Unit 97

Supervision, Inspection and performance appraisals

Objectives
By the end of this unit, you must be able to:
 Define the terms; inspection and supervision.
 Distinguish between Inspection and Supervision.
 Discuss the purpose for school inspection.
 Discuss the purpose for school Supervision.
 Outline the roles of an effective inspection.
 Discuss the perception of teachers on inspection.

Supervision

- leading efforts to improve teaching, observing in the

classrooms, and conferencing with teachers.
- an activity that help teachers do their job better and improve
the learning of children.
- as a constant and continuous process of a more personal
guidance based on frequent visits when attention is focused on
one or more aspects of the educational institution and its
organisation (Kachama, 1982).
Supervision is a consciously planned programme for the
improvement and consolidation of instruction (Musaazi, 1988).
In supervision, one individual has the responsibility for
monitoring and controlling the work of others (Hoy and Miskel,
2013).
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Purpose of school supervision

 To ensure that there is effective management of education

so as to achieve the highest degree of efficiency in the
system.
 To improve feedback in the education system (feedback to
and from the ministry of education on teachers’
performance, implementation of policies, laws and
regulations of the education system.
 To give direct support to teachers so that they improve their
performance in instructional management.
 To provide in-service education to teachers through which
advice is turned into practice.
 To create a climate for constructive change through
seminars, mutual discussions, motivating actions in order
for the education system to fulfil its objectives
 To facilitate curriculum development through continuous
adaption and modification of the curriculum.
 Providing a guide for staff development.
 Determining the effectiveness of the teachers’ classroom
management.
 Determining special abilities possessed by teachers and
deciding who to be transferred retained, promoted or
disengaged.
In school-based supervision, head teachers should:
 Visit teachers in their classes regularly and discuss their
observations with them.
 Help both new and experienced teachers in planning of
schemes of work and lessons.
 Counsel and guide the teachers regularly.
 Collect teachers schemes and records of work and lesson
plans regularly and comment on them.
 Be accessible to both teachers and students and listen to
their concerns.
 Check regularly on the safety and welfare of teachers and
students.

Self Evaluation — Activity 9-a

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Describe any four personal characteristics that an effective

supervisor should possess.

Answers to this activity are at the end of this unit.

Inspection

-is defined as the specific occasion when an educational institution

is examined and evaluated as a place of learning in such a way that
advice may be given for its improvement (Kachama, 1981).

-is a process aimed at identifying strengths and weaknesses of an

educational institution so that the institution may improve the
quality of education it provides.

Types of school inspections

Under the provisions of the Education Act, the Department of

Quality Assurance previously known as Inspectorate Department
has a right of access to schools at all times for the purpose of
inspection. Inspection
(a) Inspection for getting government approval. Schools
especially new ones are inspected to ascertain their suitability. In
such cases the schools are expected to meet certain standards in
pupil enrolment, number and qualification of teachers, the school
plant (nature, suitability of buildings), equipment, curriculum etc.
Schools which are found to meet the standards are granted approval
while those that fail to meet the set requirements are ordered to
close down. If they continue to operate, they are termed
unapproved or illegal schools.
Educational Supervision and School Inspection (P
In addition, some junior secondary schools need to be upgraded to
senior secondary schools. Such schools need to be inspected in
order to find out if they are meeting the required standards.

(b) Inspection for operational improvement

The purpose of this inspection is to highlight areas of deficiency in
the system with a view of ensuring improvement. In this case an
inspector or a team of inspectors visit a school and spend 2 to 5
days examining the various aspects of the school system in
operation. They record and evaluate the staffing, student population

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and composition, the school finance, the academic programmes

(syllabus, scheme of work, written work, students’ progress
records), the tone of school, the co-curricular activities, the health
and sanitation aspects etc. The inspector(s) then hold a conference
with head teacher and staff and then return to the base to write up
reports on their findings. Such reports are valid assessments of the
school system operation since they indicate areas that merited
commendation and areas that needed attention.

