8-8 RF and Mlcrow•v• EnglnMrlng

(b) Absorptive RF power meters · .

• These RF power meters absorb the power they measure. Typically, It utilizes a
power sensor. This generates a signal proportional to the power level entering
the sensor.

• The sensor signal is coupled to the main :nstrument within the overall RF power
meter to process the results and display the reading. This type is also frequency
insensitive. These types generally have digital readouts.

• The power sensor generates an analog voltage and then fed into the main RF
power meter unit.

• Applications of power meters

• laboratory measurements
• RADARs, Live systems
• Solid-state amplifiers
• Medical instruments
• Broadband applications
• TOMA, COMA,
• GSM, WLAN, WiMax etc...
5.5. Spectrum Analyzer
• The spectrum analyzet (SA), as the name indicates it displays and analyzes
the visual representation of the spectral content of the Input signal.·

• A spectrum Is collection of sine waves when combined properly. It produces

the time-domain signal under examination. The typical spectrum analyzer is
shown in Figure 5.4.
.
• It gives only the amplitude values but not phase information as shown in
Figure 5.5.

• spectrum monitoring is another important frequency domain measurement.

Government regulatory agencies allocate dlffere-:tt frequencies for various
radio services, such as television broadcast, radio, mobile, police, and
emergency communications.

• It is critical that each of these services operates at the assigned frequency and
stays within the allotted channel bandwidth.
 EASUREMENTS

.•
II
!A ./\
Signals

Nobe
,&
·c

Frequency
re 5.4 !ypical Spectrum Analyzer
Figure 5.5 Display formats in SA
inQ Principle and O~ratlon
, It uses sup~r heterodyne Principle. Super refers to super audio frequencies
or frequencies above the audio range. In addition, heterodyne means to mix;
that is to translate frequency. A block diagram of a super heterodyne spectrum
analyzer is shown in Figure 5.8. .
'
RF input
attenuator
Mher IF fflter Envelope
Input detect9r
Signal
Video
filter
osctllator
eference
osclllator
Sweep _
- generator Display

Figure 5.6 Block diagram of super heterodyne spectrum analyzer

The input signal passes through an attenuator, then through a low-pass filter to
a mixer. Mixer mixes with a signal from the local oscillator (LO). Since mixer is a
non-linear device, its outputs include two original signals, harmonics and the
sum and differences of the original freq~encies and their harmonics.

If any of the mixed sign#ils falls within the pass band of the intermediate
frequency (IF) filter. The IF signal ia rectified by th~ envelope detector, filtered
through the LPF, and Ylen displayed. .
A ramp generator creates the horizontal movement across the display from
left to right. The ramp also tunes the LO so its frequency change is in
Proportion to the ramp voltage.
 s-e

put of a spe ctrum ana lyzer is an

RF and Mlcrow•v• EnglnMrtng

X·Y trace on a display. The horizontal

-
• T~e ou~
arly calibrated In term s of freq uency that increases from left to right
axis Is line ·
g the fre que ncy Is the two -ste p process.
Settin
control
centerline with the center frequency
• First, ad jus t the frequency at the te;
Otherwise, set the start and sto
p frequencies instead of setting cen
,
frequency and span.

ave systems
Role of spectrum analyzer fn microw
rs in any microwave systems
• It can display the following paramete
• Frequency versus amplitude
• Exact frequency of a signal
• Stability of a signal against time
• Interfering signals
• Distortion
• Noise
• Effect :,f modulation on carrier

d by the following parameters

The spectrum analyzers are quantifie
(a) Frequency range
(b) Frequency span •
I (c) Frequency resolution
(d) Sensitivity
(e) Dynamic range

(a) Frequency range can

uency range is overall fre quenc y band that the Instrument
• The freq
the mixer and LO frequencies.
receive and analyze. It depends on
.
(b) Frequency span on the
frequencies that can be displayed
• Frequency span is the range of be
at a particular time. Dependin g on the instrument and settings, it can
screen
full range or some part of it.

