ESM 328 MODULE 1

MODULE 1

Unit 1 Concept of Biological Diversity

Unit 2 Economic, Ecological and Social Values of Biological
Resources
Unit 3 Biodiversity Loss and Extinctions
Unit 4 Biodiversity Conservation Methods
Unit 5 Protocol on Biodiversity Conservation

UNIT 1 CONCEPT OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 A Objectives
B How to Study this Unit
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of biodiversity
3.2 Magnitude of Species
3.3 Types of Species
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Global biodiversity is changing at an unprecedented rate as a complex

response to several human-induced changes in the global environment.
The magnitude of this change is very large and very strongly linked to
ecosystem processes and society’s use of natural resources that
biodiversity change is now considered an important global change in its
own right. The definition of biodiversity in this course include all
terrestrial and freshwater organisms-including plants, animals, and
microbes-at scales ranging from genetic diversity within populations, to
species diversity, to community diversity across landscapes. The
definition excludes exotic organisms that have been introduced and
communities such as agricultural fields that are maintained by regular
human intervention. We do not consider marine systems in this study.
This unit therefore, defines and considers the dimension of biological
diversity (Fauna and Flora).

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2.0 A: OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define biodiversity;
 state the magnitude of species on the earth;
 describe the types of species; and
 explain why some communities are more diverse than the others.

2.0 B: HOW TO STUDY THIS UNIT

1. You are expected to read carefully, through this unit twice before
attempting to answer the activity questions. Do not look at the
solution or guides provided at the end of the unit until you are
satisfied that you have done your best to get all the answers.
2. Share your difficulties in understanding the unit with your mates,
facilitators and by consulting other relevant materials or internet.
3. Ensure that you only check correct answers to the activities as a
way of confirming what you have done.
4. Note that if you follow these instructions strictly, you will feel
fulfilled at the end that you have achieved your aim and could
stimulate you to do more.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Biodiversity

Biodiversity or Biological diversity means the variety of plant and

animal life at the ecosystem, community or species level, and even at the
genetic level. Biodiversity is most commonly measured and reported at
species level with characteristics such as species richness (number of
species), species diversity (types of species) and endemism (uniqueness
of species to a certain area) being the most useful elements for
comparison (UNEP, 2002). Species is a group of creatures or plants
having common characteristics.

3.2 Magnitude of Species

The Global Biodiversity Assessment completed by 1500 scientists under

the auspices of UNEP in 1995 updated what we know or more correctly
how little we know, about global biological diversity at the ecosystem,
species and genetic levels. The assessment was uncertain of the total
number of species on Earth within an order of magnitude. But studies
show that between 3 and 30 million species exist on the Earth while
only an estimated figure of 1.5 – 1.8 million have been scientifically
described.
Birds - 9000 species (3-5 new/year - some new, some splits)
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Mammals - 4000 species (20 new/year) - mostly splits

Bacteria - 3000 species known, lots more probably exist
Insects - millions undescribed

More than a half of the world species are found in tropical forests.
Tropical forests are characterised with - warm, no seasons, adapt into
stable niches, moist, 3 or more layers of habitat (ground, shrub, several
layers of trees). For examples, 43 ant species are found in Peruvian rain
forest; 700 tree species found in 10 ha Indonesia forest while 300 tree
species found in 2 ha Peru forest.

Ecological community diversity of species is poorly known, as is its

relationship to biological diversity, and genetic diversity has been
studied for only a small number of species. The effects of human
activities on biodiversity have increased so greatly so that the rate of
species extinctions is rising to hundreds or thousands of times the
background level. These losses are driven by increasing demands on
species and their habitats, and by the failure of current market systems to
value biodiversity adequately.

Since Rio, many countries have improved their understanding of the

status and importance of their biodiversity, particularly through
biodiversity country studies such as those prepared under the auspices of
UNEP/GEF. The United Kingdom identified 1250 species needing
monitoring, of which 400 require action plans to ensure their survival.
Protective measures for biodiversity, such as legislation to protect
species, can prove effective. In the USA, almost 40 per cent of the plants
and animals protected under the Endangered Species Act are now stable
or improving as a direct result of recovery efforts. Some African
countries have joined efforts to protect threatened species through the
1994 Lusaka Agreement, and more highly migratory species are being
protected by specialised cooperative agreements among range states
under the Bonn Convention.

3.3 Types of Species

Species are of various types and some communities are more diverse
than the others while Tropical communities are more diverse than
temperate. As Evolutionary Time Theory argued, Tropics are more
ancient (not affected by ice age) thus, species had so more time to
develop than the Temperate region. Besides, Climatic Stability Theory
asserted that in unstable climate, species develop wide range of
tolerance, which could make them to adapt to many niches. But in stable
climate, few species specialise into niches (the physical, chemical, and
biological conditions species needs to live). Among the divert kinds of
species are:
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i. Native species

This evolved in and for that ecosystem. Fit into the system and provide
food or eat food as part of cycle.

ii. Alien species

Migrate into or are brought into system from elsewhere. Some die
immediately, because they could not adapt to the new environment.
Others out-compete the natives, and eliminate them. Example: mammals
brought to New Zealand. Many ‘LGBs’ (little gray birds) acted like
mice and rats and squirrels do in our ecosystems. Introduced rats and
mice killed most LGBs, including national symbol (kiwi), which is
nearly extinct now.

iii. Keystone species

Absolutely essential for particular ecosystem - e.g. plankton for arctic

ecosystem; ponderosa for our local forests.

iv. Indicator species

Easily affected by loss of habitat, so serve as early warning.

