.

Real-life connection: The suspension system of a car works exactly like this. The spring
absorbs road bumps, and the shock absorber (the damper) stops the car from bouncing up
and down endlessly after hitting a pothole. A car with only a spring and no damper would
keep bouncing for a long time, which would be very uncomfortable and unsafe.

4.2 Electrical Systems — Series R-L-C Circuit

Fig 4.2 — A series R-L-C circuit driven by a voltage source V(t).

This circuit is the electrical counterpart of the mass-spring-damper system. It has a resistor R, an inductor L, and
a capacitor C, all connected in series with a voltage source V(t).

Derivation Using Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)

KVL states that the sum of voltage drops around a closed loop equals the applied voltage. The voltage drop
across the resistor is i·R, across the inductor is L(di/dt), and across the capacitor is (1/C)∫i dt. So:

V(t) = L di/dt + R i + (1/C) ∫ i dt

Since current i(t) equals the rate of change of charge q(t), that is i = dq/dt, we can rewrite the equation entirely
in terms of charge q:

V(t) = L d²q/dt² + R dq/dt + q/C

Taking the Laplace transform (zero initial conditions), with Q(s) as the transform of q(t):
V(s) = (L s² + R s + 1/C) Q(s)

If the output of interest is the voltage across the capacitor, Vc(s) = Q(s)/C, the transfer function becomes:

Vc(s) / V(s) = 1 / (LC s² + RC s + 1)

This has exactly the same mathematical form as the mass-spring-damper transfer function. This similarity is
called the force-voltage analogy, and it is the reason the same control theory can be used for both mechanical
and electrical systems.

Force-Voltage Analogy Table

Mechanical Quantity Electrical Quantity Role

Force, F Voltage, V Input / driving quantity

Mass, M Inductance, L Opposes rate of change

Damping, b Resistance, R Dissipates energy

Stiffness, k (spring) Elastance, 1/C Stores energy, restoring

effect

Displacement, x Charge, q Output quantity

Velocity, v Current, i Rate of output

Real-life connection: Every mobile phone charger and power supply contains R-L-C type
filter circuits. They smooth out a fluctuating voltage into steady DC, in the same way a
damper smooths out the bouncing of a car.

4.3 Electromechanical Systems — Armature-Controlled DC Motor

Fig 4.3 — Armature circuit of a DC motor with back e.m.f. eb, driving a shaft with inertia J and friction B.

A DC motor converts electrical energy into mechanical rotation, so its model must combine an electrical
equation (for the armature circuit) with a mechanical equation (for the rotating shaft). We assume the field is
kept constant (armature control).

Step 1 — Armature Circuit Equation

Applying KVL to the armature loop, where Ra is armature resistance, La is armature inductance, ia is armature
current, and eb is the back e.m.f. generated by the rotating armature:
 Va(t) = La dia/dt + Ra ia + eb(t)

Step 2 — Back e.m.f. and Torque Equations

The back e.m.f. is proportional to the shaft's angular speed ω, and the torque produced is proportional to the
armature current:
eb(t) = Kb ω(t) T(t) = Kt ia(t)

Step 3 — Mechanical (Load) Equation

The motor torque drives the shaft against inertia J and viscous friction B:

T(t) = J dω/dt + B ω(t)

Step 4 — Combine and Take the Laplace Transform

Taking the Laplace transform of all three equations (zero initial conditions):
Va(s) = (La s + Ra) Ia(s) + Kb Ω(s) T(s) = Kt Ia(s) T(s) = (Js + B) Ω(s)

Eliminating Ia(s) and T(s) step by step gives the overall transfer function relating shaft speed to applied armature
voltage:
Ω(s) / Va(s) = Kt / [(La s + Ra)(Js + B) + Kt Kb]

Since position θ(s) is the integral of speed, θ(s) = Ω(s)/s, the position transfer function is simply this same
expression divided by an extra s:
θ(s) / Va(s) = Kt / { s [(La s + Ra)(Js + B) + Kt Kb] }

Simplified Form (Armature Inductance Neglected)

In many practical motors, La is very small compared to Ra and can be neglected. The transfer function then
reduces to a simple first-order form:
Ω(s) / Va(s) = Kt / (Ra B + Kt Kb) / ( (Ra J /(Ra B + Kt Kb)) s + 1 )

This is written in standard first-order form K/(τs + 1), where the motor time constant is τ = RaJ / (RaB + KtKb)
and the DC gain is K = Kt / (RaB + KtKb).

