Human Reproduction

INTRODUCTION
 Human beings are unisexual.
 The growth, maintenance and function of the gonads are regulated by gonadotropins secreted
from anterior lobe of pituitary gland.
• Essential organs which form the gametes is called primary sex organs. In males, the gamete
forming organs are the testes. In females, the corresponding organs are ovaries.
 The organs which neither produce gametes nor secrete sex hormones but perform important
functions in reproduction are called secondary sex organs.
 The latter include the prostate, seminal vesicles, vas deferentia and penis in males, and the
fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina and mammary glands in females.
 The characters which distinguish the male from the female externally are called accessory or
external sex character. They are also called secondary sex characters.

Secondary Sexual Features in Man and Woman

[Link]. Character Man Woman
1. General build up More muscular Less muscular
2. Aggressiveness More marked Less marked
3. Hair growth
(i) Facial Beard, moustache present Absent
(ii) Axillary Present Present
(iii) Pubic Hair distribution more lateral and Upward growth not so, marked and
upwards towards umbilicus is more, horizontal
(iv) Chest Present Absent
4. Mammary glands Undeveloped Well developed
5. Skin More hairy and coarse Less hairy and coarse
6. Shoulder Broad Not broad
7. Pelvis Not broad More broad
8. Larynx More apparent Less apparent
9. Voice Low pitched High pitched
10. Breathing Predominantly abdominal Predominantly thoracic
11. BMR High due to greater activity Not so, high as compared to man

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 The male reproductive system of mammals consists of a pair of testes, several accessory
glands, a duct system and a mating organ called the penis. Testis is the primary male sex
organ. It produces spermatozoa and secretes the male sex hormone testosterone.
 The human testis measures about 5 cm, 3 cm and 2.5 cm, respectively, in length, thickness and
width.
 In man, both testes normally remain suspended in a pouch called scrotum outside the
abdominal cavity. This keeps the testes at a low temperature than the body temperature (about
2°C below)-this is essential for the maintenance and normal functioning of the spermatogenic
tissue of the testes.
 Testes descend in the scrotal sac when foetus is about 7 months old and this occurs under the
influence of FSH and testosterone.
 If testes fail to descend, than the condition is called cryptorchidism. Such testis cannot
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 develop and function properly and may develop malignancy. Scrotum remains connected with
the abdomen or pelvic cavity by the inguinal canal. Blood vessels, nerves and conducting
tubes pass through inguinal canal.
 Cremaster muscles and connective tissue form spermatic cord and surround all structures
passing through inguinal canal. Cremaster muscles and dartos muscles of the scrotal sac help
in the positioning of testes.
 Whenever the outside temperature is low, these contract to move the testes close to the
abdominal cavity/pelvic cavity. When outside temperature is high, these relax moving the
testes away from the body.
 In some seasonally breeding mammals, testes descend into the scrotum during breeding season
but ascend back into the abdomen in the non-breeding season. e.g. rats and bats.

Concept Builder
• Orchiopexy : When the undescended testes are brought into scrotal sac by surgical process
during childhood this process called as orchiopexy.
• Castration : Crushing of testes in bulls to convert them to bullocks. (This makes than more
obidient due to fall in the level of testosterone)
• Inguinal hernia : Sometimes the inguinal canal may tear leading to abnormal protrusion of
abdominal contents like loops of intestine into the inguinal canal.

ANATOMY OF TESTIS
• Testis is covered by three coats. Outer most is tunica vaginalis. Middle coat is tunica albuginea
& inner most is tunica vasculosa.
• Tunica vaginalis has a parietal & visceral layer. It covers the whole testis except it's posterior
border from where the testicular vessels & nerves enter the testis.

Structure of testis

• The Tunica albuginea is a dense, white fibrous coat covering the testis all around. The
posterior border tunica albuginea is thickened to form vertical septum called the Mediastinum
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 testis.
• Tunica vasculosa is the inner most vascular coat of the testis lining testicular lobules.
 Each testis contains numerous tiny, highly convoluted tubules, called seminiferous tubules.
They constitute the spermatogenic tissue of the testis.
 Cells lining these tubules give rise to spermatozoa which are released into the lumen of the
tubule.
 Seminiferous tubules unite to form several straight tubules called tubuli recti which open into
irregular cavities in the posterior part of the testis.
 It is highly anastomosing labyrinth of cuboidal epithelium lined channels called rete testis.
 Several tubes called vasa efferentia arise from it and conduct spermatozoa out from the testis
(Seminiferous tubule to vasa efferentia form intratesticular genital duct system).

A part of transverse section of mammalian testis

Midline sagittal section through male pelvis

 The extratesticular duct system consists of tubes which conduct sperms from the testes to the
outside.
 It starts with vasa efferentia which arise from each testis and becomes confluent to form a
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 folded and coiled tube called epididymis behind each testis.
 The epididymis consist of 3 parts: (i) Caput, (ii) Corpus, (iii) Cauda. The epididymis stores
the sperms temporarily. (For as long as one month). Here the functional maturation of
sperms takes place.
 From cauda epididymis, a partially coiled tube called vas deferens ascends into the abdomen
through inguinal canal, passes over the urinary bladder, receives the duct from the seminal
vesicle behind the urinary bladder to from an ejaculatory duct.

The male genital system seen from behind

 Before entering prostate, the ductus deferens dilates to form ampulla. The final portion of
ampulla passes through the prostate to open into the urethra shortly after its origin from the
urinary bladder.
 The urethra receives the ducts of the prostate and cowper's glands, passes through the penis
and opens to the outside.
 In between spermatogenic cells, Sertoli or sustentacular or nurse cells are present which
provide nourishment to the developing spermatozoa and regulate spermatogenesis by releasing
inhibin to check FSH overactivity.
 The other functions of sertoli cells include
(i) They phagocyte the injured or dead sperm cells,
(ii) They are the basis of blood testis barrier
(iii) Release anti mullerian factor (AMF) to prevent development of mullerian duct/oviduct
(iv) Release of androgen binding protein (ABP).
 Groups of polyhedral cells called Interstitial cells or Leydig cells, are located in the
connective tissue around the seminiferous tubules.
 They constitute the endocrine tissue of the testis. Leydig cells secrete testosterone into the
blood.

MALE EXTERNAL GENITAL ORGAN

PENIS
 This is the copulatory organ of man. It is a cylindrical and erectile, pendulous organ
suspended from pubic region in front of scrotum.
 It remains small and limp (= flaccid) but on sexual arousal, it becomes long, hard and erect,
ready for copulation (=coitus or intercourse). Erect human penis, on an average is about 15 cm
long.

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 T.S. of penis

 The penial mass is itself encased in a fibrous sheath, called tunica albuginea. The interior of
penis is mostly formed of three cylindrical cords of spongy, erectile (= cavernous) tissue.
 Two of these cords are thicker and situated parallely on right and left sides, called corpora
cavernosa.
 The fibres of tunica albuginea surround both cords jointly and form a separate sheath around
each cord. Some fibres form a partition, called septum penis, between these cords.
 The third median cord called corpus urethrae or spongiosum. Urethra runs through this cord.
 The extended part of corpus spongiosum is enlarged, forming a bulged, conical structure called
glans penis. The surface of glans is formed of a thin, smooth and shiny, hairless skin.
 The base line of glans is referred to as neck of the penis. The loose skin of penis folds over and
is retractile on glans. It is called foreskin or prepuce.
 At the tip of glans penis is the slit like external urethral orifice or meatus by which urethra
opens out and discharges urine or semen.
 Prepucial glands, present in the skin of penis neck, secrete a white sebaceous substance, called
smegma. Microbial infection in smegma causes irritation.

