Unit II

Electrical Machines
Contents
• 2.1 Transformer: Working principle, emf equation, Voltage ratio,
current ratio and transformation ratio, losses.
• 2.2 DC motor construction - parts its function and material used.
• 2.3 DC motor -Principle of operation.
• 2.4 Types of DC motors, schematic diagram, applications of dc shunt,
series and compound motors.
• 2.5 Universal motor: principle of operation, reversal of rotation and
applications.
• 2.6 Stepper motor: types, principle of working and applications.
Introduction
• The transformer is a static device (i.e. the one which does not contain
any rotating and moving parts) which is used to transfer electrical
energy from one AC circuit to another AC circuit, with increase or
decrease in voltage / current but without any change in frequency.
• It is important to remember that input to a transformer and output
from a transformer both are alternating (AC) quantities.
Function of a Transformer
• The electrical energy is generated and transmitted at extremely high
voltages.
• The voltage is then reduced to a lower value for domestic and
industrial use.
• This is done by using a transformer.
• When the voltage level is reduced, the transformer is called a step
down transformer.
• When the voltage level is increased, the transformer is called a step
up transformer.
• When a transformer changes the voltage level, it changes the current
level also.
Transformer- Construction
 Where:
• V – is the Primary Voltage
P
• V – is the Secondary Voltage S
• N – is the Number of Primary Windings P
•N S– is the Number of Secondary Windings
• Φ (phi) – is the Flux Linkage
#Education with Values Department Computer of Computer ScienceEngineering and Engineering School of- Department
Polytechnic and of Polytechnic Skill Development

Construction :
• The construction of a single-phase transformer is as shown in Fig. It consists of two highly inductive coils (windings)
wound on an iron or steel core.
• The winding (coil) connected to the AC supply is called the primary winding, whereas the other one is called the
secondary winding.
• The AC supply is connected to the primary winding, whereas the load is connected to the secondary winding.
• The primary and secondary windings are isolated from each other as well as from the iron core. • Thus, there
is absolutely no physical connection between the primary and secondary windings.

Operating principle of a transformer

• As soon as the primary winding is connected to the single-phase AC

supply, an AC current starts flowing through it.
 • The AC primary current produces an alternating flux Φ in the core.
• Most of this changing flux gets linked with the secondary winding
through the core.
• The varying flux will induce voltage into the secondary winding
according to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.

[Link]
Types of Transformer
 EMF Equation of the Transformer
Magnitude of induced emf can be found by using the following EMF equation of the transformer.

Let,
N1 = Number of turns in primary winding
N2 = Number of turns in secondary winding
Φm = Maximum flux in the core (in Wb) = (Bm x A)
f = frequency of the AC supply (in Hz)

RMS value of induced emf in whole primary winding (E1) = RMS value of emf per turn X Number of turns
in primary winding

E1 = 4.44f N1 Φm ............................. eq 1

E1=4.44f N1 (Bm x A)

Similarly, RMS induced emf in secondary winding (E2) can be given as

E2 = 4.44f N2 Φm. ............................ eq 2

E2 = 4.44f N2 (Bm x A)
#Education with Values Department Computer of Computer ScienceEngineering and Engineering School of- Department
Polytechnic and of Polytechnic Skill Development
Voltage Ratio:

The EMF of equation of a transformer is given by,

 E=4.44fϕmN
For primary winding,
E1=4.44fϕmN1⋅⋅⋅(1)
For secondary winding,
E2=4.44fϕmN2⋅⋅⋅(2)
From equations (1) and (2), we have,
E1=N1
E2 N2
Current Ratio:
For an ideal transformer, the input power is equal to the output power.

Input power=Output power

V1*I1=V2*I2

I1 = V2 = E2
 I2 V1 E1
But E1=N1
E2 N2
Therefore I1 = N2
I2 N1
Transformation Ratio (K):