(c) Inspection for programmes Recognition

The reason for this type of inspection is to get examination bodies
such as the Malawi National Examinations Board (MANEB) to
recognize and approve the school’s academic programmes. In the
case of a new school, a team of inspectors visit the affected school
and examine all the subjects in terms of quality, quantity, staffing
and equipment.

In the case of an old school that wants to present candidates in a

new subject, the inspection will be directed in that new subject with
a view of ascertaining the suitability or preparedness of the
institution.

(d) Inspection as a result of situational demand

The situational type of school inspection is carried out during a

period of crisis or emergency in a school. These may include;
student protest or riots, school – community conflicts (staff – staff,
student-staff, or staff-head teacher) or even cases of financial
impropriety or other type of misconduct. For this purpose, the
ministry sets up a panel to investigate the issue and prepare a
comprehensive report for action.

The objective of the inspection in this case, centers on the

investigation of and reporting on a specific case or situation that
the panel was set for.

(e) Full inspection

Is an inspection which is usually carried out when a group of
inspectors look into all aspects of a school. For instance, inspectors
may examine the subjects taught. While inspecting these subjects,
they take note of time tables, schemes of work, lesson preparations
and subject teaching. They find out the standard of education being
offered. Apart from the curriculum the inspectors examine the
whole organization of the school. If they find anything wrong, they
discuss ways of improving those weaknesses and give a time span
at which it should be improved.

(f) Follow-up inspection

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This is the type of inspection in which inspectors aim at finding out

the extent to which recommendations made in the previous
inspection have been implemented.
Commonly examined components of the school system
During inspection, attention is often focused on a number of
aspects of the school system to ascertain standards. These aspects
are discussed below:

i. School organization
This is the general arrangement of the human and material
resources available in the school for the attainment of educational
objectives. It is assessed during an inspection by evaluating the
school calendar, length of class periods, size of classes, student-
teacher ratio, relative location of classrooms, enrolment in the
school, general school attendance etc.

ii. School Administration

This is the implementation and facilitation of the programmes and
management of the school resources for the achievement of school
objectives. It includes the examination of issues which are related
to ministry‘s policies, minutes of meetings, financial records and
reports, internal accounting, auditing of funds, student boarding,
transportation, students’ progress reports, relationship with the
community, supervision of curricular activities etc.

iii. Personnel
Assessment of school personnel includes the examination of
number of teachers at the school, qualifications of teachers, types
of non-academic staff available, salaries, qualification of school
administrator, personnel policies, In-service training programmes,
teachers’ punctuality in school, regularity in classes etc.

iv. Pupils
Things to consider under the evaluation of pupils are issues related
to admissions, attendance, health and sanitation, promotion,
examination, progress reports, grading and reporting system to
parents and other agencies, co-curricular activities, discipline etc.

v. Programmes of Studies
The focus here is the nature and quality or adequacy of the school
programmes. This includes graduation requirements, curriculum,
instructional materials including text books, libraries, laboratories,
teaching loads, distribution of subjects, subject allocation,
regularity of teaching, methods of classroom and or laboratory
operations etc.

vi. Plant and Equipment

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In assessing school plants and equipment the following are taken

into account: site, situation and location of school blocks,
construction of school blocks, sanitation, ventilation and general
hygienic conditions in the block, equipment, lighting,
administrative space, classroom space, space for co-curricular
activities, maintenance services, security services etc.
Educational Supervision and School Inspection
The above list is merely a collection of the type and nature of the
issues examined in school inspection. It is by no means exhaustive.
Furthermore, issues examined in school inspection may change
from time to time depending on changing government policies. For
instance, there was a time when inspectors went into schools to
examine Education levy receipts. We also go into schools to find
out the number of students who have or have not paid school fees.

Self Evaluation — Activity 9-b

Which of the types of inspection discussed in this unit, was
done by the Ministry of Education in Malawi before schools re-
opened from the Covid-19 Pandemic closure in 2020. Explain
your answer.

Answers to this activity are at the end of this unit.

Differences between Inspection and Supervision

At a glance, you may take it that Inspection and Supervision are the
same but they are different in practice.

Inspection focuses on monitoring and evaluation of performance.