Fig. 1: Animal Diversity

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Fig. 1b: Bird Species

Fig. 2a: Plant Diversity

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Fig. 2b: Plant Diversity

Fig. 2c: Plant Diversity

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Fig. 2d: Plant Diversity

SELF ASSESSEMENT
Discuss types of species

4.0 CONCLUSION
The study of biodiversity is essentially hinged on the knowledge of
organisms- including plants, animals and microbes-at scales ranging
from genetic diversity within populations to species diversity, to
community diversity across landscapes.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

 biodiversity is the variety of plant and animal life at the

ecosystem, community or species level and even at the genetic
level
 species on earth numbered between 3 and 30 million
 only 1.5 - 1.8 million of the species have been scientifically
described
 species is a group of creatures or plants having common
characteristics with different varieties
 some communities are more diverse than the others while tropical
communities are more diverse than temperate region
 species are of various kinds.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

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Differentiate between Biodiversity and Species. Explain why some

communities are more diverse than others.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Heywood, V. H. (ed.). (1995). Global Biodiversity Assessment. United

Nations Environment Programme. Cambridge: University Press,
Cambridge.

Heywood, V. H. (1996). “The Global Biodiversity Assessment”, The

Globe, 30:2-4.

UNEP, (2002). Africa Environment Outlook: Past, Present and Future

Perspective. England: Earth print Limited.

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UNIT 2 ECONOMIC, ECOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL

VALUES OF BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 A Objectives
B How to study this unit
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Economic, Ecological and Social Values of Tropical
Forests Resources
3.2 Environmental Benefits
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Biological resources are the backbone of the African economy as well as

the life support system for most of Africans. A variety of resources, both
plant and animal are used for food, construction of houses, carts and
boats, household utensils, clothing and as raw materials for
manufactured goods. Many resources, such as timber and agricultural
produce are traded commercially and others are used in traditional crafts
such as basket weaving and carving.

In addition, many species with medicinal properties are harvested by

local communities and pharmaceutical multinationals alike. These
include the African potato (Hypoxis rooperi) in Southern Africa, the
rosy periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus) from Madagascar and
Mozambique, and prunus (Prunus africana) from Cameroon,
Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya and Madagascar. Other species
provide the generic resources for improved agricultural products such as
disease or drought resistant crops.

For example, an African species of rice has been used in the

development of a high productivity, drought resistant variety and the
native Mauritian caffeine-free coffee species could be used to develop
coffee cultivars with low caffeine content.

The richness and diversity of ecosystems in Africa also provide the

opportunities for tourism which many African countries have
successfully exploited. The coral reefs of the Red Sea, Eastern African
coast and Western Indian Ocean Islands, for instance, are among the

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most famous savannas of Eastern and Southern Africa are popular

destinations for safari-goers.

2.0 A: OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 economic and ecological values of biological resources;

 environmental benefits of tropical forests resources
 social values of plants and animals.

2.0B: HOW TO STUDY THIS UNIT

1. You are expected to read carefully, through this unit twice before
attempting to answer the activity questions. Do not look at the
solution or guides provided at the end of the unit until you are
satisfied that you have done your best to get all the answers.
2. Share your difficulties in understanding the unit with your mates,
facilitators and by consulting other relevant materials or internet.
3. Ensure that you only check correct answers to the activities as a
way of confirming what you have done.
4. Note that if you follow these instructions strictly, you will feel
fulfilled at the end that you have achieved your aim and could
stimulate you to do more.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Economic, Ecological and Social Values of Tropical

Forests Resources
All forests have both economic and ecological value, but tropical forests
are especially important in global economy. These forests cover less
than 6 per cent of the Earth’s land area, but they contain the vast
majority of the world's plant and animal genetic resources. The diversity
of life is astonishing. The original forests of Puerto Rico, for example,
contain more than 500 species of trees in 70 botanical families. By
comparison, temperate forests have relatively few. Such diversity is
attributed to variations in elevation, climate and soil, and to the lack of
frost.

There is also diversity in other life forms: shrubs, herbs, epiphytes,

mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and insects. One study suggests
that tropical rain forests may contain as many as 30 million different
kinds of plants and animals, most of which are insects (Figure 2.1).

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Fig. 2.1: Example of Tropical Rain Forest Insect

Tropical forests provide many valuable products including rubber, fruits
and nuts, meat, rattan, medicinal herbs, floral greenery, lumber,
firewood and charcoal (Figure 2.2). Such forests are used by local
people for subsistence hunting and fishing. They provide income and
jobs for hundreds of millions of people in small, medium and large
industries. Tropical forests are noted for their beautiful woods (Figure
2.3).

Fig. 2.2: Rubber Tree as Source of Income

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Fig. 2.3: Tropical Forest

Four important commercial woods are mahogany, teak, melina and

okoume. Honduras mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla), grows in the
America; from Mexico to Bolivia. A strong wood of medium density,
mahogany is easy to work on, is long lasting, and has good colour and
grain. It is commonly used for furniture, molding, paneling and trim.
Because of its resistance to decay, it is a popular wood used in boats.
Teak (Tectona grandis) is native to India and Southeast Asia. Its wood
has medium density, is strong, polishes well, and has a warm yellow-
brown colour. Also prized for resistance to insects and rot, teak is
commonly used for cabinets, trim, flooring, furniture, and boats. Melina
(Gmelina arborea) grows naturally from India through Vietnam. Noted
for fast growth, melina has light colored wood that is used mainly for
pulp and particleboard, matches and carpentry. Okoume (Aucoumea
klaineana) is native to Gabon and Congo in West Africa (Figure 2.4).

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Fig. 2.4: Example of Tropical Forest Wood

A large fast-growing tree, the wood has moderately low density, good
strength to density ratio, and low shrinkage during drying. It is
commonly used (for plywood, paneling, interior furniture parts and light
construction (Figure 2.5).