Fig 4.4 — Transfer function block diagram of the armature-controlled DC motor, showing the back e.m.f. feedback loop.
Real-life connection: Small DC motors following this exact model are used in robotic joints,
electric vehicle wheel drives, printers, and even the vibration motor in a mobile phone.
Engineers use this transfer function to design the controller that decides how much voltage
to send to the motor at every instant.
5. Solved Numerical Problems (University Exam Pattern)
Q1 (5 Marks): Closed loop transfer function from open loop functions

Question: A control system has a forward path transfer function G(s) = 10 / (s + 2) and a feedback path transfer
function H(s) = 1. Find the overall closed loop transfer function.

Solution
For a standard negative feedback closed loop system, the closed loop transfer function is given by the formula:
C(s)/R(s) = G(s) / (1 + G(s) H(s))

Step 1: Substitute the given values of G(s) and H(s).

C(s)/R(s) = [10/(s+2)] / [1 + 10/(s+2)]

Step 2: Simplify the denominator by taking the LCM (s + 2).

C(s)/R(s) = [10/(s+2)] / [(s + 2 + 10)/(s+2)]

Step 3: The (s + 2) terms cancel out from numerator and denominator.

C(s)/R(s) = 10 / (s + 12)
Answer: The closed loop transfer function is 10/(s + 12). Note that the pole moved from s = -2 (open loop) to s =
-12 (closed loop) — feedback has made the system respond faster.

Q2 (5 Marks): Mass-spring-damper — transfer function and damping nature

Question: A mechanical system has mass M = 2 kg, damping coefficient b = 4 N·s/m, and spring stiffness k = 8
N/m. Find the transfer function X(s)/F(s), the natural frequency, the damping ratio, and state the type of
response.

Solution
Step 1: Write the standard transfer function of a mass-spring-damper system.
X(s)/F(s) = 1 / (M s² + b s + k)

Step 2: Substitute the given numerical values M = 2, b = 4, k = 8.

X(s)/F(s) = 1 / (2s² + 4s + 8)
Step 3: Find the natural frequency ωn using ωn = √(k/M).
ωn = √(8/2) = √4 = 2 rad/s

Step 4: Find the damping ratio ζ using ζ = b / (2√(kM)).

ζ = 4 / (2√(8 × 2)) = 4 / (2 × 4) = 4/8 = 0.5

Step 5: Since 0 < ζ < 1, the system is underdamped.

Answer: X(s)/F(s) = 1/(2s² + 4s + 8), ωn = 2 rad/s, ζ = 0.5. Because ζ is between 0 and 1, the mass will oscillate
with gradually decreasing amplitude before settling — an underdamped (oscillatory but stable) response.
 Q3 (5 Marks): Series R-L-C circuit — transfer function and parameters

Question: A series R-L-C circuit has R = 10 Ω, L = 1 H, and C = 0.01 F. Find the transfer function Vc(s)/V(s) and
determine the natural frequency and damping ratio.

Solution
Step 1: Write the standard transfer function of a series R-L-C circuit with capacitor voltage as output.
Vc(s)/V(s) = 1 / (LC s² + RC s + 1)

Step 2: Substitute L = 1, C = 0.01, R = 10.

LC = 1 × 0.01 = 0.01, RC = 10 × 0.01 = 0.1

Vc(s)/V(s) = 1 / (0.01 s² + 0.1 s + 1)

Step 3: Compare with the standard second order form 1/[(1/ωn²)s² + (2ζ/ωn)s + 1] to extract ωn.
1/ωn² = 0.01 ⇒ ωn² = 100 ⇒ ωn = 10 rad/s

Step 4: Find damping ratio ζ from the middle coefficient, 2ζ/ωn = 0.1.
2ζ/10 = 0.1 ⇒ ζ = 0.5

Answer: Vc(s)/V(s) = 1/(0.01s² + 0.1s + 1), ωn = 10 rad/s, ζ = 0.5 (underdamped, same nature as the mechanical
example above — confirming the force-voltage analogy).