(c) Frequency resolution

imum fre qu en cy diff ere nce between two signals required to
• It is the min
m analyzer. It is se t by the bandwidth
of
identify them separately using a spectru
spectrum analyzers.
the swept band pass filter used in the
 ltlvlty
spectrum analyzers are always associated with in a noise floor. This noise
ftOOr sets a minimum signal level. This defines the sensitivity of the instrument. ·

nd width o. Noise floor a 1

Sensitivity

• to achieve the highest sensitivity, configure the instrument ~t th e

possible bandwidth.

ic range is the difference between the maximum usable signal

the minimum detectable signal power.

Ing high to study · the sidebands or spurious signals · that are

below the carrier frequency.

spectral purity of a multiplex signals

· n chiiracteristics of AM and FM signals
modulated signals
M transmitters displayed spectrum.
•' .
wer in cell phone towers
muni~tion systems

interference in signals, which are often needed in

mtowers
tations
ve Landing system in airport (MLS)
Bluetooth etc....

an· instrument that measures the network parameter

• It measures both the amplitude and pha~e over t~
typical network analyzer is shown in Figure 5.7.
 -
5-10 RF and Microwave Engineering

• It is often used to characterize

:I •
• [Link]
• Multi-po rt networks

• It is used to compute .
• The impedance mismatch between two RF components
• Signal integrity.

Figure 5. 7 Network Analyzer

Types of network analyzers ~

• Based on .the kind of measurement perf?rmed by the instrument, : it can be
· classified as follows: \ ; . . .-
(a) Scalar network analyzer (SNA) ·
(b) Vector network analyzer (VNA) .
(c).. Large-signal network analyzer (LSNA)

(a) Scalar network analyzer (SNA)

• SNA is an instrument capable of measuring only the magnitu de or amplitude

information of the OUT. Therefore, it [Link] scalar propert ies. ' ·

(b) Vector network [Link] r (VNA)

• VNA is an instrument capable of measur ing both the amplitu de ·and plf,se
information of the DUT.- 1.t is also called as gain-ph ase meter or ~uton,atlc
network analyze r.

(c). Large-signal network analyze r (LSNA)

• LSNA is able to investig ate the characteristics of devices under [Link]

conditio ns. It is capable of ,rneasuri_ng magnitu de, phase, and hannonlcf! It
provirle s full analysi s of its operation.
JM,RoWA VE MEASU REMEN TS
v--= lple of
-
Netwo rk Analyzers
&-11

prll'' .
• In any RF system s, RF_ signal leaves one component and enters into anothe
_r.
Then OUT may transmit and reflect some portion of the signals as shown
in
figure 5.8.

Figure 5.8 Transmission and reflection coeffic ients

• These transmission and reflection coefficients are expressed by

Transmission coefficient = T = B =Transm itted Wave

R Incident Wave
Reflec tion coeffic ient = r =A = Reflected Wave
R Incide nt Wave
• It generates a sine wave signal, ty1=ically across a range of frequencies. The
OUT respon ds with the incident signal being transmitted through the OUT and
reflected back from it. The amount of transmitted and reflected signal usually
changes with frequency.

• Response of the OUT to the incident signal is a result of the OUT properties, as
well as any discontinuities in the characteristic impedance of the system . ·1f the
OUT is slightly · off the characteristic impedance results in an impedance
mismatch, and the DUT could generate additional unwan ted responses .
.
The goal is to develop a measurement methodology that accurately measu res
the OUT response while minimizing or eliminating uncertainties.

~ wre of Network Analyzer

,
The generalized block diagram of a ~ r k analyzer is shown in Figure 5.9. In
M'der to measure the incident, .-.fleeted ·and transmitted signals, four sectio ns
a required.
(a) Source
(b) Signal separation devices
(c) Receivers / detectors
(d) Proce110r / display
 5-12 RF and Microwave Engl
neer1n9
_;.
~ lnci~ent . . . · Transmitted

'3,>~m[illJa> ..
Source · Reflected

SJgnal
Separation
Reflected Transmitted
Incident (R) (AJ . (B)

Receiver/ Detector

Processor/Display :·:• ·
,·

Figure 5.9 Gener~I Block diagram of a Network Analyzer

(a) Source

• The network analyzer needs a test signal, signal .generator or signal source. All
network analyzers have a built-in signal source.