Fig. 2.5: Plywood from Tropical Wood

Tropical forests are home for tribal hunter-gatherers whose way of life
has been relatively unchanged for centuries. These people depend on the
forests for their livelihood. More than 2.5 million people also live in
areas adjacent to tropical forests. They rely on the forests for their water,

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fuel wood and other resources and on its shrinking land base for their
shifting agriculture. For urban dwellers, tropical forests provide water
for domestic use and hydroelectric power. Their scenic beauty,
educational value and opportunities for outdoor recreation support
tourist industries.

Many medicines and drugs come from plants found only in tropical rain
forests (Figure 2.6). Some of the best known medicines are quinine, an
ancient drug used for malaria; curare, an anesthetic and muscle relaxant
used in surgery; and rosy periwinkle, a treatment for Hodgkin's disease
and leukemia. Research has identified other potential drugs that may
have value as contraceptives or in treating a multitude of maladies such
as arthritis, hepatitis, insect bites, fever, coughs and colds (Figure 2.7).
Many more may be found. In all, only a few thousand species have been
evaluated for their medicinal value.

Fig. 2.6: Medicinal Plants and Products as Source of Income

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Fig. 2.7: Drugs Manufactured from Tropical Medicinal Plants

In addition, many plants of tropical forests find uses in homes and

gardens. They include ferns and palms, the hardy split-leaf
philodendron, marantas, bromeliads and orchids to name just a few.

3.2 Environmental Benefits

Tropical forest resources do more than respond to local climatic

conditions; they actually influence the climate. Through transpiration,
the enormous number of plants found in rain forests returns huge
amounts of water to the atmosphere, increasing humidity and rainfall
and cooling the air for kilometres around. In addition, tropical forests
replenish the air by utilising carbon dioxide and giving off oxygen. By
fixing carbon, they help maintain the atmospheric carbon dioxide levels
low and counteract the global “greenhouse” effect.

Forests also moderate stream flow. Trees slow the onslaught of tropical
downpours, use and store vast quantities of water and help hold the soil
in place. When trees are cleared, rainfall runs off more quickly,
contributing to floods and erosion.

SELF ASSESSEMENT
What are the economic, ecological and social values of tropical forests
resources?

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4.0 CONCLUSION

The knowledge of the values of biological resources is hinged on the

benefits man derives from the use of the resources, which are the diverse
importance ranging from the use for food, construction of houses, carts
and boats, household utensils, clothing and as raw materials for
manufactured goods.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

 biological resources are the backbone of the African and global

economy as well as the life support system for most people
 tropical forests, which cover less than 6 per cent of the earth’s
land area and contain the vast majority of the world's plant and
animal genetic resources provide varieties of benefits both to
Africa and global economy
 tropical forests provide many valuable products including rubber,
fruits and nuts, meat, rattan, medicinal herbs, floral greenery,
lumber, firewood and charcoal
 such forests are used by local people for subsistence hunting and
fishing
 they provide income and jobs for hundreds of millions of people
in small, medium and large industries.
 tropical forests are home for tribal hunter-gatherers whose way of
life has been relatively unchanged for centuries
 these people depend on the forests for their livelihood
 they provide educational value, and opportunities for outdoor
recreation support tourist industries
 many medicines and drugs come from plants found only in
tropical rain forests
 they not only influence local climate, they actually influence
climate and moderate stream flow.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Highlight various economic, ecological, social and environmental

benefits of tropical forests biological resources.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

David, Tilman; Johannes, Knops; David, Wedin; Peter, Reich & Mark
Ritchie (1997). “The Influence of Functional Diversity and
Composition on Ecosystem Processes” Evan Siemann Science,

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New Series, Vol. 277, No. 5330. pp. 1300-1302.

[Link]

David S.; Wilcove, David; Rothstein, Jason; Dubow, Ali & Phillips,
Elizabeth Losos (1998). “Quantifying Threats to Imperiled
Species in the United States” BioScience, Vol. 48, No. 8. pp.
607-615. [Link]

Ros-Tonen, M. A. F. & Dietz, T. (2005). African Forests between

Nature and Livelihood Resources: Interdisciplinary Studies in
Conservation and Forest Management. Lewiston, NY: The Edwin
Mellen Press.

Stoms, D. & Estes, J. (1993). A Remote Sensing Research Agenda for

Mapping and Monitoring Biodiversity. International Journal of
Remote Sensing, 14:1839-1860.

Stuart, L.; Pimm, Gareth; Russell, J.; John, L. Gittleman, Thomas &
Brooks, M. (1995). The Future of Biodiversity Science, New
Series, Vol. 269, No. 5222. pp. 347-350.
[Link] = 0036-.

Sunderlin, W. D.; Belcher; Santoso, B.; Angelsen, L.; Burgers, A.; Nasi
P., and R., Wunder, S. (2005). ‘Livelihoods, Forests, and
Conservation in Developing Countries: An Overview’, World
Development (33)9: 1383-1402.

UNEP, (2002). Africa Environment Outlook: Past, Present and Future

Perspective. England, Earthprint Limited

[Link] [Link] – Tapping

Forests to Reduce Poverty.

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UNIT 3 BIODIVERSITY LOSS AND EXTINCTIONS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 A Objectives
B How to Study this Unit
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Causes of Biodiversity Loss
3.1.1 Habitat Destruction and Fragmentation
3.1.2 High demands for Biological Resources
3.1.3 Invasion by Alien (Non-Native) Species
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

It is feared that human activity is causing massive extinctions. The

previous link, to a new report from Environment New Service (1999)
says that “The current extinction rate is now approaching 1,000 times
the background rate and may climb to 10,000 times the background rate
during the next century, if present trends continue. At this rate, one-third
to two-thirds of all species of plants, animals and other organisms would
be lost during the second half of the next century, a loss that would
easily equal those of past extinctions.” Current extinction rates assume
1% destruction of rain forest per year, which gives extinction rate of 0.2
- 0.3% extinctions per year. This is equivalent to 46,000 species loss per
year and 10,000 times the natural rate.

