PCS/008
THE UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG
Department of Civil Engineering
CIVL3012 / 3112 Prestressed Concrete Structures
Design for Shear and Torsion
Code of Practice for Structural Use of Concrete 2013
Design for Shear
Demarcation of Zones
Four different zones may be distinguished in a prestressed concrete beam (Figures 1 and 2)
for the purpose of designing shear reinforcement. The characteristics of the four zones,
designated A to D, are as follows:
Zone A: In a simply supported beam, this zone extends to a distance d from the supports.
This region remains crack-free up to failure.
Zone B: In this zone, the shear cracks develop within the web, when the principal tensile
stress exceeds the tensile strength of the concrete. The cracks, following the principal stress
(tension) trajectories are inclined at 20 to 30. These cracks are generally referred to as web-
shear cracks.
Zone C: In this zone of high bending moment, vertical flexural cracks are at first formed;
with further increase in the load, they penetrate the beam and become inclined at 40 to 70.
Zone D: In this zone where bending moment is dominant and shear is insignificant, only
vertical flexural cracks are formed and shear failure can be ruled out.
Zones A B C B A
Figure 1. Zones of different behaviour
Shear span Zone D Shear span
V
M/Vh>7: no danger of shear failure
Figure 2. Rectangular beam: ratio M/Vh>7
It is convenient to merge regions A and B and regard the combined regions as the zone of
web-shear cracking. Region C, the zone of flexural-shear cracking, needs separate treatment.
In Hong Kong Concrete Code, the shear-carrying capacity of the concrete in the region A-B is
designated as Vco and the shear carrying capacity of concrete in Region C is designated as Vcr.
Figure 3 summarizes various failure modes of a beam. Note that not all three kinds of failure
modes occur in one beam.
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L/2 CL
b
+
h
Web shear Flexural shear Flexural
Section cracking cracking cracking
Flexural cracking
moment Mcr
Bending
moment
diagram
for small L/d for large L/d
Check web Check flexural Check flexural
shear strength shear strength strength
Vco Vcr; check also
Vco for thin web
Figure 3. Summary of failure modes of a beam
Three failure mechanisms can be identified:
1. Web shear cracking: It originates at the centroidal axis and propagates towards both edges
at an inclined angle.
2. Flexural shear cracking: It originates at the bottom and propagates upwards and then
becoming inclined.
3. Flexural cracking: It originates at the bottom and propagates upwards.
Breadth of rib bv
Where a duct occurs in a rib, the value of bv should be reduced by the size of the duct if
ungrouted and by 2/3 of the size if grouted.
Section uncracked in flexure (M < Mcr; often simply taken as M < Mo in design codes)
In the region where the bending moment is less than that causing flexural cracking, diagonal
cracks may develop in the web under the action of the principal tensile stress.
vco ft f c'
+
fc fc
fcp fc'
vco vco
vco 45
- ft
An element at
Stress distribution centroidal axis Principal stresses
Figure 4. Stresses at centroidal axis
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The principal tensile stress is given by
2
fc f
ft c vco2 (1) (-fc, vco)
2 2
2 >90
(ft, 0)
The shear stress vco is the maximum at the
(-f c’, 0) (tensile as
centroidal axis for a rectangular section (or positive)
a web of flanged section). Taking the case
of rectangular section as representative, the (0, -vco)
maximum shear stress is given by
Figure 5. Mohr circle for stresses at centroidal axis
V Ay
vco co
I bv
bv
V (b h / 2)(h / 4)
co v 3
(bv h / 12)(bv )
3 Vco h Max
(2)
2 bv h
where Vco is the ultimate shear resistance of
Section Shear stress
the section uncracked in flexure.
Figure 6. Assumed shear stress distribution
Substituting equation (2) into (1)
2
f 3 V
2
f
f t c c co
2 2 2 bv h
2
f f 3 V
2 2
f t c c co
2 2 2 bv h
2
f f 3 V
2 2
f t f t f c c c co
2
2 2 2 bv h
2
Vco bv h f t 2 f t f c
3
Vco 0.67bv h f t 2 f t f c (3)
Assumptions in Hong Kong Concrete Code:
1. Maximum design principal tensile stress f t 0.24 f cu
A partial factor of safety of 1.5 has already been incorporated.
2. Only 80% of compressive stress in concrete at centroidal axis due to prestress can be taken
into account, i.e. f c 0.8 f cp
Therefore equation (3) becomes
Vco 0.67bv h f t 2 0.8 f cp f t (4)
This is the shear resistance of the section uncracked in flexure.
