CONTENT

CHAPTER CONTENT PAGE NO.

I INTRODUCTION 2

II
PRELIMNARIES 4

APPLICATIONS FOR
III MATHEMATICS ON LIFE 7
SCIENCE

IV MATHEMATICAL PATTERNS IN 22
NATURE

V CONCLUSION 42

VI
BIBLIOGRAPHY 43

1
 CHAPTER - I

1.1 INTRODUCTION:

Mathematical biology is the study & biological system & using mathematical.

Models equations’ and computational techniques to understand explain and predict biological

phenomena. It ads a bridge between biology and Mathematics. Also known as

Biomathematics. Is an interdisciplinary field that uses mathematical techniques and models to

understand and describe biologycal system It connects biology with mathematics, providing

tools to analyze the complexity of living organisms and their interactions. Basic tools, and

Techniques,

1.1.1 Main Areas of study:

1. population dynamics.

2. Epidemilogy

3. Cell and molecular biology

4. Ganetics

5. Ecology

6. Bio mechanics

7. Neuroscience
1.1.2 Tools:

1. Differential Equations.

2. Diffusion Equations.

3. Probability and Statistics.

4. Computational Simulations.

5. Network Theory.

Ex:

Lotka – Volter model,

SIR model.

In chapter 1: Introduction.
In chapter 2: Preliminaries.
In chapter 3: Applications of Mathematics life science.
In chapter 4: Mathematical patterns in nature.
In chapter 5: Conclusion
In chapter 6: Bibliography
 CHAPTER - II
PRELIMNARIES:

2.1 Definition :

Mathematical biology is the application of mathematical models, theories, and

computational methods to understand biological systems. It connects biology (life sciences)

with mathematics (analysis, equations, statistics, computation) to explain natural processes.

Why Mathematics in Biology?

Biology has complex systems (cells, organs, ecosystems).Experiments give data, but

math helps to: Describe the system clearly (models). Predict future [Link]

hidden mechanisms. Control diseases, populations, and reactions.

2.2 Areas of Application:

Cell Biology: Cell division, signaling, cancer Modeling.

Epidemiology: Disease spread (COVID-19, malaria).

Ecology: Population and ecosystems.

Genetics: Gene expression, evolution.

Neuroscience: Neural networks, brain signals.

Physiology: Heart rhythms, respiration.

3.1 APPLICATION FOR MATHEMATICS IN LIFE SCIENCE:

* Population Growth & Ecology.

*Disease Modelling

* Genetics And Heredity

*Mathematical Tools In Synthetic Biology

3.1.1 MATHEMATICAL MODELS IN BIOLOGY:

* Epidemic (COVID-19)
* Tumour Growth

* Genetic Variation

*Drug Dosage.

3.1.2 EQUATION OF LIFE:

* Mathematics As The Language Of Biology

* Ecosystem Balance Model

* Human Physiology Mathematical Models.

3.1.3 ANALYSING LIFE THROUGH NUMBERS:

• Real-World Application
 • Big Data And Artificial Intelligence In Mathematical Biology.

3.1.4 THE SCIENCE OF LIFE IN EQUATION:

• Logistic Growth And Limit – Deform (1-Mic)

• Enzyme Kinetics. Michalis – Meden Equation.
• Climate-Biosphere Interaction- Feedback Equation.

3.1.5 MATHEMATICS BEHIND BIOLOGICAL PROCESS:

*Cell Growth And Decay

*Biomechanics

*Blood Flow Dynamics

3.1.6 MATHEMATICS IN ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION:

• Food Web And Tropic Interaction Models.

Competition Models.

Mathematics In Life Science Is Like A Microscope For Patterns – It Helps Us Measure,

Predict, And Control Biological, Epidemiology, And Biotechnology.

POPULATION GROWTH ECOLOGY

Mathematics Helps Predict How Populations Of Organisms Change Over Time.

 Example: Logistic Growth Model.
dp/dt =rp(1-p/k)

P-Population size.

R-growth rate,

K-carrying capacity.

DISEASE MODELING
Mathematics predict disease spread and haps plan intervention.

Example:- SIR Model.

2R/dt ® = rI

I = Infected individuals

R = Recovered individuals

B= Infection rate

r= Recovery rate

GENETICS AND HERIDETY

P ^ 2 + 2pq + q ^ 2 = 1

Purpose: predict genetic trait distribution.