• The signal source supplies the incident signal, which stimulates the DUT.
The OUT responds by reflecting ~ part of the incident signal and transmitting the
remaining part. ·

• By sweeping the frequency of the signal source, frequency response of the

OUT can be determineq. There are two types of signal sources. They are

(i) Sweep oscillator

(ii) Synthesized signal generator.

(b) . Signal separation devices

• · This hardware part separates the incident, reflected and transmitted signals.
These separated _signals are called "test set". This part can be a separate box
or integrated within the network analyzer.

• This signal separation task is accomplished with the use of power splitters,
directional couprers, bridges, and high impedance probes. ·
 £ MEASUREMENTS 5-13

,-he two main functions of signal separat·ing dev1ces

.
are
' • To measure a portion of the In "d , .
. c1 en, s1gnat
• To separate_the Incident (forward) and reflected (reverse) travelling
waves at the input of the OUT.

ivers / Detectors
,teee
,he third part is the receiver or_detector, which converb RF to IF or oc signal to
• allow more measurement that is accurate. The following three receiver
techniques are used for signal conversion and detection

• Diode
• Fundamental mixing
• Harmonic mixing

In VNA, tuning receivers are used. It provides the best sensitivity, dynamic
range, harmonic rejection, and spuriou~ signal rejection. · ·

In SNA, detedors are used. The role of d·etector is to convert the RF signal
level to a DC level.

The detected signals are inherently scalar, as phase information. of the RF

carrier is lost.

rocessor / Display

This display par:t is the last module, which produces the results as desired by
the user. The reflection and transmisslori data can be formatted in many ways.
The formatted signals are easy to interpret the measuremel'.lt results.

Common features of network analyzers are .

• Linear and logarithmic sweeps
• Linear and log formats
• · Polar plots
• Smith charts
• Trace markers
• Limit
. lines ~

• Pass and fail testing

 0·14

1>l~play

Pro<"e!iM>I'

Test set

DUT Signa l SourC'e

Figu re 5.1 O Netw ork analy zer func tiona l bloc k diagr am •

Netw ork Anal yzer Oper ation

D~
• The test set takes the signa l source output and routes it to the
routes the signa l to the receivers. The network analyzer functional
is shown in Figure 5.10. It is frequently expand the reference
incident wave .
,

• In a SNA, the refer ence chan nel may go to a diod e detec

tor ~
ol.
output is forwarded to the signal generator's automatic level contr
needed:
• In VNA, the refer ence chan nel goes to the receivers. It is
a phas e reference. Finally, the receiver passes the detected inti
display after necessary signal processing.

• Appl icati ons of Netw ork Anal yzer

• S-parameter measurement
• Microwave device characterization
• ~nte nna testing
• Optical communication
• RADAR modeling
• Material characterization •
• Industry automation
• Impedance measurement
• Audio susceptibility
• Voltage-gain measurement
 ,t, v£ MEASUREMENTS
V '
5-15

ce between VNA and SNA

aren

[Link] SNA
;-- VNA
1. Measures only magnitude part Measures both magnitude and
phase information

2. Less expensive
More expensive

3. Provides least information

Provides more information
i..-----

4. Perform sweeps faster than VNA

Perform sweeps slower than SNA
--- ,

Simple
- 5.

6. It does not offer error corrections

Complex

It offers error correction

-
erence between Network Analyzer and Spectrum Analyzer

~No Network Analyzer Spectrum Analyzer

It generates signal and used that to Planned for analyzing the nature
1.
analyze a network or device of signal

Used to measure all parameters Used to measure signal

•
' amplitude characteristics only

It measures known signals It measures unknown signals

Multi-channel device Single channel device

.
Measures both magnitude and Measures only amplitude
phase information
..
Easy to correct errors Impossible to correct errors
...
High measurement accuracy Low measurement accuracy
~

~ Operates at a signal frequency

Wide bandwidth
,.._
I!