Unit 5
Decision-Making
and Problem
Solving
Introduction
In Unit 4 you were introduced to leadership in schools. As
teacher learner you should realize that organizational
effectiveness depends on effective leadership. One of the
central functions of management or the administrative
structure and leadership is to facilitate the process of
decision-making. In the school, for example the head
teacher, the deputy Head teacher and heads of
departments facilitate decision-making in the school. In
his unit we will discuss the process of decision-making and
how decisions should be made in the school. You will be
interested to realise that we make numerous decisions
everyday both on the personal or organizations level.
Objectives
By the end of this unit, you must be able to:
define the term decision-making
explain the process of decision-making
explain participation in decision-making
explain the concept of shared decision-making in the school
distinguish between policy decisions and operational decisions in
the school
describe strategic management in the school
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Key Words
You will find the following key words or phrases in this
unit. Watch for these and make sure that you understand
what they mean and how they are used in the unit.
administrative decision-making model
satisficing strategy
Administrative
Decision-Making
Decision-making is a major responsibility for all
administrators. An understanding of the decision-making
process is crucial for all school administrators and
teachers because the school, like all other formal
organizations, is basically a decision-making structure.
Deciding means selecting and implementing a course of
action from among alternatives (Hoy and Miskel, 2013).
Decision making is therefore an attempt to solve
organizational problems (Mbiti, 1974). A problem is
anything which causes dissatisfaction (Mbiti, 1973).
The administrative model of decision-making
recommends that the process of decision-making in
organizations such as schools, should be completely
rational, Hoy & Miskel (1991:300). This is possible by
making use of satisficing strategy (searching for
satisfactory alternative solution. According to Mbiti (1974),
the process of decision-making should take the following:
sequential steps:
1. Identify the problem or issue.
2. Gather and analyse relevant data or information
related to the problem.
3. Generate tentative solution.
4. Consider the possible consequences that solution.
5. Implement the decision to solve a problem.
Self Evaluation Activity 5-a
As teacher-learner you should realise that the steps
outlined in the decision-making model are only a
guide to good decision-making. Explain why this is
the case?
Answers to this activity are at the end of this unit.
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Forms of Decisions Made in
Schools
Two forms of decisions are identified in formal
organizations such as the school. These are:
Policy Decisions since policies affect the operation of
the entire Ministry or organization, policy decisions are
only made by the Minister at the Ministry headquarters or
the top manager in an organization. Examples of policy
decisions include:
change of school calendar
change of the school curriculum
pupil/teacher expulsion from school
Schools then become the implementers of policy decisions regardless of
whether or not they agree with the policy
Operational Decisions these are decisions that are
made at the school level to enable the day-to-day running
of the school. Operational decisions are made and
implemented within the boundaries set by policy
decisions. A school therefore is not allowed to make and
execute a decision that is contrary to policy or that
exceed limits of a policy decision. An example of an
operational decision would be
sending some students and teachers to represent the school at a
funeral of a learner while the school is in session.
time to start lesson will depend on various factors such as
weather.
Participatory Decision-
Making: Shared Decision-
Making in Schools
Decision-making in organizations can be unilateral or
shared.
Unilateral decisions refers to where the school head or an
administrator alone or a few individuals are involved in the
process of decision-making.
Shared decisions refers to where teachers or subordinates are
widely consulted before a decision is arrived at.
Should teachers or subordinates be involved in decision-
making or policy formulation? As teacher-learner you will
realise that this is a wrong question to ask because
teachers should and should not be involved in decision-
making. Involvement can produce either positive or
negative consequences. The appropriate question is
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under what circumstances or conditions should teachers
or subordinates be involved in decision-making?
Shared Decision-Making:
The Concept of Zone of
Acceptance
Bridges (1967) suggests that teachers or subordinates
should be involved in decision-making in matters that are
located within their zone of acceptance (ZOA).
The term zone of acceptance of teachers or subordinates
refers to a range of behaviour within which teachers or
subordinates are ready to accept decisions made by their
superior. Applying the concept of ZOA to administrative
decision-making, some directives are clearly unacceptable
and will not be obeyed. On the other end of the continuum
some decisions are highly acceptable are obeyed with
high interest and anticipation.
The problem for administrators is therefore to determine
which decisions fall inside and which outside the ZOA.
As you may easily guess there are two tests to identify
whether an issue falls within the subordinates ZOA, these
are:
Test of relevance or interest. Does the subordinate have a
personal interest in the decision? If a teacher or subordinate has a
personal stake or interest participation is usually high.
Test of expertise or competence. Does the teacher have
qualification or expertise in the matter, to make useful
contribution? As teacher-learner you should realise that to
involve subordinates in decisions that are outside their scope of
experience and sphere of competence is likely to cause them
unnecessary frustration.
In conclusion, teachers or subordinates should be involved
in decision-making only in matters in which they have
personal interest or competence.
Practise Activity 5-b
Explain the circumstances under which teachers
should be involved in decision-making in the school
Answers to this activity are at the end of this unit.
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Strategic Management
in Schools
You might have heard or noticed that every year schools,
school administrators and teachers are recognised and
awarded for best performance across Malawi. This informs
you of a certain level of comparison and competition
among schools. The question of how do we get and stay
ahead of the rest?” brings with it the concept of strategy;
a comprehensive plan that sets direction and guides
resource allocation to achieve long term objectives.