Tools:-

• Mendelian probability (Punnett Squares)

• Hardy-Weinberg principle!

Physiology and Medicine

*Purpose: Model biology functions and medical treatments.

*Example:-

*Blood Circulation (fluid dynamic)

*Drug dosage modelling (pharmacokinetic)

Tools:-

C(t) = Coo–kt

STATICAL MODELS FOR GENE EXPRESSIONS

ANAlYSIS

Refers to the process by which the information Strode in a gene is used to produce a functional
product. Such as a protein or RNA, with in a Cell.
Used:-
*ANOVA (Analysis of variance) – compares gene Depression difference across multiple
samples.
*t-Tots-compares expression levels between two group (e.g.)

Tools:-

t-Test Equation

*X1,X2mean expression level of the gone in group 1and 2

LINEAR CORROSION MODEL FOR GENE EXPRESSION

A simple statistical model for predating gone expression level (y) based on one or more factors:

MATHEMATICAL TOOLS IN SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY

*Modelling Genetic Circuits

Mathematical models describe how genes turn on/off and interact.

Example equation

dP/dt = α – βP
 3.2 Equations of life :

Equation of life are mathematical expressions often in the form of differential equations,

algebraic relations, or statistical models, that represent key process of life such as growth

reproduction competition, predation, disease transmission molecular intersection and

physiological regulation.

EX:

Logistic growth equation Lotka-Volterra predator- prey models. SIR epidemic

equations, Michaelis – Menten enzyme kinetics, reaction – diffusion system.

Population - Dynamics:

𝑑𝑁
Exponential growth 𝑑𝑡= rN

r-intrinsic growth Rate

𝑑𝑁 𝑁
Logistic Growth 𝑑𝑡=rN (1-𝑘)

Epidemiology:

𝑑𝑆
𝑑𝑡= -βSI
SIR model

Biochemical Reaction

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥[𝑠]
𝐾𝑚+[𝑠]
Michaelis – Menten Enzyme Kinetics V=
 Fig. 3.2.1

Fig 3.2

Mass action law for reaction

𝑑[𝐴]
𝑑𝑡=-k[A][B]

Diffusion & Transport:

Fick’s Second Law 𝑑𝑡= DΔ2c

Reaction – Diffusion Equation

𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑡= Du𝛥2u + f(u, v)

3. Neural & Physiological Models:

Hodgkin – Huxley Newton Model

Cm𝑑𝑡= -gNam3h(V-VNa) – gkn4(V-Vk) – gL(V-VL) + I

Allometric Scalling B = B0M2/4

Spread of Diseases (SIR Model):

Fig. 3.2.2
𝒅𝑺 𝑑𝑅
𝒅𝒕= -βSI 𝑑𝑡= γI

S→susceptible

I→Infected

R→recovered

β→infection rate

γ→recovery rate
3.2.1 Quantitative Methods for biological systems :

If Mathematical, statistical, and Computational approaches used to describe.

Analyze, and predict the behaviour of living systems. They help transform biological

questions into measurable and analyzable problems, enabling deeper understanding and better

decision-making. In research, medicine, ecology, and biotechnology.

[Link] Modelling:

Deterministic models:

predict exact outcomes for given input. Ordinary Differential Equations (ODE) for

enzyme kinetics or populations growth.

Logistic growth model:

dN/dt =N(1-N/K)
Ex:

Birth-death process in population Biology.

[Link] Methods:

Descriptive statistics:

Mean, Variance, standard deviation for Summarizing data.

Hypothesis testing:

t-tests, ANOVA for comparing groups.

Regression analysis:

Predicting relationships between biological Variables.

(Ex: growth rate is temprature)

Survival analysis:

For life span or time-to-event studies in clinical trails.

[Link] simulation:

Numerical methods to simulate Complex biological system & that are hand to solve
analytically.

Agent-based models:

Simulate interactions of individual organisms or calls.

Finite element analysis:

For biomechanics (blood flow, tissue deformation).

Monte carlo simulations:

To model random process in molecular bilogy.

[Link] Biology Approaches:

Integration of quantitative methods. To study networks and interactions.

Network analysis:

Gene regulatory networks. Protein – portion interaction networks.