Accessary Reproductive Glands

 Seminal vesicles - These are paired, tubular, coiled glands situated behind the urinary bladder.
They secrete viscous fluid which constitute the main part of the ejaculate. Seminal fluid
contains fructose, citric acid, inositol and postaglandins.
 Prostate gland - It is a chestnut shaped gland and is a collection of 30-40 tubulo-alveolar
glands which lies at the base of the bladder and surrounds the base of the urethra. It is unpaired
& made up of 5 lobes in man. It contributes an alkaline substance to the seminal fluid. It makes
about 30% part of semen and helps in sperm activation.
 The substance of prostate help the sperms to become active and counteract any adverse effects
of urine on sperms. The prostatic fluid provides a characteristic odour to the seminal fluid.
Prostate gland secretes -citrate ion, calcium, phosphate ion, and profibrolysin, clotting enzyme.
 Bulbourethral glands or Cowper's glands - The two bulbourethral glands are pea-sized
structures lying adjacent to the urethra at the base of penis. These secrete a viscous lubricant.
Perineal or Rectal glands

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 These are found both in male and female rabbits. Perineal gland is found around external
genital organ & perineal region, while rectal glands are found around external genital organs &
anus. During the breeding season, these glands secrete odoriferous liquid which has
pheromones or Ectohormones in it. The pheromone develops sexual attraction between
opposite sexes & also develops desire for copulation.
Note :- In man, Perineal or Rectal glands are absent.
 The duct system, accessory glands and penis are secondary male sex organs. Their growth,
maintenance and functions are promoted by testosterone secreted by Leydig cells.
 On the other hand, the growth, maintenance and functions of seminiferous tubules and Leydig
cells are regulated, respectively by FSH and ICSH of anterior pituitary.

SEMEN
 Semen is a mixture of sperms and the secretions of the seminiferous tubules, seminal vesicles,
prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands.
Semen = Sperm + Accessary reproductive gland fluid
Volume = 3 to 4 ml.
Normal sperm count 20 to 120 million/ml.
 The average volume of semen in an ejaculation is 2.5-5 ml, with a sperm count (concentration)
of 200 to 300 million. For normal fertility, atleast 60 percent sperms must have normal shape,
size and atleast 40 percent of them must show vigorous motility. When the sperm count falls
below 20 million/ml, the male is likely to be infertile.
 Semen has a slightly alkaline pH of 7.2-7.7. The prostatic secretion gives semen a milky
appearance, whereas fluids from the seminal vesicles and bulbourethral glands give it a sticky
consistency.
 Semen provides transportation medium and nutrients to sperms. It neutralizes the hostile acidic
environment of the male urethra and the female vagina.
(Prostatitis - Inflammation of prostate gland.)

Conceptual Questions
Q.1 When do testes descend in scrotum in human?
Q.2 Name the developmental defect when the testes do not descend into the scrotum.
Q.3 Which cells are present in interstitial spaces of testes and secrete testosterone?
Q.4 From which part of epididymis, vasa deferens arises?
Q.5 Which cell provide nutrition to germ cells?
Q.6 Secretion of which gland gives semen milky white apperance?

Ans. Q.1. 7th month of intrauterine life, Q.2. Cryptorchidism, Q.3. Leydig cells,
Q.4. Cauda epididymis, Q.5. Sertoli cells, Q.6. Prostate gland

Self Assessment
Q.1 Temperature in scrotum necessary for sperm formation should be
(1) 2ºC above body temperature (2) 2ºC below body temperature
(3) 8ºC above body temperature (4) 8ºC below body temperature
Q.2 Cryptorchidism is
(1) Non-development of testes (2) Nondescent of testes into scrotum
(3) Removal of scrotum (4) Breaking connection of vas deferens

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Q.3 Tubuli recti of seminiferous tubules open into
(1) Epididymis (2) Vasa efferentia (3) Vasa deferentia (4) Rete testis
Q.4 Common duct formed by the union of vas deferens and duct of seminal vesicle is
(1) Urethra (2) Tunica vasculosa (3) Ejaculatory (4) Spermatic duct
Q.5 Accessory glands of male reproductive system are
(1) Prostate and seminal vesicles (2) Prostate, Bartholin's and seminal vesicles
(3) Seminal vesicles and Bartholin's (4) Prostate, Cowper's and seminal vesicles
Q.6 Scrotal sacs of man are connected with the abdominal cavity by
(1) Inguinal canal (2) Haversian canal (3) Spermatic canal (4) Rete testis
Q.7 Sperms are stored and nourished inside
(1) Cowper's gland (2) Epididymis
(3) Seminiferous tubules (4) Vasa efferentia
Q.8 Role of Leydig cells of testis is
(1) Provide nourishment to sperms (2) Provide motility to sperms
(3) Bring about maturation of sperms (4) Synthesis of testosterone hormone
Q.9 Vas deferens arises from
(1) Cauda epididymis (2) Caput epididymis (3) Corpus epididymis (4) Rete testis
Q.10 Epididymis is
(1) Network of sinuses between seminiferous tubules and vasa efferentia
(2) Intermediate structure between rete testis and vasa efferentia
(3) A long coiled tube between vasa efferentia and vas deferens
(4) Connection between vas deferens and seminal vesicle

Ans. Q.1 (2), Q.2 (2), Q.3 (4), Q.4 (3), Q.5 (4), Q.6 (1), Q.7 (2), Q.8 (4), Q.9 (1), Q.10 (3)

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 The female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries, a duct system, consisting of a
pair of fallopian tubes (oviduct), an uterus, cervix and vagina. A pair of mammary glands are
accessory genital glands.

OVARIES
 The ovary is the primary female sex organ. It produces ova and secretes the female sex
hormones, estrogen and progesterone that are responsible for the development of secondary
female sex characters and regulate cyclic changes in the uterine endometrium.
 The human ovaries are small, almond-like flat bodies of about 3 cm in diameter.

1. Location. Ovaries are located near kidneys and remain attached to the lower abdominal cavity
through mesovarium.
2. Structure. The free surface of the ovary is covered by a germinal epithelium made of a single

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 layer of cubical cells. This epithelium is continuous with the mesothelium, called peritoneum.
The epithelium encloses the ovarian stroma. The stroma is divided into two zones-a peripheral
cortex and an inner medulla. Cortex is covered by a connective tissue, called tunica
albuginea.
The cortex contains numerous spherical or oval, sac-like masses of cells, known as ovarian
follicles. The medulla consists of loose connective tissue, elastic fibres, blood vessels and
smooth muscle fibres.

A section of human ovary

FALLOPIAN TUBES (OVIDUCTS)

 There are one pair, long (about 10 cm), ciliated, muscular and tubular structures that extend
from ovaries to uterus. Each one is suspended by mesosalpinx.
• Each fallopian tube is differentiated into four parts :
(i) Infundibulum. The part of oviduct closer to the ovary is the funnel shaped infundibulum. The
edges of infundibulum possess finger like projections called fimbriae. Fimbriae help in
collection of the ovum after ovulation. Infundibulum opens in abdominal cavity by an aperture
called osteum.
(ii) Ampulla. The infundibulum leads to a wider part of the oviduct called ampulla.
(iii) Isthmus. It is middle, narrow and ciliated part of the oviduct.
(iv) Uterine part. It is inner and narrow part which opens in the upper part of uterus.
It is involved in the conduction of ovum or zygote towards the uterus by peristalsis and ciliary
action. (Fertilization occurs at the junction of ampulla and isthmus).

Uterus –
It is a large hollow, muscular, highly vascular and pear shaped structure present in the pelvis
between the bladder and rectum. It is suspended by a mesentery, mesometrium. It is formed of
three parts.
(i) Fundus. It is upper dome shaped part above the opening of fallopian tubes.
(ii) Body. It is middle and main part of uterus.
(iii) Cervix. It is lower, narrow part which opens in the body of uterus by internal os and in vagina
below by external os. It is formed of most powerful sphincter muscle in the body.
Its wall is formed of outer peritoneal layer called perimetrium; middle muscular
myometrium made of smooth muscle fibres, and inner highly vascular and glandular
endometrium.
It is the site of foetal growth during pregnancy. It also takes part in placenta formation and
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 helps in pushing the baby out during parturition.

VAGINA
 It is a long (7.5 cm), fibro-muscular tube. It extends backward in front of rectum and cervix to
the vestibule. It is vascular tube internally lined by mucus membrane and is raised into
transverse folds called vaginal rugae.
 In the virgin female, vaginal orifice is closed by a membranous diaphragm called hymen which
becomes centrally perforated at puberty for the discharge of menstrual flow (or menses).
 Vagina acts both as copulation canal as it receives the sperms from penis during copulation
and birth canal during parturition.