It seeks to answer the question: how well is the school performing
in relation to the set standards. The result of inspection is thus a
normative statement about how well the school or the individual
is doing.

Supervision focuses on improving performance so as to produce or

accelerate development. It seeks to answer the question: what are
the schools or individual teacher’s strengths and weaknesses and
how can they be improved? Thus, supervision aims at maintaining
and improving performance.

Inspection is usually carried out by external agents or departments

while Supervision is usually carried out by an internal agent (the
head teacher) and heads of departments.

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Inspection aims at changing the factors affecting the behaviour of

the teacher while supervision aims at changing the instructional
practice, methods and techniques affecting teaching and learning.

Inspection is less frequent while supervision is frequently practiced

and is an integral part of all school activities ranging from
curricular, co-curricular and extra-curricular activities.

Inspection is usually done as a team while supervision is done

individually such as by a head teacher alone.

Similarities between Inspection and Supervision

The two concepts are similar in that they all aim at:
i. Improving academic performance in schools.
ii. Ensuring the achievement of the academic goals of the
school.

Within our school community we foster and nurture ethical

behaviour. Self-discipline and respect for others and their
property is expected and encouraged by the school community.
We prepare our children for the world of today.

Hands On Activity
Assume that you are an official of the Ministry of Education
involved in the selection of new inspectors of education. What
are the qualifications and personal attributes that you would
look for in the candidates?

Self Evaluation — Activity 9-c

Why is follow up inspection necessary in schools?

Answers to this activity are at the end of this unit.

Group Activity
In your groups, discuss the advantages and disadvantages of
school Inspection. In your opinion, explain why most head
teachers hate to be inspected?

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Consult with Community

Attend a parent-teacher association meeting in your school and
determine whether in their discussions they indicated any plan
of inspecting the school.

Performance appraisal

Closely related to the concepts of Inspection and Supervision in

formal organizations such as a school, is the idea about
Performance Appraisals. Performance Appraisal is the process of
reviewing an individuals performance and competence and
identifying and assessing individuals professional needs (MOEST,
2005:23). The process of performance appraisal involves the
judgmental evaluation of a jobholders traits, behavior or
accomplishments as a basis for making important personnel
decisions (Kreitner and Kinicki, 1992:482). These decisions
include salary adjustments, performance feedback, identifying
individual strengths and weaknesses, documenting personnel
decisions, recognition of individual performance, promotion,
retention or termination of personnel and evaluating goal
achievement. According to Thomson and Mabey (1994),
performance appraisal system began in America and was
introduced in United Kingdom in 1980s.

Components of performance appraisal

Performance Appraisal process has got four components which are

the Appraiser, Appraisee, Appraisal method and Outcomes of the
Appraisal.
a. The Appraiser is the person making the evaluation. This
includes; managers such as Head teachers, Heads of
Departments, Primary Education Advisors (PEAs) and
Senior Education Methods Advisors (SEMAs).
b. The Appraisee is the person being evaluated by the
Appraiser (Bernardin and Beatty, 1984). In a school setting
an Appraisee can be a teacher who is being evaluated.

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c. The Appraisal method is the criteria or strategy that has

been used to assign numerical value to performance in
terms of criterion of effectiveness such as quantity, quality,
timeless and so on. Agere and Jorm (2000) argue that after
an organization has determined its aggregate human
resource needs and specific tasks to be performed through a
job analysis, it must formulate a specific strategy for
measuring performance within the organization.
d. Outcomes of the appraisal. For performance appraisal
system to be more successful, Appraise need to have a feed
back on the performance appraisal process which took
place. According to Kreitner and Kinicki (1992) a research
from the centre for creative leadership in America, had
indicated three indicators of useful performance appraisal.
These are timely feedback on performance, input for key
personnel decisions and individual and organizational
planning tool.