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Effects of inclined tendon
Near the end of the beam, the tendons may be inclined. The vertical component of the
prestressing force should be combined with the shear due to loading.
w
Total shear force at concrete section
V Pe sin R (a) R
w
If V Pe sin Vco , the section is OK; w
V
otherwise it has to be reinforced for shear. R
(b)
Maximum shear stress Pe
R (c)
The principal compressive stress may cause
web buckling if the web is thin. In order to Figure 7. (a) A typical beam; (b) effects of live load; and
prevent this, the maximum shear stress (c) effects of inclined tendon
carried by the beam is limited to 0.8fcu
irrespective of the amount of shear
reinforcement, or 7.0N/mm2, whichever is
the lesser.
The maximum possible shear resistance for rectangular or flanged beams is
(maximum shear stress)bv d
Section cracked in flexure (M > Mcr; often simply taken as M > Mo in design codes)
In the region that is cracked in flexure, the flexural cracks may propagate towards the loading
point, gradually becoming inclined cracks (i.e. flexural-shear cracks). The crack causing
failure usually lies at a distance of half the effective depth from the loading point (or point of
maximum moment).
av = M/V V
yt
yb
Pe
O O’
V
d/2
Figure 8. A typical flexural-shear crack
The shear strength of the section is equal to the shear force present at flexural cracking Vo
plus the additional shear force carried by the cracked section Va, i.e.
Vcr Vo Va (5)
The moment Mcr causing flexural cracking at point O is given by
M cr M o f r I yb (6)
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where
Mo = moment necessary to produce zero stress in the concrete at the extreme tension fibre
0.8 f bp I yb (allowing 80% only to play safe)
fbp = stress due to prestress only at the extreme tension fibre
fr = flexural tensile strength of concrete (modulus of rupture) = 0.37 f cu N/mm2
M cr M o 0.37 f cu I yb (7)
From equilibrium at the section at point O,
M cr
Vo (8)
av d / 2
For simplicity in design, the moment and shear at point O may be taken as those at point O’.
M
Vo cr
av
Mo I
0.37 f cu
av yb av
M V I
o 0.37 f cu (9)
M yb av
In practice, beams which fail in flexural-shear have an av/h lying between 2.5 and 6. Taking
an average value of 4, i.e. av 4h , equation (9) becomes
V I
Vo M o 0.37 f cu (10)
M 4hyb
Assuming only the web taking all the shear, yb h / 2 and h d ,
Vo M o
V
0.37 f cu v
b h3 12
M (4h)(h / 2)
V b d
Mo 0.37 f cu v
M 24
0.015 f cu bv d
V
Vo M o (11)
M
The additional shear force carried by the cracked section before failure Va is dependent on the
concrete strength. Test results indicate that
Va 0.037 f cu bv d (12)
From equations (11) and (12),
Vcr Vo Va
0.015 f cu bv d 0.037 f cu bv d
V
Mo
M
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Vcr 0.052 f cu bv d M o
V
(13)
M
To account for the degree of prestressing, modify equation (13) to
f V
Vcr 1 k pe vc bv d M o (14)
f pu M
where
vc = design concrete shear stress for the section without prestress from Table 6.3 of Hong
Kong Concrete Code (dependent on strength of concrete, amount of prestressed and non-
prestressed steel Aps+As and effective depth of section d); and
k = a constant to be determined.
Comparing equations (13) and (14),
f
1 k pe vc 0.052 f cu
f pu
Taking fpe / fpu=0.6 (maximum in practice), fcu=50N/mm2 and assuming vc=0.55 N/mm2,
(1 0.6k )(0.55) (0.052) 50
k 0.55
f V
Vcr 1 0.55 pe vc bv d M o
f pu M
The equation is not necessarily accurate because so many assumptions are involved. Test
results also indicate that the shear strength of a section cracked in flexure is not less than
0.1 f cu bv d . Therefore
f V
Vcr 1 0.55 pe vc bv d M o 0.1 f cu bv d (15)
f pu M
Note that the vertical component of prestressing force due to inclination of tendons is
considered only if it increases the shear effects.
Shear reinforcement
Asv sv
d
Figure 9. Shear reinforcement
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Shear force carried by links
f yv
Vs Asv no. of links crossed by cracks
m
where fyv = characteristic strength of shear reinforcement
f yv d
Vs Asv
m sv
Asv Vs Vs
sv f yv m d 0.87 f yv d (16)
Vc = the lesser of Vco and Vcr.
Provided that V Vc, cases not requiring shear reinforcement are:
V 0.5Vc;
in members of minor importance; or
where tests have shown that shear reinforcement is not required.