Flux balance analysis (FBA):

Predicts metabolic rates using linear optimization.

[Link]-Series Analysis:

Used for biological signals and rhythms.

Fourier analysis:
Identifying periodic Components in ECG or circadian rhythms.

Autoregressive models:

Forecasting Populations change or epidemics.

[Link] and control Theory:

Applied in biotechnology, medicine and eco system management.

optimal control:

Finding dang dosage schedules for treatment.

Resource allocation models:

For Conservation biology.

[Link] Learning & AI:

Classification:

Disease diagnosis from medical images.

Prediction:

LProtein structure prediction (eg: AlphaFold)

clustering:

Identifying subgroup in genetic data.

3.2.2 From theory to Biologycal reality:

In mathematical biology, the journey goes from abstract mathematical theory to real-

world real bilogical application. This process transforms equations and models into tools that

help us understand living systems.

[Link] into a Mathematical Model:

Identity variables:

(Eg number of infected people, population size)

Parameters:

(Eg. Birth rate, infection rate)

[Link] the Model:

Solve questions or simulations. Looks for steady states, growth patterns, so tipping Points.

Use tools. Like calculus, linear algebra or Statistics.

3. Compare with Biological Data:

Collect experimental or observational data (field studies, lab experiments’, clinical

reports).Check if the model’s predictions match reality.

CHAPTER-4
4.1 Mathematical Patterns In Nature.

4.1.1 Symmetry

Definition:

Occurs when an object is balanced or identical on different sides of a line or

point.

Types:

➢Mirror (Bilateral) Symmetry: An object is divided into two identical

halves by a central line (e.g., a butterfly).

➢Radial Symmetry: Lines of Symmetry intersect at a central point (e.g., a

starfish or daisy).

➢Examples:

➢Butterfly: Shows bilateral symmetry, where a single line divides it into two

mirror-image halves.

➢Flower: Exhibits radial symmetry, meaning it can be divided into identical

halves by multiple lines passing through a central point.

➢Starfish: Also demonstrates radial symmetry, with multiple lines of

symmetry radiating from its center.

➢Crab: Similar to the butterfly, it displays bilateral symmetry with a single

line dividing it into two symmetrical halves.

➢Tiger: Like the butterfly and crab, the tiger’s face shows bilateral symmetry,

with a central line creating two nearly identical halves.

Figure 4.1.1
4.1.2 Fibonacci Sequence and Golden Ratio

The Fibonacci se-quence appears in nature as patterns of efficient growth and ar-

rangement, notably in the number of petals on flowers (3, 5, 8, 13), the spiral
arrangement of seeds in sunflowers and pinecones, the branching of trees, and the

struc-ture of nautilus shells and pine-apples. These patterns emerge not from

Figure.4.1.2

conscious intent, but because they represent the most efficient way to pack

elements into a space, maximizing exposure to sunlight or utilizing available area,

leading to the sequence and its related golden ratio.

• Plant Petals: Many flowers have a number of petals that are Fibonacci

numbers, such as lilies with 3 petals, buttercups with 5, and daisies with

21 or 34 petals.

• Seeds in Sunflowers: The seeds on a sunflower head are arranged in

two sets of spirals, one clockwise and one counterclockwise, with the

number of spirals in each set often being consecutive Fibonacci numbers

(e.g., 34 and 55).

• Pinecones: Similar to sunflowers, the scales or bracts on a pinecone are

arranged in interlocking spirals that frequently correspond to Fibonacci

numbers.

• Pineapples: The hexagonal fruitlets of a pineapple form spirals, and

counting these spirals often yields Fibonacci numbers.

 • Leaf Arrangements: The way leaves are arranged on a stem, known as

phyllotaxis, often follows a pattern that uses Fibonacci numbers to

maximize light exposure for each leaf.

• Branching of Trees: The branching of trees can also exhibit Fibonacci

patterns, with the number of branches at each level following the

sequence.

4.1.3 Why these patterns occur

• Efficiency:

The most common explanation is that these arrangements are the most efficient

way for plants to grow and back things like seeds into a limited [Link] these

patterns occur

• Natural Selection:

Through random mutation and natural selection, plants that develop these more

efficient growth patterns are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on these

advantageous traits to their offspring.