FEMALE EXTERNAL GENITAL ORGAN

 Vulva. It is external genitalia of female. It has a depression, the vestibule, in front of anus.
Vestibule has two apertures-upper external urethral orifice of urethra and lower vaginal
orifice of vagina.
 Mons pubis : Is a fleshy and fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair.
 Labia majora : It is a pair of fleshy folds which extend from the mons pubis and surround the
vaginal opening.
 Labia minora : Is another pair of tissue folds below the labia majora.
Both labia majora and labia minora are provided with sebaceous glands.
 Hymen : Is a membrane that partially covers the vaginal opening. It gets torn during the first
coitus.
 Clitoris : Is a tiny, erectile, finger-like structure present at the upper junction of the two labia
minora above the urethral opening. The fold of skin that covers clitoris is called prepuce.
Clitoris is homologous to penis (as both are supported by corpora cavernosa).

The external genitalia in the female

GLANDS
 Vestibular Glands: These are of two types-greater and lesser. Greater vestibular or
Bartholin's glands are a pair of small reddish yellow glands on each side of vaginal orifice and
secrete alkaline secretion for lubrication and neutralising urinary acidity.
 Lesser vestibular glands or paraurethral or skene's glands are small mucus glands present
between urethral and vaginal orifices.
MAMMARY GLAND :
 Each mammary gland consists of 15-25 lobules of the compound tubuloalveolar type. These
lobules secrete milk to nourish the newborn babies.
 Each lobe is separated from the others by dense connective and adipose tissue and represents a

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 gland. From each lobe, excretory lactiferous ducts emerge independently in the nipple, which
has 15-25 openings, each about 0.5 mm in diameter.

 However, the histological structure of mammary glands vary, depending on sex, age and
physiological state.

Path of milk ejection :

Mammary alveolus  Mammary duct  Ampulla  Lactiferous duct  Nipple

Homology Between Male and Female Reproductive System

Male Reproductive System Female Reproductive System
Scrotum/Scrotal Sac Labia majora
Penis Clitoris
Glans penis Glans clitoridis
Prostate gland Parauretheral/skene's gland
Cowper's gland Bartholin's gland

Conceptual Questions
Q.1 Which portion of ovary contains ovarian follicles?
Q.2 Which is the wider part of oviduct?
Q.3 Name the membrane the covers the vaginal opening in a virgin female.
Q.4 Which part of human female reproductive system acts as copulation canal as well as birth
canal?
Q.5 How many lobules are present in each mammary gland and human female?

Ans. Q.1. Cortex, Q.3. Ampulla,

Q.4. Hymen, Q.5. Vagina, Q.6. 15-20 lobules

Self Assessment
Q.11 Mesovarium is the peritoneal covering of
(1) Ovary (2) Testis (3) Kidney (4) Liver
Q.12 Ostium is an aperture present in

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 (1) Ampulla part (2) Fallopian funnel (3) Ovisac (4) Cloaca
Q.13 Lower narrow end of uterus is called
(1) Urethra (2) Cervix (3) Clitoris (4) Vulva
Q.14 Which group represents external genitalia of human female ?
(1) Labium minora, labium majora, vagina (2) Labium majora, labium minora, oviduct
(3) Labium minora, labium majora, cervix (4) Labium majora, labium minora, clitoris
Q.15 In human females, ova are produced in
(1) Ovary (2) Oviduct (3) Uterus (4) Vagina
Q.16 Egg is liberated from ovary and enters the fallopian tube in
(1) Secondary oocyte stage (2) Primary oocyte stage
(3) Oogonial stage (4) Mature ovum stage

Ans. Q.11 (1), Q.12 (2), Q.13 (2), Q.14 (4), Q.15 (1), Q.16 (1)

EMBRYOLOGY
THE EVENTS IN HUMAN REPRODUCTION
Gametogenesis  Insemination  Fertilization  Implantation  Gestation  Parturition
FORMATION OF GAMETES
 Sexual reproduction requires the fusion of two haploid gametes to form a diploid individual.
These haploid cells are produced through gametogenesis.
 As there are two types of gametes, the spermatozoa and ova, gametogenesis can be studied
under two broad headings: spermatogenesis and oogenesis.
 Spermatogenesis is the formation of spermatozoa, whereas oogenesis is the formation of ova.
Both spermatozoa and ova originate from primordial germ cells or PGCs, which are
extra-gonadal in origin.
 In humans, the PGCs originate during early embryonic development from the extra-embryonic
mesoderm. Eventually, they migrate to the yolk sac endoderm, and ultimately, to the gonads of
the developing embryo, where they undergo further development.

Schematic representation of (a) Spermatogenesis; (b) Oogenesis

SPERMATOGENESIS
 Spermatozoa are produced in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. Spermatogenesis is the
process of maturation of reproductive cells in the testes.
 Spermatogenesis includes two stages (i) formation of spermatids and (ii) metamorphosis of
spermatids. Spermatids are formed by three phases namely phase of multiplication
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 (mitosis), phase of growth and phase of maturation (meiosis).
 During phase of multiplication, the primordial germ cells divide repeatedly by mitosis to form
diploid spermatogonia.
 During phase of growth, the spermatogonium enlarges in size to form primary spermatocyte
and prepares to undergo maturation division.
 During phase of maturation, the primary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis I giving rise to two
haploid (n) secondary spermatocytes. The secondary spermatocytes undergo meiosis II
resulting in the formation of four spermatids.
 Transformation of spermatid to sperms is termed spermiogenesis. A spermatid is
non-motile. It has organelles like mitochondria, Golgi bodies, centrioles, nucleus etc.

Concept Builder
• Liberation of sperms from Setroli cells is called spermiation.
• Liberation of sperms from testes is called semination.
• Liberation of sperms from body of male is called ejaculation.
• Mammalian sperms are transfered to vagina of female by the process called insemination.

 During spermiogenesis, the weight of gamete is reduced along with development of

locomotory structures. Nucleus becomes compact forming the major part of head of
spermatozoa.

Structure of Sperm :
The spermatozoon has a head, a middle piece and a tail. The head is covered by a cap called
the acrosomic cap, anterior nuclear cap, or galea capitis.
 Golgi complex of spermatid give rise to acrosome. Acrosome forms a cap in front of
nucleus containing lytic agent which dissolves egg membranes during fertilization.
 Acrosome of mammalian sperm produces sperm lysins. The two centrioles of the
spermatids become arranged one after the other behind the nucleus. The anterior one is
known as the proximal centriole.
 The proximal centriole is usually located on the neck of spermatozoan. During fertilization, it
is introduced in to the egg and is required for the first cleavage.
 The posterior centriole is known as the distal centriole and gives rise to the axial filament of
the sperm. Mitochondria from different parts of spermatid to get arranged in the middle piece
around the axial filament.
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  Mitochondria in the middle piece provide energy to the sperm for locomotion.
 A typical mammalian sperm is flagellated, consisting of four parts namely head, neck, middle
piece and tail.
 The human sperm was first seen by Hamm and Leeuwenhoek.

Hormonal control of spermatogenesis

 Spermatogenesis is under the control of
endocrine hormones. Hypothalamus produces
gonadotropin releasing hormone or GnRH.
 It acts on anterior pituitary to produce
gonadotropins, ICSH and FSH, ICSH
interstitial cell stimulating hormone acts on
interstitial or Leydig cells which produce
testosterone.
 Testosterone is essential for formation of
sperms, atleast spermiogenesis part by Sertoli
cells. Under the influence of FSH, Sertoli
cells develop androgen binding protein
(ASP).
 The latter helps in concentrating testosterone
in the seminiferous tubules.
 Excess of testosterone inhibits LH/ICSH by
anterior pituitary and GnRH production by
hypothalamus.
 Sertoli cells also produce a glycoprotein called inhibin. Inhibin suppresses FSH synthesis by
anterior pituitary and GnRH synthesis by hypothalamus.
 Thus normal release of testosterone is under negative feed back control.

Conceptual Questions

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Q.1 In human male gametogenesis starts at what age?
Q.2 Which structure of human sperm gives rise to axial filament of sperm?