For the provision of shear reinforcement, the design shear resistance of the section with
minimum links Vr is defined as:
Vr 0.4 bv d for f cu 40 N/mm2
Vr 0.4 f cu 40 bv d for f cu 40 N/mm2
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Two cases are possible.
Case 1: V Vc Vr
Asv Vr
(17)
sv 0.87 f yv d
Case 2: V Vc Vr
Asv V Vc
(18)
sv 0.87 f yv d t
where dt is depth from the extreme compression fibre either to the longitudinal bars or to the
centroid of the tendons, whichever is the greater.
The spacing of links, sv, should not exceed the following:
0.75 dt
4 bv (for flanged beams; before deduction for duct)
0.5 dt if V > 1.8 Vc
Lateral spacing of individual legs of links dt
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Estimation of breadth of section
Bt
dt Initial prestress Effective prestress
0 0
h bw h 0.12 fcu
db
b Bb 0.4 fci 0.32 fcu 0.80.32 fcu 0.24 fcu
Figure 11. Assumed stresses
Figure 10. Common sections
The breadth of a section, in particular, the breadth of the web of a flanged beam, is governed
by shear requirement. If web-shear cracking is to be avoided, the section must be so chosen
that
2 2
0.8 f cp 0.8 f cp 3 V
ft
2 2 2 bv h
2 2 2
0.8 f cp 0.8 f cp 3 V
f t
2 2 2 bv h
2 2
0.8 f cp 0.8 f cp 9 V 2
f t 0.8 f t f cp
2
2 2
2 2 4 bv h
9 V2 1
bv2 2 2
4 h f t 0.8 f t f cp
Assuming f cp 0.12 f cu , f t 0.24 f cu and f cu 50 , we have
9 V2 1
bv2
4 h 2 0.24 f
cu (0.8)0.24
2
f cu (0.12 f cu )
9 V2 1
2
4 h 0.0576 f cu 0.023 f cu f cu
9 V2 1
2
4 h 0.220 f cu
V2 V
bv2 10.2 bv 3.2
h 2 f cu h f cu
bv V
3.2 2 (19)
h h f cu
If the tendons are inclined, the vertical component of the prestressing force contributes
approximately 1/3 of the shear strength. Hence
bv V
2.2 2 (20)
h h f cu
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Design for torsion
Equilibrium torsion and compatibility torsion
Most design codes implicitly differentiate between two types of torsion: equilibrium torsion
(or primary torsion), which is required to maintain equilibrium in the structure, and
compatibility torsion (or secondary torsion), which is required to maintain compatibility
between members of the structure. To distinguish between the two types, it is helpful to note
that (a) in a statically determinate structure, only equilibrium torsion can exist; (b) in an
indeterminate structure both types may exist, but if the torsion can be eliminated by releasing
redundant restraints then it is a compatibility torsion. In general, where the torsional
resistance or stiffness of members has not been explicitly taken into account in the analysis of
the structure, no specific calculations for torsion will be necessary.
Torsion in plain concrete beams
Figure 12 shows a plain concrete beam subjected to pure torsion. The torsional moment T
induces shear stresses which produce principal tensile stresses at 45 to the longitudinal axis.
When the maximum tensile stress reaches the tensile strength of the concrete, diagonal cracks
form which tend to spiral round the beam. For a plain concrete beam, failure immediately
follows such diagonal cracking.
Figure 12. Diagonal crack due to torsion Figure 13. Sand heap for rectangular section
Membrane analogy for elastic torsion:
If a thin membrane is mounted over the cross-section and inflated by pressure, then St
Venant’s torsion constant K is proportional to the volume under the membrane surface, and
the torsional shear stress vt in any specified direction at any point on the section is
proportional to the slope of the membrane at that point, the slope being measured in a
direction perpendicular to that of vt.
Sand-heap analogy for plastic torsion:
If the torque T produces complete plasticity, then vt is everywhere equal to the yield strength
in shear assuming, for the time being, that an elastic-perfectly plastic material is being
considered. The sand-heap analogy (or sand-hill analogy) states that the torsion constant K is
twice the volume of the sand heap, provided that the yield shear stress vt is interpreted at (T/K)
times the slope of the faces. Figure 13 shows the sand heap for a rectangular section. It
can be verified that
2T
vt 2 (21)
hmin hmax hmin 3
Figure 14 shows the approximate sand heaps for simple flanged sections.
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Figure 14. Approximate sand heaps for simple flanged sections
If the local changes in shape near the ends and intersections are neglected, it is easy to show
that the partial torque resisted by a typical component rectangle is
Ti T
2
hmin hmax i
(22)
hmin hmax
2
where the suffix i refers to the typical component rectangle, and hmin and hmax are respectively
the shorter and longer sides of the rectangle.