 • The Golden Ratio:

The Fibonacci sequence is closely related to the golden ratio (approximately

1.618). As the sequence progresses, the ratio of consecutive numbers approaches

the golden ratio. This mathematical relationship contributes to the pleasing and

organized spiral patterns observed in nature.

• How the formula works:

[Link] with the base cases: You need the first two numbers in the sequence to

begin.

• Fo = 0

• F₁ = 1

[Link] the formula to find subsequent numbers:

• For F2: F2 = F₁ + F = 1 + 0 = 1

• For F3: F3 = F2 + F₁ = 1 + 1 = 20

• For F4: F4 = F3 + F2 = 2 + 1 = 3

• And so on…

This process generates the sequence: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34… and so on,

extending infinitely.
4.1.4 Spirals

A spiral is a curve that moves away from a central point as it revolves around it.

This fundamental pattern appears everywhere in the universe, from galaxies and

hurricanes to seashells and the double helix of DNA. In art, architecture, and

mathematics, spirals hold both aesthetic and symbolic significance, representing

growth, infinity, and cyclical time.

Figure.4.1.4

Types of spirals

There are many kinds of spirals, defined by their unique mathematical properties.
Planar (2D) spirals

• Archimedean spiral (r = a + b): The distance between each turn

remains constant. An example is a coiled rope or the grooves on a

vinyl record.
• Logarithmic spiral (r = aeb®): The coils get progressively farther

apart by a consistent ratio, increasing in a geometric progression.

Many natural growth patterns, like those in a nautilus shell, follow

this form.
• Golden spiral: A special type of logarithmic spiral where the growth

factor is the golden ratio ($ ≈1.618).

• Fibonacci spiral: An approximation of the golden spiral, constructed

by drawing quarter-circle arcs inside a sequence of squares based on

Fibonacci numbers (1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8…).

• Hyperbolic spiral (r = a/0): This spiral approaches a central point

from infinity as it revolves.

• Fermat’s spiral (r = 01/2): Starts at the origin and has two opposing

branches.
Three-dimensional (3D) spirals

• Helix: A three-dimensional spiral that winds around a central axis, like the

thread of a screw or a DNA strand. A conical spring is an example of a

conical helix, where the loops get progressively wider.

4.1.5 Spirals in nature

Spirals are a common motif in the natural world, often emerging as an efficient

way for organisms to grow and occupy space.

• Celestial bodies: Galaxies like the Milky Way are vast logarithmic spirals of

stars, dust, and gas.

• Weather systems: The swirling Patterns of hurricanes and other vortexes are

logarithmic spirals driven by physical forces.

• Plants: The arrangement of seeds in a sunflower head, florets in broccoli,

and the pattern of a pinecone all follow a spiral based on the Fibonacci

sequence. Fiddlehead ferns also unfurl in a spiral.

 • Animals: Mollusk shells, such as those of the nautilus, grow in a logarithmic

spiral. The spiraling horns of a ram and the shape of a chameleon’s tail are

other examples.

Chameleon’s tail are other examples.

• Microstructures: The DNA moleculeItself is a three-dimensional double

helix.

Spirals in art and architecture

The spiral’s aesthetic and symbolic power has inspired creators for centuries.

• Ancient art: The spiral is one of the oldest symbols found in megalithic art,

representing concepts like the cycle of life, death, and rebirth.

• Infinity: The repeating, seemingly endless nature of the spiral can symbolize

eternity or the boundless universe.

 Figure 4.1.5

4.1.6 Tessellation

A tessellation or tiling is the covering of a surface, often a plane, using one or

more geometric shapes, called tiles, with no overlaps and no gaps. In mathematics,

tessellation can be generalized to higher dimensions and a variety of geometries. A

periodic tiling has a repeating pattern

4.1.7 Types of Tessellations

Regular Tessellations:

These are created using only one type of regular polygon that can tile a plane (e.g.,

squares, equilateral triangles, hexagons).

Irregular Tessellations:

These utilize two or more different types of polygons.

 Semi-regular Tessellations:A specific type of irregular tessellation where the

arrangement of polygons is uniform Use two or more different types of polygons.

