ESM 328 MODULE 2

MODULE 2

Unit 1 Environmental Pollution and Biodiversity Loss

Unit 2 Climate Change and Biodiversity
Unit 3 Impacts of Climate Change on Biodiversity
Unit 4 Climate Change Mitigation and Biodiversity Conservation
Unit 5 Biodiversity in West Africa (Case Study)

UNIT 1 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND

BIODIVERSITY LOSS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 A Objectives
B How to Study this Unit
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Methods of Waste Management and Disposal
3.2 Impact of Industrial Pollution on Biodiversity
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Pollution continues to be an increasing problem for the conservation of

biological diversity. River systems and near-shore environments are at
particular risk. Localised impacts have occurred and their frequency is
increasing. A number of river systems suffer from increasing salinity,
silt loads, nutrient levels and heavy metal and chemical pollution.
Pollution of groundwater has adverse effects on ecosystems in both
urban and rural environments. The Environment Protection Agency is
developing a National Pollutant Inventory and recommendations for
standards and, once reflected in State and Territory control measures,
this should help to minimise the impacts of pollution. The use of some
agricultural, industrial and urban chemicals continues to cause problems
for wildlife, including cumulative effects. Sewage discharge into the sea
has a localised impact on biological diversity. In this unit, you will learn
ways by which pollution affects biodiversity and measures for ambient
air quality and ambient marine, estuarine and freshwater quality.

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2.0 A: OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 identify different types of pollution;

 explain the effects of industrial pollution of biodiversity; and
 state some controlling measures of pollution on biodiversity
conservation.

2.0 B: HOW TO STUDY THIS UNIT

1. You are expected to read carefully, through this unit twice before
attempting to answer the activity questions. Do not look at the
solution or guides provided at the end of the unit until you are
satisfied that you have done your best to get all the answers.
2. Share your difficulties in understanding the unit with your mates,
facilitators and by consulting other relevant materials or the internet.
3. Ensure that you only check correct answers to the activities as a way
of confirming what you have done.
4. Note that if you follow these instructions strictly, you will feel
fulfilled at the end that you have achieved your aim and could
stimulate you to do more.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

Environmental pollution is the unfavourable alteration of our

surroundings, wholly or largely as a by-product of man’s actions,
through direct or indirect effects of changes in energy patterns, radiation
levels, chemical and physical constitution and abundances of organisms.
These changes may affect man directly or through his supplies of water
and of agricultural and other biological products, his physical objects or
possessions or his opportunities for recreation and appreciation of
nature.

Industrial activities generally have varying degrees of social, economic

and environmental consequences. These consequences are both positive
and negative, the latter being more rampant and widespread than the
former. Industrial pollution and environmental degradation due to
industrial activities have been a concern of the world in recent times.
This is because of the levels of damage caused by the effluents
generated by the industrial establishment to both natural and social
environment.

Recently in Northern Europe, industrial pollutants in the form of acid

rain has eroded structures, injured crops and forests and threatened the
lives and habitats of the local wildlife. In 1984, it was reported that 50%
of the trees in Germany's Black Forest had been destroyed by acid rain.
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In China, rapid industrial growth has led to a dramatic rise in

environmental damage from industrial pollution. Today, nearly 40% of
China’s mainland is affected by industrial pollution due to industrial
emissions; a figure scientists expect will continue to rise. Industrial
growth and its associated environmental problem such as soil, plant, and
air contamination is fast increasing. Reports of general soil, plants, and
water quality contaminations in several cities in Nigeria abound with
effect.

3.1 Methods of Waste Management and Disposal

There are various methods of waste management and disposal being

applied by industrial establishments. One of these methods is known as
the End-of-Pipe Approach.

End-Of-Pipe (EOP) Approach

This does not encourage waste reduction, but rather seeks to introduce
technology at the production line to prevent waste from becoming
pollution. Some modes of EOP include: land filling, land application,
containment and extraction technologies.

As the name implies, land filling involves filling the land with waste in
thin layers. Pollution of surface and ground water is minimised by lining
and contouring the fill, compacting and planning the cover, selecting the
proper soil and placing waste in a site, not subject to flooding or high
ground water levels. However, land filling still does have its problems,
which include poor litter control, dust, birds, vermin and insects, also
noise pollution from the heavy machinery in use.

Containment technologies are used to stop the further spread of

migration of contaminants, while extraction technologies, which are also
known as the removal of constituents from a site, either vapour or solids
through pumping, product recovery, vapour extraction and soil washing.
However, these forms of treatment are very expensive and not very
reliable.

All these waste management strategies still pose serious threats to

biodiversity conservation. For instance, draining or in-filling of wetlands
changes hydrological regimes so that they no longer provide suitable
habitats for wildlife. Untreated effluents from domestic, commercial and
industrial sources have polluted coastal wetlands creating a toxicity risk
for flora and fauna.

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Waste Minimisation Approach

Another approach to dealing with wastes is Waste Minimisation of

Pollution Prevention. In his appeal for the use of waste minimisation as
against land-filling techniques, William Reilly (1990) said, “We have
learned the inherent limitations of treating and burning wastes. A
problem solved in one part of the environment may become a new
problem in another part. We must curtail pollution closer to its point of
origin so that it is not transformed from place to place”.

Waste minimisation, though not a new concept, due to the fact that it has
been practised in the United States, Europe and the developed world,
has only begun to make rounds in the developing world. Studies have
further brought to the fore sustainable waste management techniques;
waste minimisation has become a key component of national waste
management strategies across the world as a result of this. Obviously, if
the production of waste is reduced, potential for long term
environmental damage is reduced accordingly. Some methods of waste
minimisation being practised include the following.

 Waste re-cycling/re-use: though not a form of waste minimisation

per se, recycling is accepted as an effective form of waste
reduction and is gaining ground in the developing world, such as
in South America and India.
 Combustion as Fuel: combustion of waste as fuel is seen by many
as a preferable alternative to landfill, where appropriate, and has
received much support, but according to Wallis and Watson
(1995), 2 – 5 times the amount of energy renewable by
combustion of wastes is recovered by recycling.
 Composting: aerobic microbial process which depends on organic
matter to produce a relatively stabilised residue, CO2 as the main
gaseous product.

Much of our native flora and fauna has evolved with fire and relies upon
particular fire regimes for continued survival. With settlement, however,
the timing, frequency and intensity of these fires have changed.

Although fire is a necessary part of many ecosystems, it can also be

damaging. Inappropriate fire regimes - for example, fires of high or low
intensity that are either too frequent or insufficiently frequent - can lead
to loss of native species, communities and ecosystems. Burning can
promote invasion of native vegetation by weeds, sometimes leading to
increased fire hazard within a short time, and prescribed fires can escape
to become wildfires.

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3.2 Impacts of Industrial Pollution on Biodiversity

The issue of the impact of industrial establishments on their physical

environment has been severally discussed in various academic quarters.
As a result of this, scholars have deduced a number of theories and
models in order to explain these impacts. Few of these theories that are
related to the impacts of industrial pollution in the environment are
discussed.