In practice, T, L or I sections are divided into component rectangles in such a way as to
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maximise hmin hmax . The torsional shear stress vt carried by each component rectangle may be
calculated by treating it as a rectangular section subjected to a torsional moment of
h3 h
Ti T min3 max i (23)
hmin hmax
This approach is largely based on the elastic distribution of torsional stress in order to avoid
premature failure at service.
Effects of torsion reinforcement
The most practical arrangement of torsion
reinforcement consists of a combination of
longitudinal bars and links, the longitudinal
bars being distributed evenly round the
inside perimeter of the links, as shown in
Figure 15. In the “space truss analogy” for
evaluation of the ultimate torsional strength,
the space truss consists of the longitudinal
bars acting as stringers, the legs of the links
acting as posts, and the concrete between Figure 15. Space truss analogy
the cracks as the compression diagonals.
Let T = ultimate torsional moment of resistance;
As = total area of longitudinal reinforcement;
Asv = area of the two legs of each link;
fy = yield strength of the longitudinal reinforcement;
fyv = yield strength of the links;
sv = longitudinal spacing of the links;
x1 = the smaller dimension between the corner bars; and
y1 = the larger dimension between the corner bars.
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It is desirable that the longitudinal bars and the links should yield simultaneously. To
achieve this condition, the volume-strength products should be made equal. Considering a
length sv of the beam,
As f y s v Asv f yv x1 y1 (24)
It has been found that if the above equation is satisfied, then the diagonal cracks can be
assumed to be inclined at 45 to the axis of the member. It is assumed that the member is
torsionally under-reinforced so that at failure the links intersected by the diagonal cracks
yield in tension. Using the space truss model with 45 diagonals, it may be shown that
A
T sv f yv x1 y1 (25)
sv
Introducing the efficiency factor of 0.8 and the partial factor of safety for material, the
detailing rules for the closed links and longitudinal reinforcement become
Asv T
(26)
sv 0.8 x1 y1 (0.87 f yv )
Asv f yv
As x y1 (27)
sv f 1
y
Note that closed links as shown in Figure 16 have to be used.
For further details, refer to “Reinforced and Prestressed
Concrete, F.K. Kong & R.H. Evans, 3rd edition, Van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1987”.
Figure 16.
A closed link
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Torsional Resistance in Design Calculations (Hong Kong Concrete Code)
1. The torsional moment T
In a statically determinate structure, the torsional moment T due to ultimate loads will
be given directly by statics. In analysing a statically indeterminate structure to
determine T, appropriate values of flexural rigidity EI and torsional rigidity GC should
be adopted based on the code.
2. Torsional shear stress vt
For a rectangular section, the torsional shear stress vt may be calculated from
vt 2T hmin
2
hmax hmin 3 where hmin and hmax are the smaller and larger dimensions
of the section respectively.
T-, L- or I-sections may be treated by dividing them into their component rectangles.
This should normally be done so as to maximize the function hmin3
hmax which will
generally be achieved if the widest rectangle is made as long as possible. The torsional
shear stress vt carried by each component rectangle may be calculated by treating it as a
rectangular section subjected to a torsional moment of Ti T hmin
3
hmax i hmin
3
hmax
Box and hollow sections in which wall thicknesses exceed one-quarter of the overall
thickness of the member in the direction of measurement may be treated as solid
rectangular sections; otherwise the torsional shear stress vt can be calculated as
vt T 2hw0 A0 where hw0 is the wall thickness where the stress is determined; and A0 is
the area enclosed by the median wall line.
3. Torsional shear stresses vtu and vtmin
In no case should the sum of the shear stresses resulting from shear force and torsion
(v+vt) exceed the maximum combined shear stress (shear plus torsion) vtu, nor in the
case of small sections (where y1<550mm) should the torsional shear stress vt exceed
vtu y1 550 . Where the torsional shear stress vt exceeds minimum torsional shear stress
vtmin, reinforcement should be provided.
4. Torsional reinforcement
Torsional reinforcement should consist of rectangular closed links together with
longitudinal reinforcement. This reinforcement is additional to any requirements for
shear or bending and should be such that
A f yv
A
Rectangular sections: sv
T
; As sv x1 y1
sv 0.8 x1 y1 (0.87 f yv ) sv f y
Ast T A A f
Box sections (BS5400: Part 4): ; sL st yv
sv 2 A0 (0.87 f yv ) sL sv f yL
where Ast is the area of one leg of a closed link at a section; AsL is the area of one bar of
longitudinal reinforcement; fyL is the characteristic strength of the longitudinal
reinforcement; and sL is the spacing of the longitudinal reinforcement.
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