Figure 4.1.7
4.2 MATHEMATICS IN ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION

Mathematics in ecology and evolution refers to the use of mathematical

models and quantitative methods to study.
• Population growth and decline
• Species interaction

𝑑𝑥𝐴=
𝜋𝑟2
• Spread of diseases
• Evolutionary dynamics (Natural selection, mutation , genetic drift )
Ex :
Mathematics in Ecology :
𝑑𝑁
𝑑𝑡= 𝑟𝑁

𝑑𝑁
𝑑𝑡= 𝑟𝑁( 1- N/K )

Mathematical framework to model trait evolution with in ecological systems

4.2.1 Population Growth Models (Ecology )

Exponential Growth :

𝒅𝑵
𝒅𝒕= 𝑟𝑁

• N = Population size
• r = Intrinsic growth rate

Example : Bacteria in a nutrient - rich environment grow exponentially at first .

• Logistic Growth :
𝑑𝑁
𝑑𝑡=
𝑟𝑁(1- N/K )
• K= Carrying capacity (Maximum population the environmental can support)
Example :

Deer population in a forest grows until food / resources limit further growth .

4.2.2 Predator - prey Dynamics (Ecology )

Latke - Volterra Equations:

𝑑𝑁
𝑑𝑡= 𝑟𝑁−𝑎𝑁𝑃

Franc {𝑑𝑝} {𝑑𝑡} = baNp - mp where

• N = Prey population (e.g. ,rabbits )

• P = Predator population (e.g. , foxes)
• a = Predation rate
• b = Convercation efficiency
• m = predation death rate.

Examples : Oscillation in here and lynx population in Canada ..

4.2.3 Evolutionary Game Theory (Evolution )

• Hawk - Dove Game

Uses pay off matrices to explain strategies in competition

• Hawks fight aggressively .

• Doves retread .

Equil 𝑎2+ 𝑏2= 𝑐2ibrium can be calculated using probability of winning vs

cost of fighting .

Example : Explains why not all animals fight to the death for resource .
4.2.4 Hardy - Weinberg principle (Evolution )
• Equation :
𝑷2+ 2𝑝𝑞+ 𝑞2= 𝑞2= 1

• 𝑝2+ 2pq + q2= 1, predicts stable allele and genotype frequencies under
4.2.5 Hardy -Weinberg Equilibrium

no evolution .

• Gomes Theory in Evolution

Models like hawk - Dove show how strategies evolve and in stabilize in
population .

Markov Engines in Evolution

Used to model mutation pathways and probability of allete fixation

Disunion and Dispersal mod :

partial differential equation model how species spread across landscapes .

Phylogenetic Tree Construction

Mathematical algorithms (maximum like hood , Bayesian inference )

estimate evolution .
 8.1 Analysis life through numbers
4.2.6 Biological Life:

• Age & growth : Life expectancy , average lifespan , growth rate of human .
• Health Metrics : Blood pressure heartbeat per minute , calorie intake , etc.
• Genetic : DNA sequences expressed as long numerical codes .

4.2.7 Daily Life:

• Time : 24 hours, 7days,12 moths- strutting life with number.
• money: income, expenses, saving investment.
• work& productivity: hours worked efficiency percentages, goals
achieved.

4.2.8 Social & Psychological Aspects

• Happiness & well - being; measured in serves with scales (1-10 happiness
index)
• population & society: birth rates, death rates literacy percentages
• Relationships! Social media connection network size.

4.2.9 Science & Environment:

• Ecology: population dynamic , extinction rates, climate change data.
• physics of life : Energy consumption , metabolic rates , Newton’s bus
in motion .
• Technology& Data : internet usage ,number of device per person ,
data storage .
4.2.10 Philosophical view :
some say “ life is a number game” because :

• Success is often quantified (marks, money, achievements )

• Time itself is a number (seconds ticking away)
• Even emotion are being studied through data analytics.
•
1. Life in 24 Hours (Numbers) :

• 8 Hours - sleep
• 8-9 Hours- work /Study
• 2 Hours - Eating
• 1 Hour - travel / commute
• 5.2-3 hours - family, friends, entertainment

2. Number of life :

• Life plan : Average 70 - 80 years

• Heartbreak: About 100,000 beats per day
• Breathing: Around 20,000 breaths per day
• Steps: Average 5,000 - 10,000 steps per day
 Sales
personal time42
4%
family friend
13%

travel
sleep 4%
33%
Eating
8%

work/study
38%