Q4 (10 Marks): Complete derivation and numerical for armature-controlled DC motor

Question: An armature-controlled DC motor has the following parameters: armature resistance Ra = 2 Ω,

armature inductance La = 0.5 H, torque constant Kt = 0.6 N·m/A, back e.m.f. constant Kb = 0.6 V·s/rad, moment
of inertia of load J = 0.02 kg·m², and viscous friction coefficient B = 0.2 N·m·s/rad. (a) Derive the transfer
function Ω(s)/Va(s). (b) Calculate its value using the given numbers. (c) Find the motor time constant if La is
neglected.

Solution — Part (a): Derivation

Step 1: Armature circuit equation using KVL.
Va(t) = La (dia/dt) + Ra ia + eb

Step 2: Back e.m.f. and torque relations.

eb = Kb ω T = Kt ia

Step 3: Mechanical equation for the shaft (Newton's law for rotation).
T = J (dω/dt) + Bω

Step 4: Take Laplace transforms of all three equations (zero initial conditions) and eliminate Ia(s) and T(s):
Va(s) = (La s + Ra) Ia(s) + Kb Ω(s) ⇒ Ia(s) = [Va(s) - KbΩ(s)] / (Las + Ra)

T(s) = Kt Ia(s) = (Js + B)Ω(s)

Step 5: Substituting Ia(s) and rearranging gives the final transfer function:
 Ω(s)/Va(s) = Kt / [(La s + Ra)(Js + B) + Kt Kb]

Solution — Part (b): Numerical substitution

Substitute Ra = 2, La = 0.5, J = 0.02, B = 0.2, Kt = Kb = 0.6:
Expand (La s + Ra)(Js + B) = (0.5s + 2)(0.02s + 0.2):
= 0.5 × 0.02 s² + 0.5 × 0.2 s + 2 × 0.02 s + 2 × 0.2

= 0.01 s² + 0.1 s + 0.04 s + 0.4 = 0.01 s² + 0.14 s + 0.4

Add Kt Kb = 0.6 × 0.6 = 0.36 to the constant term:

Denominator = 0.01 s² + 0.14 s + 0.76

Ω(s)/Va(s) = 0.6 / (0.01 s² + 0.14 s + 0.76)

Solution — Part (c): Time constant neglecting La

If La ≈ 0, the transfer function reduces to first order form K/(τs + 1), with:
τ = Ra J / (Ra B + Kt Kb) = (2 × 0.02) / (2 × 0.2 + 0.6 × 0.6) = 0.04 / (0.4 + 0.36) = 0.04/0.76

τ ≈ 0.0526 s (about 52.6 milliseconds)

Answer: The motor reaches about 63% of its final speed in roughly 52.6 ms after a step voltage is applied — a
fast, well-damped electromechanical response typical of small servo motors.

Q5 (10 Marks): Open loop vs closed loop response to a disturbance

Question: A heating system has a plant transfer function G(s) = 5/(s + 1). (a) If it is used as an open loop system,
and a constant disturbance of magnitude D = 2 units enters directly at the output, find the steady-state output
error caused by the disturbance. (b) Now the same plant is placed in a unity feedback closed loop (H(s) = 1) with
a proportional controller of gain Kp = 20 in the forward path. Find the new steady-state error due to the same
disturbance, and comment on which configuration handles the disturbance better.

Solution — Part (a): Open loop case

In the open loop case, there is no mechanism to detect or correct the disturbance. The disturbance adds directly
to the output, so it appears in full at the output.
Output error due to disturbance = D = 2 units (uncorrected)

This means the temperature will simply be off by 2 units forever, since nothing in the system knows a
disturbance has occurred.

Solution — Part (b): Closed loop case

Now the forward path is Gc(s) = Kp × G(s) = 20 × 5/(s+1) = 100/(s+1), and the disturbance D enters at the plant
output, before the feedback measurement.
Using the standard disturbance-rejection result for a unity feedback system, the steady-state output error due
to a constant disturbance D is:
Error due to disturbance = D / (1 + Kp × G(0))

Here G(0) = 5/(0+1) = 5, so Kp × G(0) = 20 × 5 = 100:

Error = 2 / (1 + 100) = 2/101 ≈ 0.0198 units
Comment
The open loop system carries the full 2-unit error forever, while the closed loop system reduces the same
disturbance's effect to about 0.02 units — nearly 100 times smaller. This numerically demonstrates why closed
loop (feedback) systems are strongly preferred whenever disturbances or unpredictable loads are expected,
even though they cost more and are more complex to build.