Appraisal methods

According to Kreitner and Kinicki (1992:12) Appraisal methods

take four distinct approaches which are; Trait, Behavioural, Results
and Contingency Approaches.
 Trait Approach involves rating an individual’s personal
traits or characteristics. Commonly assessed traits are;
initiative, decisiveness and dependability (Kreitner and
Kinicki, 1992). Although trait approach is widely used by
managers, it is generally considered to be the weakest
because it is ambiguous relative to actual performance of an
individual. For instance, rating someone low on initiative
tells her or him nothing about how to improve his or her job
performance. Also, appraisees tend to react defensively to
feed back about their personality (who or what they are).
 Behavioural Approach is basically about how the person
actually behaves rather than his or her personality at work.
Overall, the behavioural approach emerges as the strongest.
However, it is said to be subject to situational limitations
such as when employees with dissimilar jobs are being
evaluated for promotions.
 Results approach focuses on the product of ones efforts. It
is concerned with the results of work performance which
include planning and review. It mainly focuses on what an
employee produces. In other words, it is about what an
individual has accomplished. Kreitner and Kinicki (1992)
call this management by objectives (MBO).
 Contingency is another approach that is used in evaluating
employees in performance appraisal. A pair of performance

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appraisal experts has called the traits behavioural results

controversy a Pseudo issue. It is contended that each
approach has its own appropriate use depending on the
demands of the situation. Thus, it recommends a
contingency approach. For instance, trait approach is not
appropriate in situations where promotion has to be made
for candidates with dissimilar jobs. On the other hand,
although results approach may be widely used, it is limited
by its failure to specify why the appraisee’s objectives have
not been met. As such contingency approach proves to be
the suitable approach in such situations.

Challenges of using Appraisal system

Challenges in performance appraisal system are many. Among

others, appraisers typically rate same race or tribe appraisees
higher. According to Kreitner and Kinicki (1992), a meta-analysis
of fourteen studies and 17,159 individuals which some researchers
did in USA in 1982, revealed that white supervisors tended to
favour white subordinates. Similarly black supervisors tended to
favour black subordinates.
Furthermore, performance appraisers tend to give poor performers
significantly higher ratings when they have to give the appraisees
face to face feedback as opposed to anonymous written feedback or
no feedback.
In addition, whether pay and promotions are tied to the
Performance Appraisal or not, employees who perform well expect
to be rewarded.
Finally, decisions made basing on the results of performance
appraisal can sometimes be challenged in court (Bernadin and
Beatty, 1984). For instance, if appraisals are used to promote
people, to fire people, to select people for training or as a basis for
merit payment, the appraisal system and the resultant data may be
subject to court scrutiny. The courts may also examine appraisals
when they are used as criteria in an empirical validation study.
Thus, whether the appraisals are designed to predict future
behaviour such as to assess past behaviour for deciding merit pay
or as a validation criterion, they may be examined critically and
carefully by courts when there are allegations of discrimination. As
such, it is advisable for the appraisers to display high levels of
professional integrity in order to make valid decisions. It is argued
that comprehensive appraiser training and practice is needed before
Performance Appraisal Approach System (PAAS) is introduced
into an organization. This can help to reduce rater errors (Kreitner
and Kinicki, 1992:16).

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Steps in designing effective performance appraisal

measurement

In an attempt to design an effective and meaningful Performance

Appraisal Measurement, there are stages and steps that have to be
taken into account.
a. Review of the goals and objectives.
There need to be a review of the goals and objectives of the
organization and the diagnostic evaluation of the practices,
procedures, structures and systems that would have to be
conducted in order to determine the areas to be measured.
The identified areas assist in determining the methodology,
tools, time and resources to be used in the selection of
performance indicators (Agere and Jorm, 2000).
b. Selection of indicators.
Indicators which are appropriate to the objectives of the
organization need to be selected. At this stage, it is
necessary to assess the relevance of the performance
measures which have to be changed in order to achieve
what is desirable.
c. Prepare in advance the mechanism for overcoming the
barriers.
There need to be a mechanism of overcoming the barriers to
the implementation of the Performance Measures.
According to Bernadin and Beatty (1984), in designing the
instruments, it is advisable to assess the pitfalls and
minimize the risks and barriers to performance
measurement. More importantly, it is necessary to establish
a system of measurement which aligns personal
performance to organization’s initiatives in order to see
their contribution to the goals that have been agreed upon.
d. Periodic interpretation of data.
There need to be a periodic interpretation of the data in
order to determine areas that need improvement and decide
on the best way of using the findings to drive further
change. It is underscored those problems of the system are
easily solved if they are dealt with well in advance rather
than when they go out of hand (Mbiti, 1989). As such,
Appraisers need to critically analyze the data each time they
collect it in order to trace any possible occurrence of latent
consequences.
Therefore, it can be argued that just like any other organizational
change, time needs to be allowed for communication and
acceptance of proposals by the employees. Employees need to be
fully informed of how changes; such as reward systems, are going
to affect them personally. Managers may need to be trained in