Ans. Q.1. During puberty, Q.2. Distal centriole

OOGENESIS
 Oogenesis is the process of maturation of reproductive cells in ovary. Oogenesis starts before
birth. In 25 weeks old female foetus, all the oogonia are produced.
 Oogenesis is basically similar to spermatogenesis. It includes phase of multiplication, phase of
growth and phase of maturation.
 During the phase of multiplication, the primordial cells in the ovary divide mitotically to form
oogonia (egg mother cell). Each oogonium divides mitotically to form two primary oocytes.
 Primary oocytes undergo growth, the growth phase during oogenesis is comparatively longer.
Primary oocytes, begin the first step of Meiosis-I and proceed up to diakinesis.
 These oocytes resume their development at puberty. The primary oocyte (2n) completes
meiosis-I producing two haploid cells (n), the larger one is secondary oocyte and the smaller
one is first polar body.
 Secondary oocyte starts Meiosis-II and proceeds upto metaphase-II only. Further development
will start only after arrival of spermatozoa.
 Entry of sperm restarts the cell cycle by breaking down M PF (M-phase promoting factor) and
turning on APC (Anaphase promoting complex). Completion of meiosis II results in the
formation of functional egg or ovum and a second polar body.

Formation of ovarian or Graafian follicle

Ova develop from oogonia present in the cortex of the ovary. The oogonia are surrounded by
other cells that form a stroma for them. These stromal cells form the ovarian or Graafian
follicle that surrounds the ovum and protects it.
The stages is formation of Graafian follicle are as follows :
(1) Firstly some cells of the stroma become flattened and surround a primary oocyte (which
develops from oogonia). These flattened cells ultimately form the ovarian follicle and are
therefore called follicular cells.

(2) The flattened follicular cells now become columnar. Follicles upto this stage of development
are called primordial follicle.

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(3) A membrane called the zona pellucida, now appears between the follicular cells and the
oocyte.

(4) The follicular cells proliferate now to form several layers of cells to form the membrana
granulosa. These cells are now called granulosa cells.
(5) As the follicle expands, the stromal cells surrounding the membrana granulosa become
condensed to form a covering called the theca Interna. The cells of theca interna (Thecal cells)
afterwards secrete a hormone called oestrogen.
(6) Outside the theca interna some fibrous tissue become condensed to form another covering
called the theca externa.
(7) A cavity appears within the membrana granulosa. It is called the antrum. With the appearanc
of this cavity, the follicle is formed (follicle means a small sac).

(8) The cavity of the follicle rapidly increases in size and gets filled with a fluid called liquor
folliculi. Due to increase in the size of the cavity the wall of the follicle (formed by granulosa
cells) becomes relatively thin. The oocyte now lies eccentrically in the follicle, surrounded by

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some granulosa cells that are called as cumulus oophoricus. The cells that attached it to the
wall of the follicle are called as discus proligerus or Germ hill.
The ovarian follicle is now fully formed and is now called the Graafian follicle.
The granulosa cells lying in the close vicinity of the ovum (secondary oocyte) and zona
pellucida, become elongated to form the corona radiata.

After 13 days of menstrual cycle (on 14th day when cycle is ideally for 28 days) Graafian
follicle is ruptured & egg is released.
After ovulation the rupured Graafian follicle is called corpus luteum. Soon after ovulation, the
granulosa cells of Graafian follicle proliferate & these cells look yellow due to accumulation of
pigment called Lutein. These cells are called lutein cells.
Before ovulation the follicle was avascular but soon after ovulation blood vessels grow &
corpus luteum becomes filled with blood. Central part filled with blood is called corpus
haemorrhagicum. Lutein cells synthesise the progesterone hormone.
If fertilization occurs in fallopian tube, the corpus luteum then becomes stable for next nine
months. If fetilization does not occur then the corpus luteum starts degenerating after about 9
days of it's formation. The degeneration is completed by 14 days to form corpus albicans,
which gradually disappears.
Progesterone hormone maintains pregnancy and repairs the wall of uterus to make its surface
adhesive to help in implantation.
The total number of follicles in the two ovaries of a normal young adult woman is about four
lakhs. However most of them undergo regression and disappear due to death and are disposed
off by the phagocytes during the reproductive years of the females. This is termed as follicular
atresia. This is responsible for limited number of gamete production in females. Generally,
only one ovum is liberated in each menstrual cycle, by alternate ovaries. Only about 450 ova
are produced by a human female over the entire span of her reproductive life which lasts till
about 40-50 years of age.
Although most of the follicular cells and the oocytes undergo degeneration during follicular
atresia, some thecal cells, formed from the stroma and located around the follicle, persist and
become active. These are called interstitial cells. These cells secrete small amount of
androgen.
No specific breeding season is found in human being.
During copulation male ejaculates semen in vagina, this process is called as insemination.
In rabbit ovulation occurs after 12–24 hour of copulation. That means copulation is necessary
for ovulation. Females in which coitus induction is compulsary for ovulation are called as
Human Reproduction || 16
 induced or reflex ovulator.

Hormonal control of Oogenesis

 In response to production of GnRH or gonadotropin releasing hormone, anterior pituitary
secretes two hormones, FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone).
 FSH stimulates follicular growth and maturation of oocyte. Granulosa cells of developing
ovarian follicle produce estrogen.
 In presence of high titre of both estrogen and LH, ovulation occurs. High concentration of
estrogen inhibits secretion of both FSH and GnRH.

 This is negative feedback control LH helps in converting ruptured Graafian follicle into corpus
luteum.
 The latter secretes progesterone which prepares the uterus to receive fertilised ovum.
High concentration of progesterone inhibits further release of LH from anterior pituitary and
GnRH from hypothalamus.

Compare the structure of Mammalian sperm and Mammalian ovum

Character Mammalian sperm Mammalian ovum
1. Structure Sperm is formed of 4 parts: Head, Ovum is microlecithal and has an
neck, middle piece and tail. excentric nucleus.
2. Amount of cytoplasm Small amount of cytoplasm. Large amount of cytoplasm.
3. Nature of nucleus Condensed with no nucleoplasm. Bloated with nucleoplasm and is
called germinal vesicle.
4. Centrioles Present. Absent.
5. Mitochondria Compactly arranged and form a Scattered in the cytoplasm.
spiral.
6. Motility Sperm is flagellated and motile. Ovum is spherical and non-motile.
7. Envelopes Surrounded by only plasma Surrounded by a number of egg
membrane. envelopes.

Differences between Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis

[Link]. Characters Spermatogenesis Oogenesis
1. Site of occurance In the seminiferous tubules of In the ovaries.
testes.
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2. Total period It is a continuous process and It is a discontinuous process and
completed in 74 days in humans. completed in a minimum 12-15 yrs.
3. Growth phase Of shorter duration Of longer duration
4. Yolk synthesis No yolk is synthesized in growth Vitellogenesis occurs in growth phase.
phase
5. Nuclear changes Nucleus becomes condensed by Nucleus is bloated due to increase in
the loss of superfluous materials. nucleoplasm.
6. Number of One spermatogonium forms 4 One oogonium forms only one haploid
gametes haploid sperms. ovum.
7. Polar bodies Not formed. Two or three polar bodies are formed.
8. Site of It is started and completed within It is started inside the ovary but is
completion the testes. generally completed outside the ovary
into oviduct.
9. Size of gametes Sperm is much smaller than Ovum is much large than oogonium.
formed spermatogonium.