Schools and colleges in Malawi are encouraged to develop
their own strategic plans i.e. where they would like to be
by the end of a five year period and beyond.
This requires managers of colleges and schools to look
ahead and understand their institutional environments so
that their institutions are effectively positioned for
competitive success. This is crucial especially in these
times when change is happening quickly. Devising ways of
advancing the vision, mission and objectives, and
accomplishing the mandate of the institutions becomes
the goal of strategic management. Becoming a leading
institution among equals then is a product of a good
strategy which involves all participants and stakeholders
of the institution.
In Malawi it is mostly private schools that are so much into
strategic management as compared to public schools.
Probably this is the case because of the profit making
nature of private schools. However, recently, public
schools are constantly challenged to develop their
customer service charters and raise the standards of their
services to the public. Since the majority of public schools
share the vision of their mother; Ministry of Education,
their major difference appears in the way they craft
mission statements for their schools.
Developing a Mission
Statement for Your
School
Many schools have used decision making to create a set
of aims for the school. These will usually be published in a
document that is shared with members of staff, like a
Prospectus or a Handbook.
One of the things that is included is a mission statement.
A mission statement is public and shared statement
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that tells the shared values of the members of the school.
West-Burnham (1992: 71) gives the following purposes for
a mission statement
It characterises the school to its community.
It provides a sense of direction and purpose.
It serves as a criterion for policy making.
It sets the school culture.
It generates consistency of action.
It identifies clients.
It serves to motivate and challenge.
The schools mission statement tells all who read it the
things that school values and its purpose. It also tells what
the goals are of that school.
A mission statement is written by the people in the school.
The more people who are consulted in defining the values
and goals, the more meaning the mission statement will
have and the more likely it is to match the values and
goals of those at the school.
According to West Burnham (1992: 72) a mission
statement should have the following components:
an indication of the core purpose of the school
a clear statement of relationships with parents, pupils, teachers,
administrators and the community
specifications of the services that the school has
an explicit reference to values
a commitment to quality
a concern for pupils, teachers, and the community.
There are no rules for how long the statement should be.
The most important thing is that it should be easy to
understand.
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Example of School Mission
Statement
The following is an example of a mission statement
written by one school.
---------------- School aims to provide a caring and secure
community where everyone is valued for her or his
individual talents and personality.
We believe in strong links with parents, the
community, our village of --------------- and the
surrounding area and so create opportunities for
formal and social communication.
We work together to achieve a high standard of
education and behaviour through stimulating and
varied teaching techniques. Each child is encouraged
to achieve his or her potential.
Within our school community we foster and nurture
ethical behaviour. Self-discipline and respect for others
and their property is expected and encouraged by the
school community. We prepare our children for the
world of today.
Hands On Activity
Help your school write a mission statement. If your
school already has a mission statement, then
review it and update it with others from the school
Self Evaluation Activity 5-c
Give one practical example for each of the following
types of decisions that affect school management
(i) Policy decision
(ii) Operational decisions
Answers to this activity are at the end of this unit.
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Group Activity
In your groups, discussion the disadvantages and
disadvantages of using committees to make
decisions for the school
Consult with Community
Attend a parent-teacher association meeting in
your school and determine whether decision-
making is shared or not
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Reflection
Having gone through this module can you think of
other forms of conflicts that are not mentioned in
this unit but are prevalent in schools?
Summary
In this Unit, you should have been exposed to the concept
of decision-making in which we have seen that decision-
making is a central activity of leadership or management.
In Unit 6 we discuss conflict management. You should
realise that leaders spend a great deal of their time trying
to resolve conflicts of various types in their organizations.
In the school too, Head teachers spend a lot of their time
resolving conflicts between members of staff; including
management of pupil discipline which is discussed in unit
7
Unit Test
1. Explain why decision-making can be considered to be
the central activity of management.
2. Explain why the administrative model of decision-
making discussed in this unit is unsuitable for decision-
making in schools
3. Explain why teachers in the school cannot make policy
decisions
You will find the answers to the unit test at the end of this
unit.
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Answers to Unit 5
Activities
Answers to Self Evaluation Activity 5-a
Problems faced by most organizations are complex and
need quick decision-making. The limited capacity of the
human and material resource in most organizations
makes it virtually impossible to use a lengthy decision-
making process
Answers to Practice Activity 5-b
The principle of Zone of Acceptance recommends that
involvement of teachers or subordinates should be based
on two conditions: (i) relevance or expertise (ii) personal
interest.
Answers to Self Evaluation Activity 5-c
Practical example of:
(i) Policy decision Female pupils who become
pregnant in school should be allowed to return to
school after delivery is the Ministrys decision.
(ii) Operational decision Elements of a school menu is
decided by the school
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Domasi College of Education
Answers to Unit Test
1. Decision-making is an activity that results into the
development of strategies for problem-solving
2. The model is too complex; schools need quick rational
decisions in order to deal with problematic or chaotic
situations such as teacher or pupil discipline
3. Policies affect all schools nationwide; they can
therefore be changed by the Ministry and not by an
individual school.
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