Industrial Pollution is not a new problem to man. It can be traced back

to the industrial revolution of the early 19th Century. But even as far
back as 14th Century England, the dangers of pollution were already
being given centre stage treatment when King Edward II of England
(1307 – 1327) tried to abate Britain’s ‘unbearable smoke’ by prohibiting
the burning of coal. This was perhaps one of the first government
interventions as regards the issue of pollution.

Abduli (1996) defined Industrial pollutants as all wastes arising from

industrial operation or desire from the manufacturing process. Now the
wastes in themselves do not constitute pollutants, but the
mismanagement of these wastes is what leads to industrial pollution.
From the review of the literature, most scholars agree that industrial
waste in the developing countries are left untreated and are disposed of
in an unsafe manner e.g. illegal dumping, open-dumping into lakes and
rivers causing biodiversity loss and extinction.

This scenario has been blamed on the rapid unplanned growth of the
urban and industrial centres in the developing countries, which creates
stress on the natural. Pollution and other forms of degradation, and the
continuing spread of urbanisation vis-à-vis industrialisation poses a
threat to the sustainability of soil resources, it is generally accepted that
most of the soils in the technologically advanced regions of the world
are polluted at least to a slight extent. The source of this pollution is the
mismanagement of waste disposal services, old industrial sites are
generally characterised by being heterogeneous, both with regard to the
distribution of pollutants and also to properties of the soil materials that
control the behaviour of chemicals (soil pollutants), another source is
through the process of land filling, a type of industrial waste
management system adopted by most industrial establishments.

Land- filling creates such problems as landfill gas and land fill leachate,
and this leachate is what provides the most prominent source of
pollution for the soil. The leachate is made up of soluble components of
waste and the soluble intermediates and products of waste degradation,
which enters the water table and soil as it percolates through the waste
body. The amount of leachate generated is dependent on water
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availability, landfill surface conditions, the state of refuse and the

conditions in the surrounding strata.

Chemical pollution from industrial establishments has been estimated by

a recent Global Assessment of Soil Degradation (GLASOD) to affect a
total of 218 x 106 ha of land in Europe, Asia, Africa and Central
America. Some of the major sources of pollution i.e. chemical pollutants
from industries are the heavy metals e.g. Copper (Cu), Manganese (Mn),
Nitrogen (N), zinc (Zn), Silver (Ag), Barium (Ba), Mercury (Hg), Lead
(Pb), etc., which are hazardous to plants and animal species.
Industries involved in the following activities:

1. Metalliferous Mining e.g. Cd, Cu, N, Pb and Zn

2. Metal Smelting and Metallurgical Industries
3. The electronic industry; making of circuits, solders, batteries
in gaseous or solid waste form.

Pollutants here include aerosol particles from the thermal processing of

metals and solid wastes, effluents from the treatment of metals with
acids.

Other forms of pollutants include hydrocarbons from petroleum

comprising a range of saturated alkanes from methane (CH4), ethane
(C2H6) and Propane (C3H8) etc. As such, leakages from Industrial sites
are a major industrial issue as Hydrocarbon solvents are widely used in
industry for clearing and de-greasing metals and electrical components.
Toxic Organic Micro-pollutants also form a major part of industrial
pollutants e.g. insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, etc which pose
serious threat to biodiversity.

Between 60,000 to 90,000 chemicals are being used in industry although

not all are hazardous, many will cause pollution as a result of leakage
during storage, from use in the environment or disposal either directly or
of wastes containing them. As at 1990, the total world production of
hazardous and special wastes was 338 x 106 tonnes according to the
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) on
the state of the environment in Paris, 1991.

Pollution Control

In advanced countries, environmental monitoring agencies are more

effective and environmental laws are strictly followed. General
environmental quality monitoring is compulsory and the monitoring of
the quality of natural and social environment is done on a regular basis.
As a result, any abnormal changes in the environment can easily be
detected and appropriate action taken before the outbreak of epidemics
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or biodiversity loss. The case is quite the opposite in many developing

countries. Environmental laws where there are any, are rarely observed.

In Europe, various protocols have been adopted to stem the tide of

industrial pollution. The first Sulphur Protocol in Europe produced by
the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) in
1985 called for the reduction of sulphur emissions to 70% of 1980 levels
by 1993. Other protocols adopted include the Nitrogen Oxides Protocol,
the Volatile Organic Compounds Protocol (1991) and the 2 nd Sulphur
Protocol (1994).

Federal, State and Local Governments should develop new pollution

prevention and control measures, including market measures and
national standards to minimise the impacts of pollution on biological
diversity. This will require:

a. reviewing legislation and guidelines to ensure that criteria for

minimising significant adverse impacts on the conservation of
biological diversity are included as part of the basis for pollution
prevention and control measures. Particular attention should be
paid to non-point-source pollution, industrial pollution, control of
the discharge of sewage, waste minimisation and accident
prevention, and the need for a catchments or bioregional
approach in implementation,
b. strengthening measures to deal with activities or processes that
result in detrimental changes to the physical environment of
organisms, such as the potentially damaging discharge of dam
water,
c. strengthening the systems of control for the manufacture,
importation and use of chemicals where scientific evidence
shows that these chemicals adversely affect biological diversity,
with a view to minimising their impacts.

SELF ASSESSEMENT

What are the methods of waste management and disposal?

4.0 CONCLUSION

The overall assessment of all impacts of industrial establishments on

biodiversity loss is unprecedented. Legislation and guidelines to ensure
that criteria for minimising significant adverse impacts on the
conservation of biological diversity should be put in place as part of the
basis for pollution prevention and control measures.

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5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

 environmental pollution is the unfavourable alteration of our

surroundings, wholly or largely as a by-product of man’s actions,
through direct or indirect effects of changes in energy patterns,
radiation levels, chemical and physical constitution and
abundances of organisms
 industrial activities generally have varying degrees of social,
economic and environmental consequences, which could be both
positive and negative,
 industrial pollution are in form of waste disposal, land filling,
chemical pollution in form of heavy metals, hydrocarbons from
petroleum etc,
 industrial pollutants in the form of acid rain has eroded structures,
injured crops and forests and threatened the lives and habitats of
the local wildlife,
 industrial growth and its associated environmental problem such
as soil, plant, and air contamination is fast increasing and pose
serious threat to biological diversity,
 various methods of waste management and disposal being
applied by industrial establishments still affect flora and fauna,
 rapid unplanned growth of the urban and industrial centres in the
developing countries, creates stress on the natural environment,
 in advanced countries, environmental monitoring agencies are
more effective and environmental laws are strictly followed,
 the case is quite the opposite in many developing countries and
where environmental laws are in place, they are rarely observed,
 Federal, State and Local Government should develop new
pollution prevention and control measures, including market
measures and national standards to minimise the impacts of
pollution on biological diversity.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Discuss why biological diversities are still being threatened by

environmental pollution in a named developing country in spite of
different environmental laws and environmental protection agencies in
place.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Abduli, M. A. (1996). Industrial waste management in Tehran.

Environmental International, 22 (3), 335-341.