Self Assessment
Q.17 During spermatogenesis, meiosis occurs in
(1) Primary spermatocytes (2) Secondary spermatocytes
(3) Both (1) and (2) (4) Spermatogonia
Q.18 Spermiogenesis changes
(1) Spermatogonium to primary spermatocytes
(2) Primary spermatocytes to secondary spermatocytes
(3) Secondary spermatocytes to spermatids
(4) Spermatids to sperms
Q.19 In spermatogenesis, a primary spermatocyte produces four similar sperms while in oogenesis a
primary oocyte forms
(1) Four similar ova (2) Three large ova and one polar body
(3) Two large ova and two polar bodies (4) One large ova and 2-3 polar bodies
Q.20 Minute cells separating from ova are
(1) Primary oogonia (2) Polar bodies
(3) Secondary oogonia (4) Primary spermatogonia
Q.21 What are the diploid stages in spermatogenesis ?
(1) Spermatogonia and spermatids
(2) Spermatogonia and primary spermatocytes
(3) Spermatogonia and primary spermatocytes
(4) Primary spermatocytes and secondary spermatocytes
Q.22 Extrusion of second polar body from egg nucleus occurs
(1) After entery of sperm and before completion of fertilization
(2) After completion of fertilization
(3) Before the entry of sperm
(4) Without any relation with sperm entry
Q.23 Spermatogenesis and sperm differentiation are under the control of
(1) FSH only (2) LH
(3) Testosterone and FSH (4) Parathyroid hormone
Q.24 Middle piece of mammalian sperm possesses

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 (1) Mitochondria (2) Centriole only
(3) Acrosome (4) Parathyroid hormone
Q.25 A change in ovum after penetration of sperm is
(1) Formation of first polar body (2) Second meiosis starts
(3) First meiosis (4) Formation of second polar body
Q.26 Which of the following structures produces energy for the mobility of mature sperm ?
(1) Nucleus in head region (2) Mitochondria in head region
(3) Axial filament in tail (4) Mitochondria in middle piece
Q.27 Layers of ovum from outside to inside are
(1) Corona radiata, zona pellucida, vitelline membrane
(2) Zona pellucida, corona radiata, vitelline membrane
(3) Vitelline membrane, zona pellucida, corona radiata
(4) Zona pellucida, vitelline membrane, corona radiata
Q.28 Hormone responsible for ovulation and development of corpus luteum is
(1) FSH (2) LH (3) LTH (4) ICSH
Q.29 When egg is not fertilised, yellow coloured corpus lutem degenerates to form
(1) Corpus albicans (2) Corpus callosum
(3) Corpora bigemina (4) Corpora quadrigemina
Q.30 In the absence of pregnancy, corpus luteum
(1) Becomes active and secretes FSH and LH
(2) Produces a lot of oxytocin and relaxin
(3) Degenerates after some time
(4) Is maintained by progesterone

Ans. Q.17 (3), Q.18 (4), Q.19 (4), Q.20 (2), Q.21 (2), Q.22 (1), Q.23 (3), Q.24 (1), Q.25 (4), Q.26 (4),
Q.27 (1), Q.28 (2), Q.29 (1), Q.30 (3)

MENSTRUAL CYCLE
 Menstrual cycle is the cyclic changes in the reproductive tract of primate (Man, Monkey and
Apes) females. Menstruation is the periodic shedding of the endometrium of uterus with
bleeding. In healthy women, menstruation occurs at intervals of about 28 to 29 days.
 Menarche is the starting of menstruation in girls that occurs at about 13 years of her age.
Menstrual cycle consists of menstrual phase, proliferative phase (follicular phase) and
secretory phase (luteal phase).
 Proliferative phase (5th to 14th day of menstrual cycle) consists of growth of endometrium of
uterus, fallopian tube and vagina. In ovary, a Graafian follicle secretes estrogen during this
phase.
 Estrogen is the hormone active during proliferative phase. The ovum is released from the
follicle near the end of proliferative phase, i.e., 14th day or midway during menstrual cycle.
 Ovulation occurs under the influence of LH from pituitary. The subsequent 14 days in which
corpus luteum is active is referred to as the secretory phase.
 Progesterone secreted by corpus luteum is active during secretory phase. The uterine
endometrium and glands grow further during secretory phase.
 At the end of secretory phase, corpus luteum degenerates into corpus albicans in the ovary,
progesterone secretion falls, the overgrown uterine endometrium breaks down and
mensturation takes place.
 Menstrual cycle is controlled by FSH, LH, estrogen and progesterone. The menstrual cycle and

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 menstruation remain suspended during pregnancy and lactation. Menopause (climacteric) is the
period of life when menstruation naturally stops.
 Menopause occurs in females at the age of around 45-50 years. Ability to reproduce is lost in
the female after menopause.

Concept Builder
Function of corpus luteum :-
Stimulated by the rising levels of LH, the corpus luteum secretes progesterone hormone. The
progesterone facilitates the preparation of endometrium for receiving the embryo and its
implantation. Progesterone inhibits the contractions of uterus so that the pregnancy could be
maintained. Progesterone also inhibits development of next new ovarian follicle. If pregnancy
occurs then the corpus luteum persists and secretes progesterone. Progesterone is important to
maintain the pregnancy and it is thus called as the pregnancy homone. By the fourth month of
pregnancy, the placenta has developed completely. This placenta now takes over the job of
further progesterone secretion. Ovary also secretes some amount of relaxin at the time of
parturition.
In case of absence of pregnancy this corpus luteum will get degenerated after 14 days of its
formation. The degenerated corpus luteum is called corpus albicans (white body).

Diagrammatic presenation of various events during a menstrual cycle

Various Phases of the Menstrual Cycle

Phase of Cycle Hormonal Changes Tissue Changes
Ovarian Endometrial Pituitary Ovary Ovarian Endometrial
Follicular Menstrual FSH and LH secretion Estradiol and Primary follicles grow Outer two-thirds of

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 (days 1-4) low progesterone endometrium is shed
with accompanying
bleeding
Follicular Proliferative FSH slightly higher than Estradiol Follicles grow; Graafian Mitotic division
(days 5-13) LH secretion in early secretion rises follicle develops (due to increases thickness of
follicular phase (due to FSH FSH stimulation) endometrium; spiral
stimulation of arteries develop (due
follicles) to estradioi
stimulation)
Ovulatory Proliferative LH surge (and increased Oestradiol Graafian follicle ruptures No change
(day 14) FSH) stimulated by secretion falls and secon dary oocyte is
positive feedback from extruded into uterine
oestradiol tube
Luteal Secretory LH and FSH decrease Progesterone Development of corpus Glandular
(days 15-28) (due to negative and oestrogen luteum (due to LH development in
feedback from steroids) secretion stimulation); regression endometrium (due to
increase, then of corpus luteum. progesterone
fall stimulation)

ESTROUS CYCLE
 The estrous cycle consists of cyclic changes in the female reproductive system of non-primate
mammals. There is no menstruation at the end of estrous cycle.
 The estrogen level in blood increases resulting strong sex urge in the female. This is called
"period of heat".
 The estrous cycles run only during breeding season. The estrous cycles remain suspended in
female during non-breeding season. The suspension of estrous cycles is called the state of
anestrum.
 Those animals that have only a single estrous during the breeding season are called
monoestrous, e.g., dog, fox, deer, bat, etc.
 The animals that have a recurrence of estrous during breeding season are called polyestrous,
e.g., Mouse, squirrel, cow, sheep, pig, horse etc.

Conceptual Questions
Q.1 How many polar body/ies is/are formed after the completion of meiosis-I?
Q.2 When do oocytes complete oogenesis?
Q.3 What term is used for the cyclic pattern of reproductive activity associated with season in cow
and sheep?
Q.4 Which hormone is active during proliferative phase of menstrual cycle?
Q.5 What is secreted by corpus luteum for the maintenance of pregnancy?