Anecdotal evidence shows that of the Fishes in North America, which is

equivalent of 1000 species, 3% have gone into extinction in the last 100
years, many in SW because of loss of riparian corridors, groundwater
withdrawals, dam building. Besides, Fish in Malaysia were identified to
be 266 species but 122 have left. 20% of the world Birds have gone into
extinction in the last 2000 years (many on islands). In Solomon Islands,
13 of 164 birds in the last 100 years have gone into extinction, as well as
many in New Zealand. Of the songbirds in US there was 50% loss of
population. In 1992, it was estimated that if rainforests are cut at 2% per
year, by 2022, 10-22% of the species would go into extinction. In thus
unit, you will know the factors (natural and human) that are responsible
for the loss and extinction of biological diversity.

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2.0 A: OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 recall the current extinction rate of global biodiversity;

 state the anecdotal evidence of biodiversity loss; and
 identify various human activities causing massive extinctions.

2.0B: HOW TO STUDY THIS UNIT

1. You are expected to read carefully, through this unit twice before
attempting to answer the activity questions. Do not look at the
solution or guides provided at the end of the unit until you are
satisfied that you have done your best to get all the answers.
2. Share your difficulties in understanding the unit with your mates,
facilitators and by consulting other relevant materials or internet.
3. Ensure that you only check correct answers to the activities as a
way of confirming what you have done.
4. Note that if you follow these instructions strictly, you will feel
fulfilled at the end that you have achieved your aim and could
stimulate you to do more.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

Africa’s biodiversity is under threat from four main sources. These are:

1. habitat destruction and fragmentation

2. high demands for biological resources
3. invasion by alien (non-native) species and
4. lack of recognition of indigenous knowledge and property rights.

3.1 Causes of Biodiversity Loss

Causes of biodiversity loss include habitat destruction and
fragmentation, high demands for biological resources and invasion by
alien (non-native) species.

3.1.1 Habitat Destruction and Fragmentation

As landscapes are “fragmented” by human development, the patches

become smaller, and can support fewer species and fewer numbers of
individual members of species. Smaller patches also suffer more “edge
effect”---whereby the habitat near the edge of the patch is compromised
(meaning it is less useful to species who need that habitat) because
processes from the “matrix” in which the patch is embedded work their
way into the patch (e.g. wind, predation, pollution, etc.). This effectively
reduces the patch size even further.
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Natural habitats in Africa are being degraded or lost; owing to a number

of ‘proximate’ and ‘ultimate’ (or root) causes. Proximate causes include
clearing for alternative land uses (mainly agriculture and human
settlements) and over-harvesting of resources (most notably timber in
the forest of Central and Western Africa).

More than 211 million hectares of African forest have been lost since
1970, amounting to almost thirty percent (30%) of the original extent. In
the same period, the land area under cultivation has increased by 36
million hectares, or 21 per cent (FAOSTAT, 2000).

Other threats to terrestrial habitats include bush fire which is commonly

used in agriculture to prepare the soil, but which can get out of control
and destroy large areas of forest or woodland. On the other hand, fire
(along with grazing) is also considered to be one of the most important
factors determining the structure of savanna ecosystems (Gichohi,
Gakahu & Mwangi, 1996).

The ultimate causes of habitat loss in Africa are human population

growth and the resulting demand for space, food and other resources;
widespread poverty; a dependence on natural resources; and economic
pressures to increase exports, particularly of agricultural produce, timber
and mineral products.

3.1.2 High Demands for Biological Resources

Individual species are under threat from a variety of pressures in

addition to loss of their natural habitat. Recent estimates show that a
total of 126 recorded animal species have become extinct in Africa, and
that there are 2018 threatened animal species across the region. Some
123 plants are recorded as extinct and 1771 are threatened (IUCN,
1997).

The reasons for such high rates of species loss or endangerment include:

 habitat loss
 illegal hunting for food
 medicinal, or commercial use and
 national and international trade.

A recent study found that the bush meat trade in Central and Western
Africa is contributing significantly to the decline in populations of
gorillas, chimpanzees, elephants, bush pigs and forest antelopes. Bush
meat is a traditional supplement to the diets of many African
communities, but the increasing human populations and commercial

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trade are pressurizing these species to the extent of a million tones of

bush meat a year (Greenwire, 2001).

Another recent study shows that activities such as logging and mining
contribute significantly to improving access to previously remote areas
thereby making collection from the wild more profitable. Besides,
research reveals that road density is linked to habitat fragmentation,
deforestation and intensified bushmeat hunting (Wikie, et al, 2000).

An estimated 484 plant species from 112 families are currently

threatened with extinction in Nigeria, and animal species such as the
Cheetah, the Pygmyape, the Hippopotamus, the Giraffe, the black
Rhinoceros and the giant Eland have disappeared (Jaiyeoba, 2002).

Selective harvesting of medicinal plants is also taking its toll on species

diversity and abundance. The World Health Organization (WHO) has
estimated that eighty per cent (80%) of people in the developing world
are reliant on traditional medicines. Eighty-five per cent (85%) of these
medicines use plant extracts, so it is estimated that around 3000 million
people around the world rely on plants for traditional health treatment.
The number is even larger if plant derived commercial drugs are
included (Sheldon et al., 1997).

In Africa, eighty percent (80%) of both rural and urban populations

depend on medicinal plants for their health needs (and those of their
livestock) either because they prefer them for cultural or traditional
reasons, because such remedies are effective in treating certain diseases,
or because there is lack of affordable alternatives (Baquar, 1995; Ole
Lengisugi & Mziray, 1996).