K = E1 = V1 = N1 = I2
E2 V2 N2 I1

Rating of Transformer (kVA) :

kVA=V1*I1=V2*I2
Transformer Losses
DC Motor
Construction of DC Motor
 Construction of a DC Machine The
important parts of a DC machine are as follows: 1.
Yoke
2. Field winding
3. Poles
4. Armature
5. Commutator
6. Brushes
[Link] -
•Yoke is also called as frame.
It provides protection to the
rotating and other parts of
the machine from moisture,
dust etc.
•Yoke is an iron body which
provides the path for the flux.
•It is essential to complete the magnetic circuit.
•It provides the mechanical support for the poles.
 •Materials used for yoke are basically low reluctance materials such as cast
iron, silicon steel, rolled steel, cast steel etc.
2. Poles, Pole Shoe and Pole Core
• A pole of a DC machine is an electromagnet.
• The field winding is wound over the poles.
• Poles produce the magnetic flux when the field winding is excited. Pole shoe
is an extended part of a pole. Due to its typical shape, it enlarges the area of
the pole. Due to this enlarged area, more flux can pass through the air gap to
armature.
• A low reluctance magnetic material such as cast steel or cast iron is used for
the construction of a pole or pole shoe.
3. Field Winding (F₁ – F₂)
• The coils wound around the pole cores are called field coils.
• The field coils are connected in series with each other to form
the field winding. • Current is passed through the field winding
in a specific direction to magnetize the poles and pole shoes.
• The magnetic flux Ø is thus produced in the air gap between
the pole shoes and armature.
• The field winding is also called as exciting winding.
• The material used for the field conductor is copper.
4. Armature Core
• Armature core is a cylindrical drum mounted on the shaft.
• It is provided with a large number of slots all over its periphery.
• All these slots are parallel to the shaft axis.
• Armature conductors are placed in these slots.
• Armature core provides a low reluctance path to the flux produced by the field winding. •
High permeability, low reluctance materials such as cast steel or cast iron are used for the
armature core.
• The air holes are provided for the air circulation which helps in cooling the armature
core.
5. Armature Winding
• The armature conductors made of copper are placed in the armature slots present
on the periphery of armature core.
• These armature conductors are interconnected to form the armature
winding. • Armature winding is connected to the external circuit (load) through
the commutator and brushes.
• Material used:
 The armature winding is supposed to carry the entire load current. Hence it should
be made up of a conducting material such as copper.
6. Commutator
• A commutator is a cylindrical drum mounted on the shaft along with armature
core. • It is made of a large number of wedge-shaped segments of hard-drawn
copper. • The segments are insulated from each other by thin layers of mica. •
Functions of a commutator:
• For DC motors, it helps to produce a unidirectional torque.
7. Brushes
• Commutator is rotating. So it is not possible to connect the load
directly to it.
• Brushes wear with time. Hence they should be inspected regularly
and replaced occasionally.
• Material used:
Brushes are made of carbon. They are rectangular in shape.
 Principle of Operation of DC Motor
The operating principle of a DC motor can be stated as follows: •
When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a force.
• In case of a DC motor, the magnetic field is developed by the field
winding and current flows in the field winding.
• The armature winding is connected to an external DC source, hence
current flows through the armature conductors placed in the magnetic
field.
• Due to this force exerted on it when placed in the magnetic field, it starts
rotating and the armature starts rotating.
• The direction of rotation depends on the direction of the magnetic field
produced by the field winding as well as the direction of magnetic field
produced by the armature.
Back EMF
• When the current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, the torque
induces on the conductor, the torque rotates the conductor which cuts the flux of
the magnetic field. According to the Electromagnetic Induction
Phenomenon “when the conductor cuts the magnetic field, EMF induces in the
conductor”.
• The Fleming right-hand rule determines the direction of the induced EMF. •
According to Fleming Right Hand Rule, if we hold our thumb, middle finger and
index finger of the right hand by an angle of 90°, then the index finger represents
the direction of the magnetic field. The thumb shows the direction of motion of the
conductor and the middle finger represents the emf induces on the conductor. • On
applying the right-hand rule, it is seen that the direction of the induced emf is
opposite to the applied voltage. Thereby the emf is known as the counter emf or
back emf.
The compound motors are further classified as: Short
shunt compound motor
Long shunt compound motor
Separately Excited DC Motor

• A DC motor whose magnetic field winding is

 excited from an independent source of DC
electric supply like a battery is called a
separately excited DC motor.
• The speed of a separately excited DC motor
depends upon the supply voltage and field
current, i.e. magnetic flux in the machine.
• However, the separately excited DC motors
are rarely used in practical applications
because these require an external source of
DC power for field excitation.
Self-Excited DC Motors
• The type of DC motor whose magnetic field winding is excited from
the same power supply from which the armature is supplied, is
known as a self-excited DC motor.
• Depending upon the manner in which the field winding is connected
with the armature winding, self-excited DC motors are classified in
the following three types −
• Series DC motor
• Shunt DC motor
• Compound DC motor
Series DC Motor