Ans. Q.1. 1, Q.2. After the entry of the sperm, Q.3. Estrons cycle, Q.4. LH (Luteinizing hormone)],
Q.5. Progesterone

Self Assessment
Q.31 In menstrual cycle of 28/29 days, ovum is released during
(1) Beginning of the cycle (2) Middle of the cycle
(3) End of the cycle (4) Any time during the cycle
Q.32 Loss of reproductive capacity in women after the age of 45 years is
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 (1) Menstruation (2) Ageing (3) Menopause (4) Menarche
Q.33 The correct sequence of hormones secreted from the beginning of menstrual cycle is
(1) FSH, estrogen, progesterone (2) Estrogen, FSH, progesterone
(3) FSH, progesterone (4) Estrogen, progesterone, FSH
Q.34 Phase of menstrual cycle in human that lasts for 7-8 days is
(1) Follicular phase (2) Ovulatory phase
(3) Luteal phase (4) Menstruation
Q.35 Menstrual cycle occurs in
(1) All females (2) Mammalian females
(3) Primate females (4) Rabbits
Q.36 Withdrawl of which hormone is the immediate cause of menstruation ?
(1) Estrogen (2) FSH (3) FSH-LH (4) Progesterone
Q.37 LH surge occurs during which phase of menstrual cycle ?
(1) Menstrual phase (2) Beginning of proliferative phase
(3) Secretory phase (4) At the middle of the cycle
Q.38 Estrous cycle is the characteristic of
(1) Human females
(2) Mammalian females
(3) Mammalian females other than primates
(4) Primates females
Q.39 Monoestrous animals have
(1) One ovulation each month (2) One heat period each month
(3) One breeding season in a year (4) One menstrual cycle each month
Q.40 Which hormone level reaches peak during the luteal phase of menstrual cycle ?
(1) Luteinising hormone (2) Progesterone
(3) FSH (4) Estrogen

Ans. Q.31 (2), Q.32 (3), Q.33 (1), Q.34 (1), Q.35 (3), Q.36 (4), Q.37 (4), Q.38 (3), Q.39 (3), Q.40 (2)

Concept Builder
Types of Egg
The eggs are classified on the basis of amount and distribution of yolk in them. Yolk is the
reserve food material in the cytoplasm of egg. It may be formed of phospholipids, proteins, or
lipid and carbohydrates. The process of formation of yolk and its deposition in egg. is called
vitellogenesis.
1. Based on amount of yolk.
(i) Alecithal -Eggs without yolk e.g. human egg.
(ii) Microlecithal -The eggs with very little yolk, e.g. sea urchin, starfish.
(iii) Mesolecithal -The eggs containing moderate amount of yolk, e.g. frog.
(iv) Megalecithal (or Macrolecithal) -The eggs containing very large amount of yolk, e.g. reptiles,
birds.
2. Based on distribution of yolk.
On the basis of distribution of yolk, the eggs are classified as follows
(i) Isolecithal -The yolk is uniformly distributed throughout the cytoplasm of egg, e.g.,
Branchiostoma, Herdmania.
(ii) Telolecithal-The eggs in which the yolk is concentrated towards one pole i.e., vegetal pole &
nucleus along with major part of cytoplasm is displaced is animal pole e.g. , amphibians.
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 (iii) Centrolecithal -Yolk concentrated in centre of the egg with cytoplasm surrounding it, e.g.
insects.
3. Based on shell
(i) Cleidoic eggs :- Eggs surrounded by a hard shell are known as cleidoic eggs. These eggs are
found in those animals which have a terrestrial mode of life or which lay eggs on land.
These eggs have more amount of yolk. These are adaptations to terrestrial mode of life. Shell
prevents the egg from dessication.
e.g., :- Eggs of "Reptiles", "Birds", "Terrestrial Insects" and "Prototherians".
Reptilia eggs are called leathery eggs.
(ii) Non - Cleidoic eggs :- Eggs which are not surrounded by a hard shell are called non-cleidoic
eggs.
e.g., :- All viviparous animals (Mammals) and all oviparous animals which lay eggs in water
(Amphibians).

Egg Membranes
There are three types of egg membrane which can be present around the egg
(i) Primary egg membrane: It is formed around the plasma membrane of egg secreted by ovum
itself e.g, Jelly envelope (Echinoderms). Vitelline membrane (Mollusca, amphibians &
birds), zona radiata (Shark, some amphibians).
(ii) Secondary egg membrane: It is formed around an egg by the follicle cells of the ovary e.g.,
chorion around egg of insect; corona radiata, granulosa & theca layers in human.
(iii) Tertiary egg membranes: These are formed by the oviducts & other accessory parts of
maternal genital tract while the egg is passing from the ovary to the exterior. e.g., the albumin,
shell membrane & outermost calcareous shell of reptiles & birds.

Types of Cleavage
The mode of cleavage is determined by the amount of yolk and its distribution.
(a) Holoblastic: The cleavage in which the segmentation lines pass through the entire egg ,
dividing it completely. It occurs in alecithal, microlecithal and mesolecithal eggs; e.g. frog,
human egg etc. It is of two types equal holoblastic example Amphioxus and Marsupials;
unequal holoblastic e.g., lower fishes and amphibians.
(b) Meroblastic: The lines of segmentation do not completely pass through the egg and remain
confined to a part of the egg. Such type of cleavage is found in megalecithal eggs as the yolk
provides resistance to the cleavage, e.g. insects, birds, reptiles. Meroblastic cleavage may be (i)
Superficial which occurs in centrolecithal eggs, e.g . insects, or (ii) discoidal, found in eggs of
birds.

Patterns of Cleavage
Cleavage is the successive mitotic cell divisions of the egg & can be in following pattern
(i) Radial Cleavage: Successive clevage plane cuts straight through the egg e.g. Synapta paracen
rotus.
(ii) Biradial Cleavage: When the first three division planes do not stand at right angles to each
other: Ctenophora
(iii) Spiral Cleavage: There is a rotational movement of cell parts around the egg axis leading to
displacement of mitotic spindle with respect to symmetrically disposed radii e.g. turbellarians,
nematoda, rotifera, annelida, all mollusc except cephalopods.
(iv) Bilateral Cleavage: Mitotic spindles and cleavage planes remain bilaterally arranged with
reference to the plane of symmetery e.g. tunicates, Amphioxous, amphibia and higher
Human Reproduction || 23
 mammals.
(v) Meridional Cleavage: When cleavage furrow bisects both the poles of egg passing through
animal vegetal axis, the plane of cleavage is called meridional cleavage.

Patterns (planes) of cleavage

According to the concept of potency, cleavage can be
(i) Indeterminate/Regulative eggs, the fate of different parts of egg or its blastomeres is not
predetermined or blastomeres have no characterstic position & alterable fate e.g. Echinoderms
and vertebrates.
(ii) Determinate/Mosaic eggs. Every part of fertilized egg has a definite fate, so that fate of every
blastomere is determined from beginning i.e. , produces the complete embryo only if all the
blastomeres remain together. e.g., Nematoda, Mollusca (Dentalium).

Morula
Cleavage results in the formation of solid mass of cells called Morula as it looks like a
mulberry.

Blastula
 Blastula is the embryonic stage next to morula.
 It contains a fluid-filled cavity called blastocoel surrounded by one or more layers of cells, the
blastomeres.

Gastrula
 Gastrula is formed by gastrulation. Gastrulation is the process of the formation of gastrula
from the blastula. Gastrula is the embryonic stage of development in which the germinal layers
are formed. Gastrulation involves movement of cells.
 The movements are called morphogenic movements. They include epiboly (descending of
dividing cells to cover other cells), emboly (upward movement of dividing cells underneath the
other cells).
 Archenteron is the cavity which occurs inside the gastrula, and is the future alimentary canal.
It opens to the outside through blastopore which closes later.

Foetal Membranes (Extra embryonic membranes)

The developing foetus is enclosed by three membranes, amnion, chorion and allantois.
(i) Amnion is formed from mesoderm outside and ectoderm inside. Space between amnion and
foetus is called amniotic cavity and it contains amniotic fluid.
(ii) Chorion is formed from ectoderm externally and mesoderm inside. Alongwith the allantois it
Human Reproduction || 24
 participates in the formation of placenta. Space between amnion and chorion is embryonic
coelom .
(iii) Allantois consists of mesoderm outside, and endoderm inside. It extends to fuse with chorion
and forms allanto-chorion which gives rise to foetal part of placenta.

Foetal membranes (diagrammatic)

Conceptual Questions
Q.1 Which term is used for the process of synthesis of yolk in oocytes?
Q.2 Which term is used for human egg in terms of yolk content?
Q.3 Which type of eggs are present in reptiles and birds?
Q.4 When do morphogenetic movements take place?
Q.5 Which part of human foetus represents the future alimentary canal?
Q.6 Which foetal membrane takes part in the formation of placenta in humans?

Ans. Q.1. Vitellogenesis, Q.2. Alecithal, Q.3. Cleidoic eggs, Q.4. During gastrulation,
Q.5. Archenteron, Q.6. Chorion

THE EVENTS IN MAMMALIAN REPRODUCTION

FERTILISATION
 Ovum is released in the secondary oocyte stage (arrested in metaphase-II). Due to ciliary
current produced by fimbriae of oviduct, ovum is drawn in through ostium.