Biney, C.; Amuzu, A. T.; Calamari, D.; Kaba, N.; Mbome, I. L.; Naeve,
H.; Ochumba, P. B. O.; Osibanjo, O.; Radegonde, V. & Saad,
M.A. H. (1994). Review of heavy metals in the African aquatic
environment. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 28, 134-
159.

Catlow & Thirlwell (1976). Environmental impact analysis. Department

of Environment Research Report II. London.

Fakayode, S. O. & Onianwa, P. C. (2002). Heavy metals contamination

of soil and bioaccumulation in Guinea Grass (Panicum
maximum) Around Ikeja Industrial Estate. Lagos: Nigeria
Environmental Geology 43, 145-150.

Fakayode, S. O. (2005). Impact assessment of industrial effluent on

water quality of the receiving Alaro River in Ibadan, Nigeria;
Baylor University, U.S.A.

Onianwa, P. C. (1993). Environmental pollution studies in an

underdeveloped country (I): Heavy metal pollution in Ibadan,
Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental Education and
Information, 12, 25-34.

Olajire, A. A. & Imeokparia, F. E. (2001). Water quality assessment of

Osun River: Studies on Inorganic Nutrients. Environmental
Monitoring and Assessment ,69, 17-28.

United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) (2000). 2000

National Water Quality Inventory. [Link]
2000report/ (Retrieved August 6, 2003).

United States Geological Survey (USGS) (1995). Water Used in the

United States. U. S. Geological Survey. [Link]
watuse/ (Retrieved August 6, 2003).

Westlake (1995). Landfill waste pollution and control. London: Albion

Publishing.

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UNIT 2 CLIMATE CHANGE AND BIODIVERSITY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 A. Objectives
B. How to Study this Unit
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Climate Change
3.2 Difference between Climate Change and Global Warming
3.3 Factors Driving Climate Change
3.3.1 Changes within the Earth’s Environment
3.3.2 Non-Climate Factors Driving Climate Change
3.3.3 Human Influences on Climate Change
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Weather is the day-to-day state of the atmosphere, and is a chaotic non-

linear dynamical system. On the other hand, climate is the average state
of weather which is fairly stable and predictable. Climate includes the
average temperature, amount of precipitation, days of sunlight, and other
variables that might be measured at any given site. However, there are
also changes within the Earth’s environment that can affect the climate.
Climate changes reflect variations within the Earth’s atmosphere,
processes in other parts of the Earth such as oceans and ice caps, and the
effects of human activity. The external factors that can shape climate are
often called climate forcing and this includes such processes as
variations in solar radiation, the Earth's orbit, and greenhouse gas
concentrations. In this unit, the drivers of climate change are considered.

2.0 A: OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define climate change;

 differentiate between climate change and global warming and
 identify and explain the drivers of climate change.

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2.0 B: HOW TO STUDY THIS UNIT

1. You are expected to read carefully; through this unit twice before
attempting to answer the activity questions. Do not look at the
solution or guides provided at the end of the unit until you are
satisfied that you have done your best to get all the answers.
2. Share your difficulties in understanding the unit with your mates,
facilitators and by consulting other relevant materials or internet.
3. Ensure that you only check correct answers to the activities as a
way of confirming what you have done.
4. Note that if you follow these instructions strictly, you will feel
fulfilled at the end that you have achieved your aim and could
stimulate you to do more.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Climate Change

The term, Climate Change is used to refer to changes in the Earth's

climate. Generally, this is taken to regard changes in temperature, by
monitoring averages, extremes, durations, and geographic coverages.
Climate change is the variation in the Earth's global climate or in
regional climates over time. It involves changes in the variability or
average state of the atmosphere over durations; ranging from decades to
millions of years. These changes can be caused by dynamic process on
Earth, external forces including variations in sunlight intensity, and
more recently, by human activities. 'Climate change' is caused by natural
forces including, but not limited to, human activities.

3.2 Difference between Climate Change and Global

Warming

When scientists talk about the issue of climate change, their concern is
about global warming caused by human activities. The terms, global
warming and climate change are often used interchangeably, but the two
phenomena are different. Global warming is the rise in global
temperatures due to an increase of heat-trapping carbon emissions in the
atmosphere. Climate change, on the other hand, is a more general term
that refers to changes in many climatic factors (such as temperature and
precipitation) around the world.

These changes are happening at different rates and in different ways. For
example, the United States has become wetter over the 20th century,
while the Sahel region of central Africa has become drier.

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3.3 Factors Driving Climate change

The factors include change within the earth environment, non climatic
factors and human influence on climatic change.

Changes within the Earth’s Environment

There are changes within the Earth’s environment that can affect the
climate; among them are:

1. Glaciation

Glaciers are recognised as being among the most sensitive indicators of

climate change, advancing substantially during climate cooling (e.g., the
Little Ice Age) and retreating during climate warming on moderate time
scales. Glaciers grow and collapse, both contributing to natural
variability and greatly amplifying externally forced changes. For the last
century, however, glaciers have been unable to regenerate enough ice
during the winters to make up for the ice lost during the summer
months.

The most significant climate processes of the last several million years
are the glacial and interglacial cycles of the present ice age. Though
shaped by orbital variations, the internal responses involving
continental ice sheets and 130 m sea-level change certainly played a key
role in deciding what climate response would be observed in most
regions. Other changes, including Heinrich events, Dansgaard–Oeschger
events and the Younger Dryas show the potential for glacial variations
to influence climate even in the absence of specific orbital changes.

b. Ocean Variability

On the scale of decades, climate changes can also result from interaction
of the atmosphere and oceans. Many climate fluctuations — including
not only the El Niño Southern oscillation (the best known) but also the
Pacific decadal oscillation, the North Atlantic oscillation, and the Arctic
oscillation — owe their existence at least in part to different ways that
heat can be stored in the oceans and move between different reservoirs.
On longer time scales ocean processes such as thermohaline circulation
play a key role in redistributing heat, and can dramatically affect
climate.

2. The Memory of Climate

More generally, most forms of internal variability in the climate system

can be recognised as a form of hysteresis, meaning that the current state
of climate reflects not only the inputs, but also the history of how it got
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there. For example, a decade of dry conditions may cause lakes to

shrink, plains to dry up and deserts to expand. In turn, these conditions
may lead to less rainfall in the following years. In short, climate change
can be a self-perpetuating process because different aspects of the
environment respond at different rates and in different ways to the
fluctuations that inevitably occur.

Non-Climate Factors Driving Climate Change

3. Greenhouse Gases

Current studies indicate that radioactive forcing by greenhouse gases is

the primary cause of global warming. Greenhouse gases are also
important in understanding Earth’s climate history. According to these
studies, the greenhouse effect, which is the warming produced as
greenhouse gases trap heat, plays a key role in regulating Earth’s
temperature.

Over the last 600 million years, carbon dioxide concentrations have
varied from perhaps great than 5000 ppm3 to less than 200 ppm3, due
primarily to the effect of geological processes and biological
innovations. It has been argued that variation in greenhouse gas
concentrations over tens of millions of years have not been well
correlated to climate change, with plate tectonics; perhaps playing a
more dominant role. More recently, CO2-climate has been correlation to
derive a value for the climate sensitivity. There are several examples of
rapid changes in the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the Earth’s
atmosphere that do appear to correlate to strong warming, including the
Paleocene–Eocene thermal maximum, the Permian–Triassic extinction
event, and the end of the Varangian snowball earth event.