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objective setting and performance measurement as well as record

keeping (Thomson and Mabey, 1994).

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Reflection
Having gone through this module can you think of other forms
of ensuring quality education that are not mentioned in this
unit but are prevalent in schools?

Unit Test

1. Describe any four qualities of an effective supervisor.

2. Why is it difficult to inspect all the schools every year?
3. Explain why head teachers in schools should frequently
supervise teachers and their lessons?
4. Explain any three importance of using Performance Appraisals
in schools.

You will find the answers to the unit test at the end of this unit.

Answers to Unit 9 Activities

Answers to Self Evaluation Activity 9-a

Personal characteristics for an effective supervisor are:
(i). Sociability
(ii). Patience
(iii). Enthusiasm
(iv). Sincerity
(v). Humour

Answers to Practice Activity 9-b

Types of inspection which the Ministry of Education did before
schools re-opened from the Covid-19 Pandemic closure in 2020:
(i). Inspection as a result of situational demand.
Inspection was carried out following a crisis. For this
reason, the ministry set up a panel to investigate the
environment in schools and establish if it was safe to re-
open schools in the country.

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(ii). Full Inspection. This was aimed at finding out

the teacher pupil ratio, school preparedness for re-opening
and availability of Personal Protective Equipments (PPEs)
and infrastructure in order to ascertain their capacity to
decongest the classrooms.

Answers to Self Evaluation Activity 9-c

Follow up inspection is necessary in schools because:
(i) Helps to find out the extent to which recommendations
made in the previous inspection have been implemented.
(ii) It helps to apply necessary measures such as postings or
demotions if recommendations are not met.
(iii). It helps to rescind some of the decisions if it is found out
that there is adherence to recommendations

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Answers to Unit Test

1. Qualities of an effective supervisor are
i. An effective supervisor should be sociable
ii. An effective supervisor should be patient
iii. An effective supervisor should be sincere and tactful
iv. An effective supervisor should be zeal and
enthusiastic
v. An effective supervisor should be eager and willing
to help others.

2. It is difficult to inspect all the schools every year because

i. There are no enough inspectors to do the work.
ii. There are no enough resources for the activity.
iii. There are so many schools to be inspected.
iv. Some schools are not easily accessible.

3. Head teachers in schools should frequently supervise

teachers and their lessons because;
i. In order to identify areas, the school need for
In- service training programmes.
ii. In order to identify areas where the school is
doing well and finding ways of maintaining them.
iii. In order to find out the materials the school is
in need of in order to maintain the education
standards.
iv. To find out challenges teachers are
encountering in their lessons.

Importance of Performance Appraisals

(i). It promotes a hard working spirit among workers.
(ii). It helps to promote workers based on their actual
performance and personal initiative.
(iii). Acts as a tool for identifying needs of the workers
such as training.

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Module Test

1. With reference to the functioning of the school, explain the

distinction between the term administration and management?
2. Explain how human resources theory has influenced activities
of school administration in Malawi
3. Explain the importance of the following in resource
management in schools
(i) planning
(ii) coordination
4. In what way does a school Head teacher
(i) abuse power?
(ii) misuse power?
5. Explain why a school Head teacher may be a very effective
administrator in one school and not in another.
6. Explain why decision-making can be considered to be the
central function of leadership in organizations
7. Explain how teachers contribute to pupil indiscipline in schools
8. Suggest three ways in which the Ministry of Education in
Malawi can attract more people to join the teaching profession