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 It reaches ampulla, the site of fertilisation, by the ciliary action of ciliated columnar
epithelium lining of oviduct.
 A human sperm can live for many weeks in male genitial duct. Once ejaculated sperm can live
alive only for 24 to 48 hours outside the body. Sperms move in the liquid medium secreted by
female genital tract (1.5-3.0 mm/minute).
 Prostaglandins of semen help in movement of spermatozoa and finally reach ampulla portion
of the oviduct.
 Capacitation of sperm occurs in the female genital system due to
(1) Removal of membrane cholesterol present over acrosome, weakening the membrane cover.
(2) Dilution of decapacitation factors.
(3) Entry of Ca2+ into sperms causing rapid whiplash motion of the tail.
 Fusion of gametes/Syngamy: The various steps involve :
Acrosomal reaction: Number of sperms adhare to the surface of egg covers (Agglutination).
The acrosome starts releasing its hydrolytic enzymes (sperm lysins).
 It includes,
(a) Hyaluronidase: Dissolves the hyaluronic acid responsible for cementing of follicle cells or
granulosa cells.
(b) Corona digesting enzyme (CDE) : Dissolves corona radiata.
(c) Zona lysin/Acrosin : Digests the zona pellucida. It involves zona pellucida compatibility
reaction determined by 'fertilizin' protein over zona pellucida and 'antifertilizin' in case of
sperm.
 Contact of acrosome stimulates development of an outgrowth by the oocyte called fertilisation
cone or cone of reception.
 As the sperm head gets in contact with the fertilization cone, it cause opening up of Na +
channel to cause depolarisation of membrane (fast block to check polyspermy) and Ca2+
wave inside the egg.
 Sperm and egg membranes dissolve. Male pronucleus & proximal centriole of sperm enter the
cytoplasm of egg & rest part is left out.
 Ca2+ wave causes extrusion of cortical granules (cortical reaction) and zona reaction makes the
zona pellucida impervious to second sperm by destroying sperm receptors.

Human Reproduction || 26
  Cortical reaction and zona reaction constitute slow block to check polyspermy.
 Entry of sperm causing breakdown of metaphase promoting factor (MPF) and turning on
anaphase promoting complex (APC). This results in oocyte completing its meiosis -II.
 Male and female pronuclei approach each other and finally mixing up of paternal and maternal
chromosomes (Amphimixis) occur resulting in the formation of zygote/ synkaryon.

Conceptual Questions
Q.1 Which term is given to the chemicals which help in the entry of sperm in egg?
Q.2 Which reaction causes fast block to check polyspermy?
Q.3 Which enzyme is responsible for the dissolution of zona pellucida?

Ans. Q.1. Sperm lysins, Q.2. Depolarization of membrane, Q.3. Zona lysin /Acrosin

PARTHENOGENESIS OR VIRGINAL DEVELOPMENT

• The development of embryo without fertilization is called parthenogenesis. The animals which
are formed by unfertilized eggs are called parthenotes.
• The discovery of parthenogenesis was done by Charles Bonet in the eggs of sea-urchins.
• Parthenogenesis is of two types -
(a) Natural (b) Artificial

(1) Natural parthenogenesis -

Some animals show parthenogenesis by nature e.g. Honey bees, wasps, ants, grass-hoppers,
ticks, mites and sea-urchins. Natural parthenogenesis is of 2 types :-
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 (i) Haploid parthenogenesis or Arrhenotoky :- In this case eggs are formed by meiosis. Eggs
are haploid, they have the power of fertilization sometimes male animals are developed by
unfertilized eggs. In Honeybees, unfertilized eggs develop into males (drones), and fertilized
eggs develop into queen and soldiers. Thus male honey bees are always haploid and queen
along with soldiers are always diploid.
(ii) Diploid parthenogenesis or Thelytoky :- In this case, eggs are formed without meiosis
division. Eggs are diploid they do not have the power of fertilization.
Diploid eggs give rise to female generation only. Male members are absent in these species.
Examples :- Lacerta sexicola armenica (lizard), Caresius aratus gibelio(Fish).
Diploid parthenogenesis may also be divided into two types -
(A) Ameiotic Thelytoky- In this type of parthenogenesis, during oogenesis first meiotic division
does not take place but second meiotic division occurs as usual. In this situation the ovum still
remains diploid. These ova, when reproduce parthenogenetically give rise to diploid offsprings.
For example, Trichoniscus, Daphnia pulex etc.
(B) Meiotic thelytoky- If the eggs are formed by normal oogenesis process, but by one or other
reasons the eggs retain their diploid chromosomal number, then the parthenogenesis is called
meiotic thelytoky. It may happen because of auto-fertilization. Some species of order -
Lepidoptera exhibit this type of parthenogenesis.
• In some animals parthenogenesis alternates with normal sexual reproductive cycle. This is
called cyclic parthenogenesis.e.g., Honey bee.
• In some animals, development of animals is always by parthenogenesis and sexual
reproduction is absent in these species. This is called complete parthenogenesis. Males are
absent.
Example - Lacerta sexicola armenica (lizard)

2. Artificial parthenogenesis :-
This type of parthenogenesis is done by artificial methods. Artificial parthenogenesis is done
by putting eggs in different atmospheres or by giving special stimulus to the eggs. Different
artificial methods used for this purpose are as follows -
(1) If we place eggs in brine or salt solution, KCl solution. Then eggs show parthenogenesis e.g.
eggs of sea-urchins.
(2) By short exposure of radiations on eggs or exposure of silk insect egg to sunlight.
(3) If eggs are given shocks of temperature.
(4) If eggs are pierced by needle dipped in the blood of some animal. The eggs of frog show
parthenogenesis by this method.

EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
It includes cleavage, blastulation, implantation, gastrulation and organogenesis.
Cleavage:
 First cleavage is completed after 30 hours of fertilization. Cleavage furrow passes from
animal-vegetal axis as well as centre of zygote (Meridional cleavage).
 It divides the zygote into two blastomeres (Holoblastic cleavage). Second cleavage is
completed after 60 hours of fertilization.
 It is also meridional but at right angle to the first one. It is completed earlier in one of the two
blastomeres resulting in transient 3-celled stage.
 Third cleavage is horizontal forming 8 blastomeres. lt is slightly unequal. Thereafterthe rate
and pattern of cleavage is not specific.
Morula:
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  Cleavage results in solid ball of celled Morula with 16 cells (occasionally 32 cells). Zona
pellucida is still present as the outer cover. Morula undergoes compaction.
 Morula descends slowly towards uterus in 4-6 days and corona radiata detaches during this
period.

BLASTULATION OR BLASTOCYST FORMATION

 Endometrium secretes a nutrient fluid and its mucosal cells become enlarged with stored
nutrients. As the morula enters uterus, it obtains enriched supply of nutrients.
 Outer peripheral cells enlarge and flatten further. They form trophoblast or trophoectoderm.
Trophoblast secretes a fluid into the interior. It creates a cavity called blastocoel.
 The inner cell mass now comes to lie on one side as embryonal knob.
 With the formation of blastocoel, morula is converted into blastula which is called blastocyst
in mammals because of different nature of surface layer and eccentric inner cell mass.

Development of blastocyst

 Due to pressure of growing blastocyst a slit is produced in zona pellucida. The growing
blastocyst comes out. At times it gets broken into two parts which then give rise to identical
twins.
 Trophoblast cells in contact with embryonal knob are called cells of Rauber. Area of
embryonal knob represents animal pole.
 The opposite side is embryonal pole. Soon embryonal knob shows rearrangement to form
embryonal disc. Cells of trophoblast layer divide periclinally.
 This makes trophoblast two layered, outer syncytotrophoblast and inner cytotrophoblast.
The two layers later form chorion, amnion and foetal part of placenta.