During the modern era, the naturally rising carbon dioxide levels are
implicated as the primary cause of global warming since 1950.
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),
(2007), the atmospheric concentration of CO 2 in 2005 was 379 ppm³
compared to the pre-industrial levels of 280 ppm³. Thermodynamics and
Le Chatelier’s principle explain the characteristics of the dynamic
equilibrium of a gas in solution such as the vast amount of CO 2 held in
solution in the world’s oceans moving into and returning from the
atmosphere. These principles can be observed as bubbles which rise in a
pot of water heated on a stove, or in a glass of cold beer allowed to sit at
room temperature; gases dissolved in liquids are released under certain
circumstances.

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4. Plate Tectonics

On the longest time scales, plate tectonics will reposition continents,

shape oceans, build and tear down mountains and generally serve to
define the stage upon which climate exists. More recently, plate motions
have been implicated in the intensification of the present ice age when,
approximately 3 million years ago, the North and South American plates
collided to form the Isthmus of Panama and shut off direct mixing
between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

f. Solar Variation

The sun is the ultimate source of essentially all heat in the climate
system. The energy output of the sun, which is converted to heat at the
Earth’s surface, is an integral part of shaping the Earth’s climate. On the
longest time scales, the sun itself is getting brighter with higher energy
output, as it continues its main sequence, this slow change or evolution
affects the Earth’s atmosphere. It is thought that, early in Earth’s history,
the sun was too cold to support liquid water at the Earth’s surface,
leading to what is known as the Faint young sun paradox.

On more modern time scales, there are also a variety of forms of solar
variation, including the 11-year solar cycle and longer-term
modulations. However, the 11-year sunspot cycle does not manifest
itself clearly in the climatological data. Solar intensity variations are
considered to have been influential in triggering the Little Ice Age, and
for some of the warming observed from 1900 to 1950. The cyclical
nature of the sun’s energy output is not yet fully understood; it differs
from the very slow change that is happening within the sun as it ages
and evolves.

g. Orbital Variations

In their effect on climate, orbital variations are in some sense an

extension of solar variability, because slight variations in the Earth’s
orbit lead to changes in the distribution and abundance of sunlight
reaching the Earth’s surface. Such orbital variations, known as
Milankovitch cycles, are a highly predictable consequence of basic
physics due to the mutual interactions of the Earth, its moon, and the
other planets. These variations are considered the driving factors
underlying the glacial and interglacial cycles of the present ice age.
Subtler variations are also present, such as the repeated advance and
retreat of the Sahara desert in response to orbital precession.

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h. Volcanism

A single eruption of the kind that occurs several times per century can
affect climate, causing cooling for a period of a few years. For example,
the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 affected climate substantially.
Huge eruptions, known as large igneous provinces, occur only a few
times every hundred million years, but can reshape climate for millions
of years and cause mass extinctions. Initially, scientists thought that the
dust emitted into the atmosphere from large volcanic eruptions was
responsible for the cooling by partially blocking the transmission of
solar radiation to the Earth’s surface. However, measurements indicate
that most of the dust thrown in the atmosphere returns to the Earth’s
surface within six months.

Volcanoes are also part of the extended carbon cycle. Over very long
(geological) time periods, they release carbon dioxide from the earth’s
interior, counteracting the uptake by sedimentary rocks and other
geological carbon dioxide sinks. However, this contribution is
insignificant compared to the current anthropogenic emissions. The US
Geological Survey estimates that human activities generate more than
130 times the amount of carbon dioxide emitted by volcanoes.
Human Influences on Climate Change

Anthropogenic factors are human activities that change the environment

and influence climate. In some cases the chain of causality is direct and
unambiguous (e.g., by the effects of irrigation on temperature and
humidity), while in others it is less clear. Various hypotheses for human-
induced climate change have been debated for many years. In the late
1800s, the “rain follows the plow” idea had many adherents in the
western United States.

The biggest factor of present concern is the increase in CO 2 levels due to

emissions from fossil fuel combustion, followed by aerosols (particulate
matter in the atmosphere), which exert a cooling effect, and cement
manufacturing. Other factors, including land use, ozone depletion,
animal agriculture and deforestation, also affect climate.

5. Fossil Fuels

Carbon dioxide variations over the last 400,000 years show a rise since
the industrial revolution. Beginning with the industrial revolution in the
1850s and accelerating ever since, the human consumption of fossil
fuels has elevated CO2 levels from a concentration of ~280 ppm to more
than 380 ppm today. These increases are projected to reach more than
560 ppm before the end of the 21 st century. It is known that carbon
dioxide levels are substantially higher now than at any time in the last
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750,000 years. Along with rising methane levels, these changes are
anticipated to cause an increase of 1.4–5.6 °C between 1990 and 2100.
(see global warming).

j. Aerosols

Anthropogenic aerosols, particularly sulphate aerosols from fossil fuel

combustion, exert a cooling influence. This, together with natural
variability, is believed to account for the relative “plateau” in the graph
of 20th-century temperatures in the middle of the century.

k. Cement Manufacturing

Cement manufacturing is the third largest cause of man-made carbon

dioxide emissions. Carbon dioxide is produced when calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) is heated to produce the cement ingredient calcium oxide
(CaO, also called quicklime). While fossil fuel combustion and
deforestation each produce significantly more carbon dioxide (CO 2),
cement-making is responsible for approximately 2.5% of total
worldwide emissions from industrial sources (energy plus
manufacturing sectors).

l. Land Use

Prior to widespread fossil fuel use, humanity’s largest effect on local

climate is likely to have resulted from land use. Irrigation, deforestation,
and agriculture fundamentally change the environment. For example,
they change the amount of water going into and out of a given location.
They also may change the local albedo by influencing the ground cover
and altering the amount of sunlight that is absorbed. For example, there
is evidence to suggest that the climate of Greece and other
Mediterranean countries was permanently changed by widespread
deforestation between 700 BC and 1 AD (the wood being used for
shipbuilding, construction and fuel), with the result that the modern
climate in the region is significantly hotter and drier, and the species of
trees that were used for shipbuilding in the ancient world can no longer
be found in the area.

A controversial hypothesis by William Ruddiman called the early

anthropocene hypothesis suggests that the rise of agriculture and the
accompanying deforestation led to the increases in carbon dioxide and
methane during the period 5000–8000 years ago. These increases, which
reversed previous declines, may have been responsible for delaying the
onset of the next glacial period, according to Ruddimann’s overdue-
glaciation hypothesis.

