23/11/2025, 10:22 Introduction to System Design
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SQL Databases
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RDBMS Concepts
SQL Language
Popular SQL Databases
Pros and cons of using SQL databases
SQL (Structured Query Language) databases, also known as relational databases, are the
most commonly used type of databases in software applications. They store data in tables,
where each table consists of rows and columns. Relationships between tables are established
using primary and foreign keys. SQL databases follow the ACID properties (Atomicity,
Consistency, Isolation, Durability) to ensure reliable data transactions.
RDBMS Concepts
Tables: The fundamental building blocks of relational databases, tables represent the
structure of the data. Each table contains rows (records) and columns (fields) that store
individual pieces of data.
Primary Key: A unique identifier for each row in a table. A primary key enforces
uniqueness and ensures that no two rows share the same identifier.
Foreign Key: A column (or a set of columns) in a table that refers to the primary key of
another table. Foreign keys are used to establish relationships between tables and
enforce referential integrity.
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Indexes: Database indexes are data structures that help to speed up data retrieval
operations. They work similarly to the index in a book, allowing for faster lookups and
searches.
Normalization: The process of organizing a database into tables, columns, and
relationships to reduce data redundancy and improve data integrity.
SQL Language
SQL is a standardized language for managing and querying relational databases. It provides a
powerful and flexible way to interact with the data. The language consists of several
components, including:
Data Definition Language (DDL): Allows for the creation, modification, and deletion of
database structures, such as tables, indexes, and constraints.
Data Manipulation Language (DML): Enables data insertion, updating, deletion, and
retrieval operations on database tables.
Data Control Language (DCL): Deals with user permissions and access control for
database objects.
Transaction Control Language (TCL): Manages database transactions and ensures ACID
compliance.
Popular SQL Databases
Several well-known SQL databases are available, each with its own features and use cases.
Some popular SQL databases include:
MySQL: An open-source, widely used RDBMS, MySQL is popular for web applications and
is a component of the LAMP (Linux, Apache, MySQL, PHP/Perl/Python) stack.
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PostgreSQL: Another open-source RDBMS that focuses on extensibility, standards
compliance, and performance. PostgreSQL is well-regarded for its advanced features,
such as support for custom data types, full-text search, and spatial data operations.
Microsoft SQL Server: A commercial RDBMS developed by Microsoft, featuring a
comprehensive set of tools and features for enterprise-level applications. SQL Server is
known for its tight integration with other Microsoft products, security features, and
business intelligence capabilities.
Oracle Database: A widely-used commercial RDBMS that offers high performance,
advanced features, and scalability. Oracle is popular in large organizations and mission-
critical applications due to its robustness, reliability, and comprehensive toolset.
Pros and cons of using SQL databases
1. ACID properties and consistency: SQL databases adhere to the ACID (Atomicity,
Consistency, Isolation, Durability) properties, which ensure the reliability of transactions
and the consistency of the data. These properties guarantee that any operation on the
data will either be completed in its entirety or not at all, and that the data will always
remain in a consistent state.
2. Structured schema: SQL databases enforce a predefined schema for the data, which
ensures that the data is structured, consistent, and follows specific rules. This structured
schema can make it easier to understand and maintain the data model, as well as
optimize queries for performance.
3. Query language and optimization: SQL is a powerful and expressive query language that
allows developers to perform complex operations on the data, such as filtering, sorting,
grouping, and joining multiple tables based on specified conditions. SQL databases also
include query optimizers, which analyze and optimize queries for improved performance.
4. Scalability and performance: SQL databases can be scaled vertically by adding more
resources (such as CPU, memory, and storage) to a single server. However, horizontal
scaling, or distributing the data across multiple servers, can be more challenging
due to the relational nature of the data and the constraints imposed by the ACID
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properties. This can lead to performance bottlenecks and difficulties in scaling for large-
scale applications with high write loads or massive amounts of data.
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