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Glossary

A Administration: Formalized system which is intended to

plan, control, supervise and make decisions about various
activities of an Organization based on established authority.
Administrative authority: The mode that stresses that
decision-making in any organization should be completely
rational.
Authority: Right conferred on an individual to make
decisions on behalf of the organization.
C Communication: Transmission of information from the
source to the receiver through a medium.
E Education Act: The law that governs all the necessary
aspects of education in a country.
Education Policy: Specific and general procedures that
govern all aspects of education in a country.
Educational Development: Qualitative and quantitative
expansion of the education system.
Educational management: Effective use of resources
available to achieve educational goals.
F Formal organizations: Organizations whose membership
and activities are governed by specified rules, regulations
and set procedures which direct the behaviour of members.
G Guidance and Counselling: A helping relationship
between a counsellor and a client where the later is assisted
to come up with informed decisions pertaining to
encountered problem.
H Horizontal dimension: Divisions, branches, subsidiaries or
affiliates of an organization.
Human Resource: Recognition of human potential and
develop those potentials through training.
I Idiographic: Consists of the individual personality and
need dispositions. It is the human side of an organization.
Informal organization: Social cliques or groups which
develop within formal organizations in order to fulfil
individual social needs.
Inspection: A process aimed at identifying strengths and
weaknesses of an educational institution so that the
institution may improve the quality of education it provides.
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Inspector: Is an adviser and guider to teachers on matters

concerning quality of education in schools.
L Leadership: Ability or skill of an individual person to
influence others to work towards the achievement of
organizational goals.

Line Position: Constitute the main chain of command in an

organization. Tasks directly related to the principal work
flow of an organization.
M Machine Metaphor: A concept which means that in order
to increase efficiency and productivity in an industry,
workers must be programmed to work like machines.
Management: Mobilization and optimum use of resources
for the achievement of maximum results of an organization.
N Negotiation: Looking for a middle ground, trade off and
searching for solutions that are satisfactory and acceptable
to both parties in a conflict (Striking a balance).
Nomothetic: Comprises the institutions, roles and
expectations of formal organizations. It is the work side of
an organization.
Norm conflict: Arising from train or tension between
informal patterns of behaviour (norms).
O Open environment: Environment influenced by both
internal and external factors.
Organization: A social structure in which two or more
persons work together in a coordinated manner to achieve a
common purpose/goal.
Organizational conflict: Difference or conflict that occurs
within organizations due to individual differences in
personality, values, perceptions, interests and attitudes.
Organizational structure: operational structure or
bureaucratic structure showing chain of command from the
top most officer to the lowest officer.
P Personality conflict: Arises from the incompatibility in the
needs structure of an individual.
Policy: General and specific procedures which guide the
administrative machinery of the organization.
Power: The capacity to use force.
Punishment: Infliction of pain and fear in an attempt to
bring about desirable behaviour.
R Records management: The act of keeping track of data,
money and other important information.
Resources: Materials, supply of goods, etc which a person,
organization or a country can use.
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Reward: A prize or gift given to induce good behaviour.

Role conflict: Conflicts or pressure arising as a result of
one’s formal position and the expectations associated with
one’s formal position.
S Satisfying strategy: The searching of satisfactory
alternative solution to a problem.
School climate: The persisting quality of organizational
life that distinguishes one organization from the other and
influence the behaviour of its members.
School culture: A collection of behavioural patterns or
norms which spell out clearly the behaviours which are
acceptable and those which are not.
Staff position: Constituting or offer support and advice to
individuals in the main chain of command.
Supervision: Activity of quality control, ensuring that
subordinates are discharging their responsibilities in
accordance with rules and regulations, set procedures and
standards.
T Teacher motivation: rewards, conducive environment,
good social relationships which enable a teacher to work
effectively.
Time and motion studies: Means organizations should use
time and other resources efficiently and effectively.
Trait-situation dilemma: The argument whether
leadership skills are hereditary or acquired.
V Vertical dimension: levels comprising a hierarchy of
authority in an organization extending from the top position
down to the lowest worker.

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