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In modern times, Jet Propulsion Laboratory study found that the average
temperature of California has risen about 2 degrees over the past 50
years, with a much higher increase in urban areas. The change was
attributed mostly to extensive human development of the landscape.

m. Livestock

According to a 2006 United Nations report, Livestock’s Long Shadow,

livestock is responsible for 18% of the world’s greenhouse gas
emissions as measured in CO2 equivalents. This, however, includes land
usage change, meaning deforestation in order to create grazing land. In
the Amazon Rainforest, 70% of deforestation is to make way for grazing
land, so this is the major factor in the 2006 UN FAO report, which was
the first agricultural report to include land usage change into the
radiative forcing of livestock. In addition to CO2 emissions, livestock
produces 65% of human-induced nitrous oxide (which has 296 times the
global warming potential of CO2) and 37% of human-induced methane
(which has 23 times the global warming potential of CO2).

SELF ASSESSEMENT

Differentiate between climate change and global warming

4.0 CONCLUSION

Ecosystems could be affected by a change in temperature. It has been

predicted that an increase in temperature would affect species
composition. Scientists also believe that up to two thirds of the world’s
forests would undergo major changes. Scientists believe that deserts
would become hotter, and desertification would extend and become
harder to reverse.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

 climate change is the variation in the Earth’s global climate or in

regional climates over time
 global warming is the rise in global temperatures due to an
increase of heat-trapping carbon emissions in the atmosphere
 drivers of climate change are in categories which include:

a. Changes within the Earth’s environment (Glaciation,

Ocean variability, memory of climate)

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b. Non-climate factors driving climate change (Greenhouse

gases, Plate tectonics, solar variation, Orbital variations,
Volcanism)
c. Human influences on climate change (Fossil fuels, Cement
manufacture, Land use, Livestock).

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Discuss physical and human factors driving climate change.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Emanuel, K. A. (2005). Increasing Destructiveness of Tropical Cyclones

over the Past 30 Years., Nature, 436; 686-688
[Link]
PDF.

IPCC. (2007). Climate Change 2007: the Physical Science Basis

(Summary for Policy Makers), IPCC.

Miller, C. & Edwards, P. N. (ed.) (2001). Changing the Atmosphere:

Expert Knowledge and Environmental Governance, MIT Press

Ruddiman, W. F. (2003). The Anthropogenic Greenhouse era began

Thousands of Years Ago, Climate Change 61 (3): 261-293.

Ruddiman, W. F. (2005). Plows, Plagues and Petroleum: How Humans

Took Control of Climate, Princeton University Press.

Ruddiman, W. F.; Vavrus, S. J. & Kutzbach, J. E. (2005). A Test of the

Overdue-Glaciation Hypothesis, Quaternary Science Review,
24:11.

Schmidt, G. A.; Shindel, D. T. & Harder, S. (2004). A note of the

Relationship between Ice Core Methane Concentrations and
Insolation GRL v31 L23206.

U. S. Environmental Protection Agency [1] “[Link]

org/[Link]?title=Climate_change”

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UNIT 3 IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

ON BIODIVERSITY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 A. Objectives
B. How to Study this Unit
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Climate Change and Biodiversity
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Climate change is one of the most critical global challenges of our time.
Recent events have emphatically demonstrated our growing
vulnerability to climate change. Climate change impacts range from
affecting agriculture to further endangering food security, sea-level rise
and the accelerated erosion of coastal zones, increasing intensity of
natural and biological resources. In this unit, the impact of climate
change on the performance or the life cycle of the species is considered.

2.0 A: OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain the influence of climate change on biodiversity.

2.0 B: HOW TO STUDY THIS UNIT

1. You are expected to read carefully, through this unit twice before
attempting to answer the activity questions. Do not look at the
solution or guides provided at the end of the unit until you are
satisfied that you have done your best to get all the answers.
2. Share your difficulties in understanding the unit with your mates,
facilitators and by consulting other relevant materials or internet.
3. Ensure that you only check correct answers to the activities as a
way of confirming what you have done.
4. Note that if you follow these instructions strictly, you will feel
fulfilled at the end that you have achieved your aim and could
stimulate you to do more.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

Due to past and present emissions, climate change is unavoidable.

According to the UNFCC, the climate does not respond immediately to
external changes, but after 150 years of industrialisation, global
warming has momentum, and it will continue to affect the earth’s
natural systems for hundreds of years even if greenhouse gas emissions
are reduced and atmospheric levels stop rising. Even the minimum
predicted shifts in climate for the 21st century are likely to be significant
and disruptive. Scientific understanding and computer models have
improved recently and many projections can now be made with greater
certainty. Predictions of future climate impacts show that the
consequences could vary from disruptive to catastrophic. Current
climate models predict a global temperature increase of 1.4-5.8°C by
2100 if nothing is done to reduce emissions. The minimum warming
forecast for the next 100 years is more than twice the 0.6°C increase that
has occurred since 1900 and that earlier increase is already having
marked consequences.

3.1 Climate Change and Biodiversity

The life cycles of many wild plants and animals are closely linked to the
passing of the seasons, climatic changes can lead to interdependent pairs
of species (e.g. a wild flower and its pollinating insect) losing
synchronization, if, for example, one has a cycle dependent on day
length and the other on temperature or precipitation. In principle, at
least, this could lead to extinctions or changes in the distribution and
abundance of species.

One phenomenon is the movement of species northwards in Europe. A

recent study by Butterfly Conservation in the UK has shown that
relatively common species with a southerly distribution have moved
north, whilst scarce upland species have become rarer and lost territory
towards the south. This picture has been mirrored across several
invertebrate groups.

Drier summers could lead to more periods of drought, potentially

affecting many species of animal and plant. For example, in the UK
during the drought year of 2006 significant numbers of trees died or
showed dieback on light sandy soils. In Australia, since the early 90s,
tens of thousands of flying foxes (Pteropus) have died as a direct result
of extreme heat. Wetter, milder winters might affect temperate mammals
or insects by preventing them hibernating or entering torpor during
periods when food is scarce.

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One predicted change is the ascendancy of ‘weedy’ or opportunistic

species at the expense of scarcer species with narrower or more
specialized ecological requirements. One example could be the expanses
of bluebell seen in many types of woodland in the UK. These have an
early growing and flowering season before competing weeds can
develop and the tree canopy closes. Milder winters can allow weeds to
overwinter as adult plants or germinate sooner, whilst trees leaf earlier,
reducing the length of the window for bluebells to complete their life
cycle.

Organisations such as Wildlife Trust, World Wide Fund for Nature,

Birdlife International and the Audubon Society are actively monitoring
and research the effects of climate change on biodiversity and advance
policies in areas such as landscape scale conservation to promote
adaptation to climate change.

Changes in climate over the last few decades of the 20 th century have
already affected biodiversity. The observed changes in the climate
system (e.g., increased atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide,
increased land and ocean temperatures, changes in precipitation and sea
level rise), particularly the warmer regional temperatures, have affected
the timing of reproduction of animals and plants and/or migration of
animals, the length of the growing season, species distributions and
population sizes, and the frequency of pest and disease outbreaks.
Projected changes in climate during the 21st century occur faster than in
at least the past 10,000 years and combined with land use change and
exotic/ alien species spread, are likely to limit both the capability of
species to migrate and the ability of species to persist in fragmented
habitats.