• A DC motor whose field winding is

connected in series with the armature
winding so that whole armature
current passes through the field
winding is called a series DC motor.
• In case of a series DC motor, the field
winding carries the whole armature current,
thus it is made up of thick wire with less
number of turns so that it possesses
minimum resistance.
Shunt DC Motor
• A DC motor whose field winding is
connected in parallel with the armature
winding so that total supply voltage is
applied across it, is known as a shunt
DC motor.
• In a shunt DC motor, the shunt field winding
has a large number of turns of thin wire so that
it has high resistance, and therefore only a part
of supply current flows through it and the rest
flows through the armature winding.
Compound DC Motor

• A compound DC motor is one which has two sets of field windings on

 each magnetic pole one is in series and the other is in parallel with the
armature winding.
• Compound DC motors are sub-divided into the following two types −
• Short-shunt compound DC motor
• Long-shunt compound DC motor
Short-shunt compound
DC motor

A short-shunt compound DC motor is

one in which only shunt field winding is
in parallel
with the armature winding
Long-shunt compound DC motor
A long-shunt compound DC motor is one in
which shunt field winding is in parallel with
both series field winding and armature
winding
DC Motor Applications
Series DC Motor
Series DC motors are used in applications where high starting torque is
required.
• Series DC motors are used in cranes and hoists.
• Series DC motors are used in electric tractions.
• They are used in air compressors.
• They are also used in vacuum cleaners.
• Series DC motors are also used in sewing machines, etc.
DC Motor Applications
Shunt DC Motor
Shunt DC motors are used in applications that require constant speed.
• Shunt DC motors are used for driving lathe machines. • These are
also used in centrifugal pumps and blowers. • These are used in fans,
conveyors, and spinning machines. • These DC motors are also used in
lifts.

DC Motor Applications
Compound DC Motor
Compound DC motors are used in those applications which require
high starting torque and constant speed.
 • Used in printing presses.
• They are also used in shears.
• They are used in elevators and lifts.
• Compound DC motors are also used in rolling mills and heavy
planners, etc.
Universal Motor
The universal motor is a unique type of motor which runs on either DC or single-
phase AC supply.
Universal Motor
The parts of a universal motor are armature, brushes, field winding, frame,
and field core.
• Frame: The frame is a rolled steel or cast-iron shell that holds the field core
laminations.
• Field core: The field core is made up of laminations that contain field poles
of a two-pole motor.
 • Armature: The armature has a laminated core with straiɡht or skewed slots
and a commutator to which the leads of the armature windinɡ are
connected. An armature coil is used to run the motor.
• Brushes: Brushes conduct current between stationary wires and moving
parts.
• Field windinɡ: The field winding forms an electromagnet that produces
field flux within which the rotor armature of the DC motor rotates.
Universal Motor Working Principle
• A universal motor works on both single-phase AC and DC supply. When the
DC motor is fed with a DC supply it works as a series DC motor. • Current
flows in the winding produce an electromagnetic field and the same current
also flows through the armature conductors. • When it is placed in an
electromagnetic field it experiences a mechanical force and due to the
mechanical force the torque starts to rotate producing a unidirectional
torque.
• The armature winding and the field winding are connected in series and
hence they are in the same phase.
• For an AC power supply, the direction of current in the armature and field
winding reverses everytime, hence, the polarity of AC changes.
Types of Universal Motors
The two types of universal motors are compensated and non
compensated types.
Non-compensated Motor
• This motor is built with two wide poles and laminated. The armature is
wound form, and the laminated core is skewed or straight slots. The
winding leads are attached to the switch. This form of uncompensated
motor uses high-resistance brushes to enable improved commutation.
• These motor produce a high starting torque but their speed decreases
with increase in load. Their speed regulation is also not good.
• The torque-speed characteristics differ a lot for ac and dc supply. • The
 motor capacity is low.
Compensated Motor
This type of motor involves scattered field winding, and the stator core has a
connection with the split-phase motor. Therefore, these motors have additional
winding, which decreases the voltage of the reaction due to alternating flow.
The speed-torque characteristics for ac and dc supply almost coincide. It is better
suited for higher speeds.
These are preferred for high capacity loads.
 Characteristics of Universal Motor
Universal motors have high starting torque, and the speed increases with a
decrease in the load.
• Speed-Load Characteristics