3.1.3 Invasion by Alien (non-native) Species

A further threat to biodiversity comes from invasion by non-native, or

alien, species of plants and animals. These are species that have been
introduced both accidentally and intentionally, and that are free from
their natural predators or other natural limitations to their population
growth. They are thus, able to dominate plant and animal communities,
either by out-competing native species for space, light or nutrients, or
through predation (UNEP, 2002 p.61).

Invasion by alien species reduces biodiversity either through predation,

competition or smothering in some cases, alien plants form such dense
infestations and produce so many seeds that are dispersed so widely that
it is virtually impossible to control them. They also change the dynamics
of the natural system and may produce toxic chemicals, inhibiting the
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growth of native species. In other cases, they threaten native species and
functioning of ecosystems through an excessive consumption of
resources such as water.

In Southern Africa, pines, eucalyptus and acacias have been introduced

for commercial forestry, but have invaded natural habitats where they
threaten ecological integrity by using many times more water than
native species (Working for water, 2000).

Water hyacinth, a prolific weed, believed to have entered Nigeria

through Benin Republic, now covers about 60 km 2 and over 30 km of
Nigeria’s coastal waterways and constitutes a major threat to marine life
(UNEP, 2002: 134). Option to control the introduction and spread of
alien species include tightening controls on importation of products of
animal or plant origin. However, lack of resources to police borders and
entry points, results in continued threats to biodiversity (UNEP, 2002).

Generally, factors that tend a species toward endangerment include:

1. limited range (endemic to limited areas)

2. small population (limited breeding success, and/or genetic
degradation due to in-breeding)
3. isolated
4. narrow habitat requirements (habitat specificity) and
5. Non-adaptive behavior.

While the main human causes of species loss are:

1. habitat destruction and fragmentation

2. hunting (for sport and food), including illegal poaching
3. purposeful extermination
4. pollution (e.g., DDT in bird shells reduces reproduction success)
and
5. introduction of exotics (may out-compete or prey on endemic
species).

SELF ASSESSEMENT

Explain the concept of fragmentation

4.0 CONCLUSION

The knowledge of biodiversity loss and extinctions is hinged on various

human activities causing massive extinctions.

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5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

 natural habitats in Africa are being degraded or lost owing to a

number of ‘proximate’ and ‘ultimate’ (or root) causes
 proximate causes include clearing for alternative land uses
(mainly agriculture and human settlements) and over-harvesting
of resources
 the ultimate causes of are human population growth and the
resulting demand for space, food and other resources; widespread
poverty; a dependence on natural resources; and economic
pressures to increase exports, particularly of agricultural produce,
timber and mineral products
 individual species are under threat from a variety of pressures in
addition to loss of their natural owing to:

a. high demand for bush meat trade as the case of Central and
Western Africa
b. logging and mining
c. selective harvesting of medicinal plants.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Critically examine the impacts of proximate and ultimate factors in the

loss and extinction of biodiversity.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Ros-Tonen, M. A. F. & Dietz, T. (2005). African Forests between

Nature and Livelihood Resources: Interdisciplinary Studies in
Conservation and Forest Management. Lewiston, NY: The Edwin
Mellen Press.

Stuart, L. Pimm; Gareth J.; Russell, John L. Gittleman, Thomas M.

Brooks (1995). The Future of Biodiversity Science, New Series,
Vol. 269, No. 5222. pp. 347-350. [Link]
0036-

UNEP, (2002). Africa Environment Outlook: Past, Present and Future

Perspective. England, Earthprint Limited.

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UNIT 4 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION METHODS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 A. Objectives
B. How to study this Unit
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

There is an emerging realization that a major part of conservation of

biological diversity must take place outside of protected areas and
involve local communities. The extensive agricultural areas occupied by
small farmers contain much biodiversity that is important for sustainable
food production. Indigenous agricultural practices have been and
continue to be important elements in the maintenance of biodiversity,
but these are being displaced and lost. There is a new focus on the
interrelationship between agro-diversity conservation and sustainable
use and development practices in smallholder agriculture, with emphasis
on use of farmers' knowledge and skills as a source of information for
sustainable farming. In this unit, we shall consider various ways of
conserving biological diversity.

2.0 A: OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain the measures for conserving biological diversity; and

 state three important elements in the maintenance of biodiversity.

2.0 B: HOW TO STUDY THIS UNIT

1. You are expected to read carefully through this unit twice before
attempting to answer the activity questions. Do not look at the
solution or guides provided at the end of the unit until you are
satisfied that you have done your best to get all the answers.
2. Share your difficulties in understanding the unit with your mates,
facilitators and by consulting other relevant materials or internet.
3. Ensure that you only check correct answers to the activities as a
way of confirming what you have done.

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4. Note that if you follow these instructions strictly, you will feel
fulfilled at the end that you have achieved your aim and could
stimulate you to do more.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

The best way to conserve biological diversity is to ensure that

development activities are planned so as to minimize any impacts on it.
Many past development activities have led to the degradation of land
and water resources. This can lead to loss of biological diversity and
loss of the opportunity to benefit from its future use. An example is the
loss of an aquatic amenity and other uses through eutrophication.
Effective planning and rehabilitation can allow resource development to
occur in many areas without long-term adverse impacts on biological
diversity. Governments, as well as industry, should provide a lead in
restoration practices since they have responsibility for much of land and
all marine areas. Direct beneficiaries of the use of land and water
resources have a responsibility to maintain or restore the biological
diversity functions of those resources. Degraded areas should be
rehabilitated according to the principles and objectives of ecologically
sustainable development.
However, there are three general categories of measures for conserving
biological diversity of forest. These are:

 protection of natural or near-natural ecosystems

 restoration and rehabilitation of degraded lands and
 ex-situ protection of individual species.