There is a growing body of evidence showing that increases in

atmospheric concentrations of ‘greenhouse’ gases will enhance the
greenhouse effect, resulting on average in additional warming of the
earth’s surface. This is likely to lead to climatic changes, including
increased temperatures, sea level rises and altered rainfall regimes. The
extent, pattern and timing of such changes remain uncertain. However,
sea level rises would have a direct effect on coastal and estuarine
ecosystems and freshwater lagoons near the coast, many of which are
important breeding grounds for birds. In alpine ecosystems relatively
small temperature changes may result in extensive loss of habitat and
consequently extinction of some alpine species. Scientists have observed
climate-induced changes in at least 420 physical processes and
biological species or communities. In the Alps, some plant species have
been migrating upward by one to four metres per decade, and some
plants previously found only on mountaintops have disappeared.
The ability of species and ecosystems to adapt to climate changes is
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affected by the rate of change and possible increases in the frequency of

extreme climatic events. Pollution and the fragmentation of many
natural habitats place further stresses on biological diversity and
ecosystem function. Integrated conservation and sympathetic
management of large areas of the environment, within a bioregional
context, have the greatest potential to mitigate the possible effects of
climate change on biological diversity.

In the National Greenhouse Response Strategy, governments have

emphasized the need to adopt land uses and management measures
designed to conserve carbon sinks and increase the amount of vegetation
in forests and elsewhere. They have also stated in the Strategy that they
will seek to provide corridor systems that link reserves and refuges with
a relatively large range of altitudinal and other geographical variation, to
take into account possible impacts of climate change.

SELF ASSESSEMENT
Explain 5 influences of climate change on biodiversity.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Human activities that contribute to climate change include in particular,

the burning of fossil fuels, agriculture and land-use changes like
deforestation. These cause emissions of carbon dioxide (CO 2), the main
gas responsible for climate change, as well as of other ‘greenhouse’
gases. To bring climate change to a halt, global greenhouse gas
emissions must be reduced significantly.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

 due to past and present emissions, climate change is unavoidable

 the observed changes in the climate system particularly the
warmer regional temperatures, have affected the timing of
reproduction of animals and plants
 the observed changes in the climate system have affected
migration of animals
 the observed changes in the climate system have affected the
length of the growing season, species distributions and population
sizes, and the frequency of pest and disease outbreaks
 the ability of species and ecosystems to adapt to climate changes
is affected by the rate of change and possible increases in the
frequency of extreme climatic events
 pollution and the fragmentation of many natural habitats place
further stresses on biological diversity and ecosystem function.
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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Changes in climate over the last few decades of the 20 th century have
affected biodiversity – Discuss.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

IPCC. (2007). Climate Change: the Physical Science Basis (Summary

for Policy Makers), IPCC.

Miller, C. & Edwards, P. N. (ed.) (2001). Changing the Atmosphere:

Expert Knowledge and Environmental Governance, MIT Press.

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UNIT 4 CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION AND

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 A. Objectives
B. How to Study this Unit
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Mitigation and Adaptation
3.2 Methods of Climate Change Mitigation for Biodiversity
3.3 Effects of Climate Change Mitigation Strategies on
Biodiversity
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
8.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

There are significant opportunities for mitigating climate change, and

for adapting to climate change, while enhancing the conservation of
biodiversity. Carbon mitigation and adaptation options that take into
account environmental (including biodiversity), social and economic
considerations, offer the greatest potential for positive synergistic
impacts.

2.0 A: OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define mitigation and adaptation;
 identify different mitigation methods of climate change on
biodiversity;
 explain the methods of mitigation;
 assess the effects of the methods on biodiversity conservation and
 explain the significance of climate change mitigation for
biodiversity conservation.

2.0 B: HOW TO STUDY THIS UNIT

1. You are expected to read carefully, through this unit twice
before attempting to answer the activity questions. Do not
look at the solution or guides provided at the end of the unit
until you are satisfied that you have done your best to get all
the answers.

2. Share your difficulties in understanding the unit with your

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mates, facilitators and by consulting other relevant materials

or internet.
3. Ensure that you only check correct answers to the activities as
a way of confirming what you have done.
4. Note that if you follow these instructions strictly, you will feel
fulfilled at the end that you have achieved your aim and could
stimulate you to do more.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Mitigation and Adaptation

Mitigation involves reducing the greenhouse gas emissions from energy

and biological sources or enhancing the sinks of greenhouse gases.
Adaptation is comprised of activities that reduce a system’s (human
and natural) vulnerability to climate change.

3.2 Methods of Climate Change Mitigation for Biodiversity

Land-use change and forestry activities can play an important role in

reducing net greenhouse gas emissions to the atmosphere. Biological
mitigation of greenhouse gases through land use change and forestry
(LUCF) activities can occur by three strategies:

1. conservation of existing carbon pools, i.e., avoiding deforestation

2. sequestration by increasing the size of carbon pools, e.g., through
afforestation and reforestation, and
3. substitution of fossil fuel energy by use of modern biomass.

The estimated upper limit of the global potential of biological mitigation

options (a and b) through afforestation, reforestation, avoided
deforestation, and agriculture, grazing land, and forest management is
on the order of 100 Gt C (cumulative) by the year 2050, equivalent to
about 10– 20% of projected fossil-fuel emissions during that period,
although there are substantial uncertainties associated with this estimate.

3.3 Effects of Climate Change Mitigation Strategies on

Biodiversity

Afforestation and reforestation can have positive, neutral or negative

impacts on biodiversity depending on the ecosystem being replaced,
management options applied, and the spatial and temporal scales. The
value of a planted forest to biodiversity will depend to a large degree, on
what was previously on the site and also, on the landscape context in
which it occurs. The reforestation of degraded lands will often produce
the greatest benefits to biodiversity but can also provide the greatest
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challenges to forest management. Afforestation and reforestation

activities that pay attention to species selection and site location, can
promote the return, survival and expansion of native plant and animal
populations. In contrast, clearing native forests and replacing them with
a monoculture forest of exotics would clearly have a negative effect on
biodiversity. Afforestation of other natural grasslands and other native
habitat types would also entail significant loss of biodiversity.

Short rotation plantations will not sequester and maintain carbon as

much as long rotation plantations in which vegetation and soil carbon is
allowed to accumulate. Loss of soil carbon occurs for several years
following harvesting and replanting due to the exposure of soil,
increased leaching and runoff and reduced inputs from litter. Short
rotation forests, with their simpler structure, foster lower species
richness than longer-lived forests. However, products from short
rotation plantations may alleviate the pressure to harvest or deforest
longer-lived or primary forests.

Plantations of native tree species will support more biodiversity than

exotic species and plantations of mixed tree species will usually support
more biodiversity than monocultures. Plantations of exotic species
support only some of the local biodiversity but may contribute to
biodiversity conservation if appropriately situated in the landscape.
Planting of invasive exotic species, however, could have major and
widespread negative consequences for biodiversity. Tree plantations
may be designed to allow for the colonization and establishment of
diverse under storey plant communities by providing shade and by
ameliorating microclimates. Involvement of local and indigenous
communities in the design and the benefits to be achieved from a
plantation may contribute to local support for a project and hence
contribute to its longevity. Plantations may contribute to the dispersal
capability of some species among habitat patches on a formerly
fragmented landscape. Even plantations of a single species can confer
some benefits to local biodiversity, especially if they incorporate
features such as allowing canopy gaps, retaining some dead wood
components, and providing landscape connectivity.