• The speed load characteristics of universal motors are similar to that of DC

series motors. However, the speed of a universal motor is inversely
proportional to the load; that is, the speed is low at full load and high at no
load due to low field flux. Hence, these motors are connected with
permanent loads to avoid their operation at no load.
Application of Universal Motor

• Universal motors are simple, inexpensive, and high-speed-type

motors.
• These motors can function at a high-speed connection to a single
phase AC network. In addition, they are available in small sizes for
compact domestic devices.
• Universal motors drive drills, electric shavers, fans, wipers, sawmills,
mixers, blenders, sewing machines, high-speed vacuum cleaners, and
machine tools.
Advantages of Universal Motor
• Simple construction
• Low cost
• Small size
• They can be operated on both ac and dc
• High starting torque
 Disadvantages of Universal Motor
• Poor speed regulation
• Construction of compensated universal motor is complicated.
Stepper Motor
• A stepper motor is an electric motor whose main feature is that its
shaft rotates by performing steps, that is, by moving by a fixed
amount of degrees
Stepper Motor Construction
The stepper motors have a stationary part (the stator) and a moving part
(the rotor). On the stator, there are teeth on which coils are wired, while
the rotor is either a permanent magnet or a variable reluctance iron core..
Stepper Motor Working Principles
The basic working principle of the stepper motor is the following:
By energizing one or more of the stator phases, a magnetic field is
generated by the current flowing in the coil and the rotor aligns with this
field.
By supplying different phases in sequence, the rotor can be rotated by a
specific amount to reach the desired final position.
Stepper Motor Types
For a stepper motor, there are basically three types:
1) Variable reluctance motor
2) Permanent magnet motor
3) Hybrid motor
Variable reluctance motor
The rotor is made of an iron core, and has a specific shape that allows it to align with the magnetic
field.
At the beginning, coil A is energized and the rotor is aligned with the magnetic field it produces. When
coil B is energized, the rotor rotates clockwise by 60° to align with the new magnetic field. The same
happens when coil C is energized.
With this solution it is easier to reach a higher speed and resolution, but the torque it develops is often
lower and it has no detent torque.

Permanent magnet motor

The rotor is a permanent magnet that aligns with the magnetic field generated by the stator circuit. This solution
guarantees a good torque and also a detent torque. This means the motor will resist, even if not very strongly, to
a change of position regardless of whether a coil is energized. The drawbacks of this solution is that it has a
lower speed and a lower resolution compared to the other types.
 Hybrid motor

This kind of rotor has a specific construction, and is a hybrid between permanent magnet and variable
reluctance versions. The rotor has two caps with alternating teeth, and is magnetized axially. This
configuration allows the motor to have the advantages of both the permanent magnet and variable
reluctance versions, specifically high resolution, speed, and torque. This higher performance requires a
more complex construction, and therefore a higher cost. When coil A is energized, a tooth of the N
magnetized cap aligns with the S-magnetized tooth of the stator. At the same time, due to the rotor
structure, the S-magnetized tooth aligns with the N-magnetized tooth of the stator. Real motors have a
more complex structure, with a higher number of teeth than the one shown in the picture, though the
working principle of the stepper motor is the same. The high number of teeth allows the motor to achieve a
small step size, down to 0.9°.

Advantages
• Due to their internal structure, stepper motors do not require a sensor to
detect the motor position. Since the motor moves by performing “steps,”
by simply counting these steps, you can obtain the motor position at a
given time.
• Design procedure is simpler for a stepper motor control system.
• Stepper motors offer good torque at low speeds, are great for holding
position, and also tend to have a long lifespan.
• It is possible to achieve accurate position and speed control with a
stepper motor.
Disadvantages
• They can miss a step if the load torque is too high. This negatively
impacts the control, since there is no way to know the real position of
the motor. Using micro stepping makes stepper motors even more
likely to experience this issue.
• These motors always drain maximum current even when still, which
 makes efficiency worse and can cause overheating.
• Stepper motors have low torque and become pretty noisy at high
speeds.
• Finally, stepper motors have low power density and a low torque-to
inertia ratio.
Applications