By far, the most important of these is protection of ecosystems, which is

probably the only way to ensure maximum protection for the full range
of biological diversity involved. Under some conditions, measures to
restore and rehabilitate degraded lands may conserve biological
diversity. These measures range from planting one or few selected
species of indigenous trees to mounting complex efforts to replace a
range of the pre-existing species of plants and animals. Because abused
and degraded lands occupy an ever increasing area of the earth’s
surface, these measures are becoming increasingly important, both to
restore productivity of lands for direct human use and to conserve some
biological diversity. The third category of measures (ex-situ protection
of species), for instance, in zoos, botanical gardens, aquaria, and seed
banks, may be the last resort for some species when survival in their
natural habitats is no longer possible, but its greatest value is probably in
the context of temporary protection with the objective of eventual
reintroduction in the wild.

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Various forms of conservation methods have also been proposed for

conserving biological diversity. Among them are:
i. Government initiatives

Ensure that policies and controls are developed and implemented by the
governments for the management and conservation of native vegetation
on private and public lands, in consultation with landholders and
community groups, and for controlling broad-scale clearance. In
accordance with the Intergovernmental Agreement on the Environment,
review legislation relating to clearing and ensure that criteria for
assessing land clearance applications take account of biological diversity
conservation, land protection, water management and landscape values.

ii. Incentives and rebates

Undertake cooperative development of a range of measures at all levels

of government, including financial incentives, cost reimbursements and
rate rebates, to encourage land managers to improve conservation of
native vegetation.

iii. Information program

Work through appropriate agencies to develop a native vegetation

conservation information program that is targeted at land managers and
focuses on the value of retaining native vegetation in-situ while
integrating this retention with major land uses.

iv. Voluntary protection

Encourage voluntary management of species remnants and review the

effectiveness of all mechanisms for the long-term voluntary protection
of native vegetation and wildlife. The landscape ecology principles
suggest several management goals, which include:

a. protection of all habitat and maintenance or recreating habitat

patches as large as possible; try to improve the habitat in the
patch,
b. where possible, maintain or recreate habitat patches in corridors
connecting larger patches and
c. remove barriers (roads, developments, etc.) between patches -- or
at least make the barriers more “permeable” to species (e.g.
design roads so that species can cross them (or go under them)
safely.

v. Cooperative programs

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Initiate a cooperative program between the State and Local

Governments in consultation with industry and community groups to
rehabilitate degraded systems of national concern. The program should
cover:

a. the development of improved procedures and standards for

rehabilitation activities
b. investigation and trial of new mechanisms for increasing the role
of the private sector in using rehabilitation to protect biological
diversity (for example, in the establishment of native vegetation
corridors)
c. increased funding for necessary restoration programs
d. assistance to private landholders in the form of technical support
and the provision of appropriate seed stocks and
e. development of a monitoring and reporting program to determine
the effectiveness of rehabilitation.

vi. Monitor and manage processes

Through sampling and other techniques, monitor processes and

categories of activities that have or are likely to have significant adverse
impacts on the conservation of biological diversity. Where a significant
adverse effect on biological diversity is determined, regulate or manage
the relevant processes and categories of activities.

vii. Strengthen assessment

Ensure that all governments make environmental, including biological

diversity, impact assessment procedures an integral part of policy
formulation, planning and development activities. Such procedures
should take account of significant adverse impacts on biological
diversity, especially when assessing the likely impact of proposals in
areas considered important for biological diversity. Where undertaken,
the environmental impact assessment should, if appropriate, provide for
continuing monitoring and the adoption of mitigating measures. Ensure
that environmental impact assessment procedures allow for informed
and comprehensive public participation.

SELF ASSESSEMENT
Explain measures for conserving biological diversety

4.0 CONCLUSION

The best way to conserve biological diversity is to ensure that

development activities are planned so as to minimize any impacts on it.

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5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

 there are three general categories of measures for conserving

biological diversity of forest, which include:
a. protection of natural or near-natural ecosystems
b. restoration and rehabilitation of degraded lands and
c. ex-situ protection of individual species.
 all government arms should make environmental, including
biological diversity, impact assessment procedures an integral
part of policy formulation, planning and development activities.
 voluntary management of species remnants and review the
effectiveness of all mechanisms for the long-term voluntary
protection of native vegetation and wildlife should be
encouraged.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Discuss various methods of conserving biological diversity.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Global Environmental Change (1995). Human and Policy Implications.

Special issue on People, Land Management and Environmental
Change, Vol. 3, No. 4.

Uitto, Juha I. & Akiko O. (Eds). (1996). Population, Land Management

and Environmental Change. The United Nations University,
Tokyo.

UNEP (2002). Africa Environment Outlook: Past, Present and Future

Perspective. England, Earthprint Limited

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UNIT 5 PROTOCOL ON BIODIVERSITY

CONSERVATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 A Objectives
B How to study this Unit
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Aim of Protocol
3.2 Scope of the Protocol
3.3 Articles of the Protocol
3.3.1 Definition of Terms
3.3.2 Duties of Contracting Party
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In addition to actions necessary to conserve biological diversity directly,
there is a need for a range of supporting measures that can minimise the
impact of various external factors on biological diversity. In June 1992,
the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil was convened. There was an
agreement on a set of "Principles for a global consensus on the
management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of
forests and marine ecosystem. The conference devoted some chapters of
its Agenda to "Combating deforestation" and Pollution of the Sea. The
articles of the conference supporting biological diversity conservation
are highlighted in this chapter.

2.0 A: OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 state the aim of the protocol

 describe scope of the protocol
 explain duties of the contracting parties as regards conservation
of biodiversity.

2.0 B: HOW TO STUDY THIS UNIT

1. You are expected to read carefully through this unit twice before
attempting to answer the activity questions. Do not look at the
solution or guides provided at the end of the unit until you are
satisfied that you have done your best to get all the answers.
2. Share your difficulties in understanding the unit with your mates,
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facilitators and by consulting other relevant materials or internet.