Slowing deforestation and forest degradation can provide substantial

biodiversity benefits in addition to mitigating greenhouse gas emissions
and preserving ecological services. In temperate regions, deforestation
mainly occurred, when it did, several decades to centuries ago. In recent
decades, deforestation has been most prevalent in the tropics. Since the
remaining primary tropical forests are estimated to contain 50–70
percent of all terrestrial plant and animal species, they are of great
importance in the conservation of biodiversity. Tropical deforestation
and degradation of all types of forests remain major causes of global
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biodiversity loss. Any project that slows deforestation or forest

degradation will help to conserve biodiversity. Projects in
threatened/vulnerable forests that are unusually species-rich, globally
rare, or unique to that region can provide the greatest immediate
biodiversity benefits. Projects that protect forests from land conversion
or degradation in key watersheds have potential to substantially slow
soil erosion, protect water resources, and conserve biodiversity.

Most of the world’s forests are managed, hence improved management

can enhance carbon uptake or minimize carbon losses and conserve
biodiversity. Humans manage most forests for conservation purposes
and to produce goods and services. Forest ecosystems are extremely
varied and the positive or negative impact of any forest management
operation will differ according to soil, climate and site history, including
disturbance regimes (such as fire). Because forests are enormous
repositories of terrestrial biodiversity at all levels of organization
(genetic, species, population, and ecosystem), improved management
activities have the potential to positively affect biodiversity. Forestry
practices that enhance biodiversity in managed stands and have a
positive influence on carbon retention within forests include: increasing
rotation length, low intensity harvesting, leaving woody debris, post-
harvest silviculture to restore the local forest types, paying attention to
landscape structure and harvesting that emulates natural disturbance
regimes. Management that maintains natural fire regime will usually
maintain biodiversity and carbon storage.

Revegetation activities that increase plant cover on eroded, severely

degraded, or otherwise disturbed lands have a high potential to increase
sequestration and enhance biodiversity. Sequestration rates will depend
on various factors. Soils of eroded or degraded sites generally have low
carbon levels and therefore a high potential to accumulate carbon,
however, revegetation of these types of such sites will pose technical
challenges. An important consideration is to match the plant species to
the site conditions and to consider which key ecological functions need
to be restored. Biodiversity can be improved if revegetation aids
recruitment of native species over time or if it prevents further
degradation and protects neighboring ecosystems. In certain instances,
where native species may now be impossible to grow on some degraded
sites, the use of exotic species and fertilizers may provide the best (and
only) opportunity for re-establishing vegetation. However, care should
be exercised to avoid situations where exotics that have invasive
characteristics end up colonizing neighboring native habitats.

Bio-energy plantations provide the potential to substitute fossil fuel

energy with biomass fuels but may have adverse impacts on biodiversity
if they replace ecosystems with higher biodiversity. However, bio-
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energy plantations on degraded lands or abandoned agricultural sites

could benefit biodiversity.

SELF ASSESSEMENT
1. What is mitigation and adaptation?
2. Explain the methods of mitigation

4.0 CONCLUSION

Since the remaining primary tropical forests are estimated to contain 50–
70 percent of all terrestrial plant and animal species, they are of great
importance in the conservation of biodiversity. Tropical deforestation
and degradation of all types of forests remain major causes of global
biodiversity loss. Any project that slows deforestation or forest
degradation will help to conserve biodiversity.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

 Mitigation involves reducing the greenhouse gas emissions from

energy and biological sources or enhancing the sinks of
greenhouse gases
 Biological mitigation of greenhouse gases through land use
change and forestry activities can occur in three ways
 Afforestation and reforestation can have positive, neutral or
negative impacts on biodiversity depending on the ecosystem
being replaced, management options applied, and the spatial and
temporal scales
 Afforestation and reforestation activities that pay attention to
species selection and site location, can promote the return,
survival and expansion of native plant and animal populations
 The reforestation of degraded lands will often produce the
greatest benefits to biodiversity but can also provide the greatest
challenges to forest management
 Clearing native forests and replacing them with a monoculture
forest of exotics would have a negative effect on biodiversity
 Plantations of native tree species will support more biodiversity
than exotic species
 Plantations of mixed tree species will usually support more
biodiversity than monocultures
 Slowing deforestation and forest degradation can provide
substantial biodiversity benefits in addition to mitigating
greenhouse gas emissions and preserving ecological services
 Managed forests can enhance carbon uptake or minimize carbon
losses and conserve biodiversity
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 Revegetation activities that increase plant cover on eroded,

severely degraded, or otherwise disturbed lands have a high
potential to increase sequestration and enhance biodiversity
 Bio-energy plantations provide the potential to substitute fossil
fuel energy with biomass fuels but may have adverse impacts on
biodiversity if they replace ecosystems with higher biodiversity.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Critically examine the impacts of climate change mitigation on

biodiversity conservation.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

IPCC. (2007) Climate Change 2007: the Physical Science Basis

(Summary for Policy Makers), IPCC.

Miller, C. & Edwards, P. N. (ed.) (2001). Changing the Atmosphere:

Expert Knowledge and Environmental Governance, MIT Press.

Ruddiman, W. F. (2003). The Anthropogenic Greenhouse Era began

Thousands of Years Ago, Climate Change 61 (3): 261-293.

U. S. Environmental Protection Agency [1] "[Link]

org/[Link]?title=Climate_change.

UNEP (2002). Africa Environment Outlook: Past, Present and Future

Perspective. England, Earthprint Limited.

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UNIT 5 BIODIVERSITY IN WEST AFRICA (W/A) (A

CASE STUDY)

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 A Objectives
B How to Study this Unit
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Threat to Biodiversity in Western Africa
3.2 Sustainable Management and Conservation of Biodiversity
in W/A
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Habitat diversity in Western Africa ranges from semi-desert and savanna

to tropical forests, mangroves, freshwater, lakes and rivers, and inland
and coastal wetlands. The upper Guinea forest, which extends from
western Ghana through Cote d’Ivoire, Liberia and Guinea to Southern
Sierra Leone, is a biologically unique system that is considered one of
the world’s priority conservation areas because of its high endemism.
Nearly 2,000 plants and more than 41 mammals are endemic to the
ecosystem. Species diversity is also high, with more than 20,000
butterfly and moth species, 15 species of even toed ungulates and 11
species of primates. In this unit, the biologically diverse communities of
Western Africa are considered.

2.0 A: OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain different types of habitat diversity in West Africa;

 state three biological resources in W/A;
 discuss threat to W/A biodiversity; and
 list measures towards the sustainable management and
conservation of biodiversity in W/A.