3. Ensure that you only check correct answers to the activities as a
way of confirming what you have done.
4. Note that if you follow these instructions strictly, you will feel
fulfilled at the end that you have achieved your aim and could
stimulate you to do more.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

Recognising that in recent decades there have been significant human

induced changes in the biota and physico-chemical conditions of the Sea
and forest ecosystem; there have been concern on various threats to
biodiversity, such as eutrophication, over-fishing, pollution and
introduction of non-native species. Accepting the importance of control
on the Sea and threats to forest ecosystem for the conservation of
biodiversity and the maintenance and restoration of ecosystem
functions; various articles were signed in the Earth Summit held in Rio
de Janeiro, Brazil on June 5, 1992. The Contracting Parties are required
to pay particular attention to Combating deforestation" and Pollution of
the Sea and Atmosphere.

3.1 Aim of Protocol

The purpose of this Protocol is to maintain ecosystem in the good
ecological state and its landscape in the favourable conditions, to
protect, to preserve and to sustainably manage the biological and
landscape diversity in order to enrich the biological resources.

3.2 Scope of the Protocol

In conjunction with provisions of the Convention on the Protection of
marine ecosystem against Pollution and other Protocol to this
Convention, the Protocol is intended to serve as a legal instrument for
developing, harmonising and enforcing necessary environmental
policies, strategies and measures in preserving, protecting and
sustainably managing nature, historical, cultural and aesthetic resources
and heritage for present and future generations.

3.3 Articles of the Protocol

They include articles 1-10 as outlined along with terms under the
article.

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3.3.1 Definition of Terms

Article 1

1. Biological diversity means variability among living organisms

from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other
aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they
are part; this includes diversity within species, between species
and of ecosystems as defined by Article 2 of the Convention on
Biological Diversity.
2. Landscape means an area, as perceived by people, whose
character is the result of the action and interaction of natural
and/or human factors as defined in the Chapter 1, the article 1 of
European Landscape Convention (October 20, 2000, Florence,
Italy).
3. Landscape Diversity means the formal expression of the
numerous relations existing in a given period between the
individual or the society and a topographically defined territory,
the appearance of which is the result of the action, over time, of
natural and human factors and a combination of both.

3.3.2 Duties of contracting party

The duties of the contracting parties are highlighted in Articles 2-10

Article 2

1. Each Contracting Party shall take all necessary measures to:

i. protect, preserve, improve and manage in a sustainable

and environmentally sound way areas of particular
biological or landscape value, notably by the
establishment of protected areas
ii. ensure that species occurring in the area to which this
Protocol applies are maintained at favourable
conservation status and habitats close to undisturbed
iii. ensure that species of economic importance, especially
living marine resources, are used sustainably
iv. restore and rehabilitate damaged areas of previously high
biodiversity and landscape value
v. restore and maintain in good conditions the landscape of
high nature, historical, cultural and aesthetic value.

2. The Contracting Parties shall identify and compile inventories of

the components of biological and landscape diversity in the area
to which this Protocol applies and identifies those components

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important for their conservation and sustainable use within three

years of this Protocol coming into force.

3. The contracting parties shall adopt a list of species of economic

importance, which may be threatened or important by reason of
their role in ecosystem functioning or other significance for the
region preferably within three years of this protocol coming into
force.

4. The Contracting Parties shall adopt a list of landscapes and

habitats of the Black Sea importance that may be destroyed, or
important by their nature, cultural or historical value that
constitute the natural, historical and cultural heritage or present
other significance for the Black Sea region preferably within
three years of this Protocol coming into force.

Article 3

5. The Contracting Parties shall act, directly or in co-operation with

competent international organisations and in consistency with
other Protocols to this Convention, in the conservation and
sustainable use of biological and landscape diversity.

6. The Contracting Parties shall produce and commonly agree on

the Strategic Action Plan for the marine Biodiversity and
Landscape Conservation Protocol within three years of the
Protocol coming into force which shall be reviewed every five
years

7. On the basis of the Strategic Action Plan for the marine

Biodiversity and Landscape Conservation Protocol, the
Contracting Parties shall adopt strategies, national plans and/or
programmes for the conservation of biological and landscape
diversity and the sustainable use of marine and coastal biological
and landscape resources and shall integrate them into their
national sectoral and intersectoral policies.

8. The Contracting Parties shall take all appropriate measures to

regulate an intentional introduction and prevent an accidental
introduction of non-indigenous species or genetically modified
organisms to the wild flora and fauna and prohibit those that may
have harmful impacts on the ecosystems, habitats or species in
the area to which this Protocol applies.

9. The Contracting Parties shall endeavour to implement all

appropriate measures to eradicate or reduce to a possible level,
species that have already been introduced when it appears that

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such species cause or are potentially causing damage to

ecosystems, landscapes, habitats or species in the area to which
this Protocol applies.

Article 4

1. In implementing this Protocol, the Contracting Parties shall take

into account, the traditional subsistence and cultural activities of
local communities. They may grant exemptions from protection
and conservation measures, as necessary, and where appropriate,
to meet such needs. No exemption which is allowed for this
reason shall:

i. endanger either maintenance of landscapes of high

aesthetic value or the ecosystems protected under this
Protocol or the biological processes contributing to the
maintenance of those ecosystems,
ii. cause a substantial reduction in the number of individuals
making up the populations of species of flora and fauna,
in particular threatened, migratory or endemic species,
destruction of their habitats or landscapes, especially ones
of regional importance and

iii. cause an irreversible damage of the landscapes

constituting the nature, cultural, historical, or aesthetic
heritage of the marine importance.

2. A Contracting Party which grants exemptions from the

protection measures shall inform the other Contracting Parties
accordingly, within one month period.

Article 5

1. The Contracting Parties shall endeavour to inform the public of

the value of protected areas, species and landscapes and shall
give appropriate publicity to the establishment of these areas and
regulations relating thereto.

2. The Contracting Parties shall also endeavour to promote the

participation of all stakeholders including their public in
measures that are necessary for the protection of the areas,
species and landscapes concerned, including environmental
impact assessments.

3. The Contracting Parties shall endeavour to provide information

on this Protocol and related matters through appropriate
education and public awareness programmes.

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Article 6

1. The Contracting Parties shall co-operate in conducting scientific

research aimed at protecting and preserving the biological and
landscape diversity and shall undertake, where appropriate, joint
programmes and projects of scientific research and exchange
relevant scientific data and information.

2. The subsidiary bodies of the Commission (the Advisory Group

on the Conservation of Biological Diversity and the Advisory
Group on the Development of Common Methodology for
Integrated Coastal Zone Management) in co-operation with the
competent national authorities of the Sea coastal states shall be
responsible for scientific activities and monitoring and
assessment in the field of the biological and landscape diversity,
delegating the co-ordination of their work.

3. The Contracting Parties will invite intergovernmental

organisations to co-operate with the Contracting Parties and/or
the Commission by preparing and implementing specific
programmes and projects, with a view to fulfilling the objectives
of the Protocol.

Article 7

1. The Contracting Parties are responsible for the fulfilment of their

international obligations concerning the protection and
conservation of the biological and landscape diversity.

2. Each Contracting Party shall adopt rules and regulations on the

liability for damage caused by natural or juridical persons to the
biological and landscape diversity in areas where it exercises, in
accordance with international law, its sovereignty, sovereign
rights or jurisdiction.

3. The Contracting Parties shall facilitate any legal action or

procedure in accordance with their legal systems aiming at
prompt and adequate compensation or other relief for damage
caused by pollution or human activities to the biological and
landscape diversity by natural or juridical persons under their
jurisdiction.

4. The Contracting Parties shall co-operate in developing and

harmonising their laws, regulations and procedures relating to
liability, assessment of and compensation for damage caused by
human activities and/or pollution of the marine environment of
the Black Sea, in order to ensure the highest degree of deterrence

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and protection for the biological and landscape diversity as a

whole.

Article 8

Each Contracting Party shall provide, in accordance with its

capabilities, financial support and incentives of those national/regional
activities which are intended to achieve the objectives of this Protocol,
in accordance with their national plans, priorities and programs.

Article 9

1. The Commission and its Permanent Secretariat shall promote the

implementation of this Protocol, inform the Contracting Parties of
its work and make recommendations on measures necessary for
achieving the aims of this Protocol.

2. The Commission shall report on the state of the biological and

landscape diversity and efficacy of undertaken measures to
preserve and manage it to the Meeting of the Contracting Parties
on five years basis in a jointly agreed reporting format.

Article 10

1. Nothing in this Protocol nor any act adopted on the basis of this
Protocol shall prejudice the rights and the interests of any state in
full compliance with the international law, in particular, the
nature and extent of marine areas, the delimitation of marine
areas between States, with opposite or adjacent coasts, freedom
of navigation on the high seas, the right and modalities of passage
through straits used for international navigation, as well as the
nature and extent of the jurisdiction of the Coastal State, the Flag
State and the Port State.

2. No act or activity undertaken on the basis of the Protocol shall

constitute grounds for claiming, contending or disputing any
claims to national sovereignty, sovereign rights or jurisdiction.

3. Each Contracting Party shall apply the measures provided for in

this Protocol without prejudice to the sovereignty, sovereign
rights or the jurisdiction of other Contracting Parties or other
States. Any measures taken by a Contracting Party to enforce
these measures shall be in accordance with international law.

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SELF ASSESSEMENT
State and describe scope of protocol

4.0 CONCLUSION

Biological diversity conservation can often be affected by planning and

development decisions and actions. These effects sometimes occur as a
result of inadequate information or a lack of sensitive application of
policies on the part of the public and private sectors. Although
environmental impact assessment procedures have been developed in
various countries of the world, the application and scope of these
procedures vary considerably between jurisdictions. To redress this
problem, overseen the development of common principles for
environmental impact assessment and developing guidelines and criteria
for determining the need for and level of such assessment should be put
in place. Assessment of individual projects cannot always anticipate
cumulative environmental impacts. Assessment of broader policies and
programs that are likely to significantly affect biological diversity,
together with bioregional environmental planning with appropriate
development controls, can help overcome this problem.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt that:

 in June 1992, the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil was

convened and was meant to discuss the earth resources and the
management, conservation and sustainable development of those
earth biological resources,
 the Protocol of the convention is intended to serve as a legal
instrument for developing, harmonising and enforcing necessary
environmental policies, strategies and measures in preserving,
protecting and sustainably managing nature, historical, cultural
and aesthetic resources and heritage for present and future
generations,
 the meaning of Biological diversity, Landscape and Landscape
Diversity were clearly spelt out in the conference and
 Articles which dictated the duties of the contracting countries
were clearly articulated and signed by participatory countries.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

i. Critically examine the content of Articles 3 and 4.
ii. Differentiate between Biological diversity, Landscape and
Landscape Diversity.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Conservation International (1999). Conservation Priority Setting for the
Upper Guinea Forest Ecosystem, West Africa, Conservation
International, Washington DC.

Conservation International (2002). [Link]/sp/CIWEB/

strategy/hotpots/guinean_forest.xml.

Mastrantonio, J. L. & Francis, J. K. (2003). A Student Guide to Tropical

Forest Conservation ENVIS Bulletin: Himalayan Ecology 11(2).

Heywood, V. H. (1996). “The Global Biodiversity Assessment”. The

Globe, 30:2-4, April.

[Link]

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