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2.0 B: HOW TO STUDY THIS UNIT

1. You are expected to read carefully, through this unit twice before
attempting to answer the activity questions. Do not look at the
solution or guides provided at the end of the unit until you are
satisfied that you have done your best to get all the answers.
2. Share your difficulties in understanding the unit with your mates,
facilitators and by consulting other relevant materials or internet.
3. Ensure that you only check correct answers to the activities as a
way of confirming what you have done.
4. Note that if you follow these instructions strictly, you will feel
fulfilled at the end that you have achieved your aim and could
stimulate you to do more.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

The richness of Western Africa’s biological resources has constituted

the basis of survival of the sub-region’s indigenous societies. The local
human populations have developed knowledge systems and practised
traditions which have protected and conserved plants, animals, water
resources and other components of their life support systems. In Ghana,
sacred groves protect biodiversity in three different ways:

1. by protecting particular ecosystems or habitats,

2. by protecting particular animal or plant species and
3. by regulating the exploitation of natural resources.

Many plants species are also used in Ghana in traditional herbal

medicines and the Kakum National Park in Ghana, with its canopy
walkway, attracts thousands of visitors a year, helping to boost the
economy as well as awareness of environmental issues.

3.1 Threat to Biodiversity in Western Africa

Since the beginning of the last century, biological resources in Western

Africa have been rapidly degraded and lost through practices such as
large scale clearing and burning of forest, overharvesting of plants and
animals, indiscriminate use of persistent chemical pesticides, draining
and filling of wetlands, destructive fishing practices, air pollution, and
the conversion of protected lands to agricultural and urban development.
These activities are the results of uncontrolled population growth and
increasing poverty, as well as of economic policies and priorities.

For example, economic pressures led to concessions being granted to

foreign logging companies to exploit Western tropical forests and
prices of cash crops especially in the 1980s, resulted in clearing of large
areas of natural habitat for agriculture. Benin, Cote d’Ivoire, Liberia,
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Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Sierra Leone and Togo all have rates of
deforestation of more than 2 percent per year. Remnants of forest
vegetation are presently found in protected areas in coastal countries.
The Upper Guinea forest extends over approximately 420,000 sq km,
but estimates of existing forests suggest a loss of nearly 80 percent of
the original extent. The remaining forest is highly fragmented and
spread across national borders. The forest fragments that remain are
under severe threat, mainly arising from slash and burn agriculture,
which accounts for much of the sub-region’s subsistence food
production.

Savannas are the dominant ecosystems in Western Africa, after tropical

forests. Like the forests, they also support extremely biologically diverse
communities of animals and plants but persistent exploitation for food,
fuelwood and other resources from the savanna has resulted in their
widespread degradation. For instance, the rich and extensive savanna
vegetation found in the northern portions of the sub-region has been
severely degraded, with resultant loss of vegetation cover, fertile top soil
and wild fauna species.

Another major biodiversity issue in Western Africa is the loss and

degradation of wetlands. Coastal and inland wetlands in W/A have been
regarded as wastelands constituting habitats for pests and thus,
representing a threat to public health. As a result of this perception,
wetlands in W/A have been under constant threat from development
activities, especially agriculture and construction of harbours. Draining
or in-filling of wetlands changes hydrological regimes so that they no
longer provide suitable habitats for wildlife. Untreated effluents from
domestic, commercial and industrial sources in nearby settlements have
polluted coastal wetlands creating a toxicity risk for flora and fauna.

Habitat loss is not the only threat to wildlife in W/A. The demand for
bush meat is driving high rates of poaching and an international trade in
endangered species and wildlife products is also flourishing. A series of
surveys of endangered primates in the forest reserves of Eastern Cote
D’Ivoire and southern Ghana from 1993 to 1999 document the first
recorded extinction of a widely recognized primate taxon.

Rural people in W/A depend heavily on medicinal plants for their health
needs. However, as a result of extensive agricultural practices and
annual bush fires, many medicinal plants have been lost at a time when
conscious efforts are being made in many countries to promote herbal
and traditional medicine. Other species are threatened by a few invasive
species of animals and plants.

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3.2 Sustainable Management and Conservation of

Biodiversity in W/A

The countries of W/A have responded to the problems of habitat loss by

placing natural areas under protection. However, the number and size of
protected areas varies from one country to another. Burkina Faso and
Senegal have over 10 % of their lands area under national protection,
whereas in Guinea and Guinea Bissau this was less than 1%, although
they do have marine protected areas.

International efforts to conserve natural habitats have been very

successful as a result of ratification of the Rasmsar convention, and the
convention on Biological Diversity. There are 15 Biosphere reserves in
the sub-region, 10 World Heritage Sites and 37 Ramsar sites.

Nearly all countries within the sub-region are signatories to the

Convention and Biological Diversity and the Ramsar Convention, and
many have drawn up programmes and projects under these agreements.
Capacity development activities are also underway, under the aegis of
new institutions created to coordinate and implement them. Most
notable in the area has been GEF support for biological programmes and
projects in the recipient of GEF biodiversity funding by mid 1998, with
emphasis on coastal, marine and freshwater ecosystems.

SELF ASSESSEMENT
What are the threats to biodiversity in Nigeria?

4.0 CONCLUSION

The range of climatic conditions and geomorphology found in Africa

has created a wide diversity of habitats, which various species of flora
and fauna have evolved to exploit. As a result, the region is exceedingly
well endowed with diverse biological resources. African countries and
sub-regional grouping must cooperate in devising policies, programmes
and projects that harmonise biodiversity management and conservation
throughout ecologically determined regions.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

 The range of climatic conditions and geomorphology found in

Africa has created a wide diversity of habitats
 Habitat diversity in Western Africa ranges from semi-desert and
savanna to tropical forests, mangroves, freshwater, lakes and
rivers, inland and coastal wetlands
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 The local human populations have developed knowledge systems

and practiced traditions which have protected and conserved
plants, animals, water resources and other components of their
life support systems
 Biological resources in Western Africa have been rapidly
degraded and lost through practices such as, large scale clearing
and burning of forest, overharvesting of plants and animals,
indiscriminate use of persistent chemical pesticides, draining and
filling of wetlands, destructive fishing practices, air pollution, and
the conversion of protected lands to agricultural and urban
development
 These activities are the results of uncontrolled population growth
and increasing poverty, as well as of economic policies and
priorities
 The countries of W/A have responded to the problems of habitat
loss by placing natural areas under protection.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

i. Discuss West African biodiversity under the following headings:

a. Ecological, Economic and Social values of biological

resources in Western Africa.
b. Threat to biodiversity in Western Africa.
c. Sustainable management and conservation of biodiversity
in Western Africa.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Conservation International (1999). Conservation Priority Setting for the

Upper Guinea Forest Ecosystem, West Africa, Conservation
International, Washington DC.

Conservation International (2002). [Link]/sp/CIWEB/

strategy/hotpots/guinean_forest.xml

FAO (2001). Global Forest Resources Assessment, FAO, Rome

Myers, N. (1990). The Biodiversity Challenge: Expanded Hotspot

Analysis. The Environmentalist, 10: 243-256.

UNEP, (2002). Africa Environment Outlook: Past, Present and Future

perspective. England, Earthprint Limited

World Bank (2001a). African Development Indicators 2001. The World

Bank Washington DC.
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