IMPLANTATION
 It is embedding of the blastocyst into
endometrium of uterus.
 Blastocyst comes in contact with the
endometrium in the region of embryonal
knob or embryonic disc. It adheres to the
same.
 The surface cells of trophoblast secrete lytic
enzymes which cause corrosion of
endometrial lining.
 They also give rise to finger-like outgrowths
called chorionic villi. Villi not only help in fixation but also absorption of nourishment.
 Implantation causes nutrient enrichment, enlargement of cells and formation of uterine part of

Human Reproduction || 29
 placenta called decidua (L. deciduus-falling off).
 Decidua has three regions (i) Decidua Basalis (Basal Decidua, Tunica Serotina). Part of
decidua underlying the chorionic villi and overlying the myometrium. (ii) Decidua Capsularis
(Decidua Reflexa). It lies between embryo and lumen of uterus. (iii) Decidua Parietalis
(Decidua Vera).
 It is part of decidua that lines the uterus at a place other than the site of attachment of embryo.
 Trophoblast secretes hormone called human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). Detection of
hCG in the urine is the basis of pregnancy/Gravidex test.
 hCG maintains the corpus luteum beyond its normal life. It continues to secrete progesterone
which prevents menstruation and maintains the uterine lining in nutrient rich state.
 Progesterone induces the cervical glands to secrete viscous mucus for filling the cervical canal
to form a protective plug.
 Progesterone is also called pregnancy hormone as it is essential for maintenance of
pregnancy. The hormone is secreted by placenta as well.

GASTRULATION
 It is characterised by movement of cells in small masses or sheets so as to form primary
germinal layers. There are three primary germinal layers -endoderm, ectoderm and mesoderm.
 The cell movements that occur during gastrulation are called morphogenetic movements
since they lead to initiation of morphogenesis. The product of gastrulation is called gastrula.

Formation of endoderm, and amniotic cavity

FORMATION OF PRIMARY GERMINAL LAYERS

 Cells of the inner cell mass or embryonal knob get rearranged to form a flat embryonic or
germinal disc. The latter differentiate into two layers, outer epiblast of larger columnar cells
and inner hypoblast of smaller cuboidal cells.
 Gastrulation begins with the formation of the primitive streak on the surface of the epiblast.
1. Cross section through the cranial, region of the streak at 15 days showing movement of
epiblast cells. The first cells to move inward displace the hypoblast to create the definitive
endoderm.
2. Once definitive endoderm is established, inwardly moving epiblast forms mesoderm.
3. Cells remaining in the epiblast form ectoderm. Thus the epiblast is the source of all the germ
layers in the embryo.
Human Reproduction || 30
Conceptual Questions
Q.1 In which part of human female reproductive system implantation takes place?
Q.2 From which part of blastocyst does an embryo develop?
Q.3 Mention the fate of inner cell mass after implantation in uterus.
Q.4 What is the other name of trophoblast cells lying over the embryonic disc?
Q.5 Which germ layer forms nervous system, eye, pituitary gland and internal ear?

Ans. Q.1. Uterus, Q.2. Inner cell mass, Q.3. Formation of germinal layers, Q.4. Cells of Rauber

Self Assessment
Q.41 Stage of embryo development at which implantation occurs in human female is
(1) Morula (2) Zygote (3) Blastocyst (4) Transient 3-celled stage
Q.42 In ectopic pregnancy, foetus grows in
(1) Fundus part of uterus (2) Fallopian tube
(3) Uterus (4) Both (1) & (3)
Q.43 Which of the following statements is incorrect ?
(1) Fertilization occurs in fallopian tube
(2) Fertilization is a physio-chemical process/event
(3) Cleavage produces morula
(4) Cleavage leads to increased mass of protoplasm
Q.44 Cortical granules are associated with
(1) Oogenesis (2) Spermatogenesis (3) Cleavage (4) Fertilization
Q.45 Termination of gastrulation is marked by
(1) Closure of primitive gut (2) Obliteration of archenteron
(3) Obliteration of blastocoel (4) Closure of neural tube
Q.46 Onset of preganancy
(1) Stimulates testosterone secretion (2) Leads to degeneration ovary
(3) Inhibits further ovulation (4) Inhibits fusion of egg and sperm nuclei
Q.47 Site of fertilization in a mammal is
(1) Ovary (2) Uterus (3) Vagina (4) Fallopian tube
Q.48 Placenta is
(1) Channel for providing essential requirements for growth of embryo
(2) Storage organ
(3) Conductor for nerve impulse (4) Meant for protection of embryo from shocks
Q.49 After a sperm has penetrated an ovum, the entry of other sperms is prevented by :
(1) Condensation of yolk (2) Formation of pigment coat
(3) Development of vitelline (4) Development of fertilization membrane
Human Reproduction || 31
Q.50 Two offsprings developed in the same uterus from fertilisation of two different ova are
(1) Monozygotic twins (2) Dizygotic twins
(3) Fraternal twins (4) Both (2) & (3)

Ans. Q.41 (3), Q.42 (2), Q.43 (4), Q.44 (4), Q.45 (3), Q.46 (3), Q.47 (4), Q.48 (1), Q.49 (4), Q.50 (4)

FATE OF GERM LAYERS

PLACENTA
 Placenta is an organ which connects the
foetus and uterine wall.
 It is contributed by both-maternal as well as
foetal part although there is no blending of
the maternal and foetal blood supplies, the
placenta acts as an ultrafilter, soluble
inorganic and organic materials nutrients,
hormones, antibodies against diphtheria,
small pox, scarlet fever, measles, etc. can
pass from the mother to the foetus.

 Placenta acts as an endocrine gland and

synthesises large quantities of proteins and some hormones, such as human chorionic
gonadotropin (hCG), chorionic thyrotropin, chorionic corticotropin, chorionic
somatomammotropin, estrogens and progesterone.
Human Reproduction || 32
  The hCG stimulates the corpus luteum to secrete progesterone until the end of pregnancy. In
addition, it secretes relaxin that facilitates parturition by softening the connective tissue of the
symphysis pubica.
 The metabolic activity of the placenta is almost as great as that of the foetus itself. The
umbilical cord connects the foetus to the placenta.
 During the first trimester (first 3 months) of pregnancy, the basic structure of the baby is
formed.
 This involves cell division, cell migration, and the differentiation of cells into many types
found in the baby. During this period, the developing baby-called foetus is very sensitive to
anything that interferes with the steps involved.
 Virus infection of the mother e.g., by Rubella (German measles) virus or exposure to certain
chemicals, may cause malformations in the developing embryo. Such agents are called
teratogens (monster forming).
 By 3 months, all the systems of the baby have been formed, at least in a rudimentary form.
 From then, development of the foetus is primarily a matter of growth and minor structural
modifications.
 The foetus is less susceptible to teratogens.

Concept Builder
On the basis of different characters, the mammalian placenta are classified in following manner-
1. On the basis of extra-embryonic membranes -
Chorio-allantoic placenta – This type of placenta is formed by embryonic chorion and
allantoic membranes. It is also referred to as a true placenta. It is found in eutherian mammals.
2. On the basis of intimacy
Deciduate placenta - This type of placenta is found in human, dog, hare [Link] is characterized
with a very close association between chorionic villi and uterine wall. At the time of birth, the
mucosal covering of the uterus is also damaged and discarded outside. This results in an
extensive bleeding at child birth. This placenta is known as a true placenta.
3. On the basis of implantation
Interstitial - This type of placenta is found in man, guinea pig, apes etc. The chorionic
sac(placenta) penetrates deep inside the wall of uterus. Hence, the association between embryo
and maternal part becomes very close.
4. On the basis of distribution of villi
Discoidal placenta - In this type of placenta, whole of the chorionic surface is covered by villi
in initial stge, but the villi disappear later from most area except the region of implantation,
that is only a disc like region is left with villi.
Mono discoidal placenta – The villi are present only on dorsal surface in a single circular disc
like area.
For example- human, hare etc.
5. On the basis of histology :
Haemochorial- All the three maternal layers are penetrated in this placenta. The chorionic
epithelium comes in direct contact with uterine blood sinusoids.
For example- man, monkey, bat etc.

Table-I: Important Developmental Events in the Human Embryo

Time from Event
fertilization

Human Reproduction || 33
 24 hours Embryo reaches two-celled stage.
3 days Morula stage is reached.
7 days Blastocyst begins to implant in the uterus.
2.5 weeks Notochord and neural plate are formed; tissue that will give rise to heart is
differentiating; blood cells are forming in yolk sac and chorion.
3.5weeks Neural tube forming; primordial eye and ear visible; pharyngeal pouches
forming; liver differentiating; respiratory system and thyroid gland beginning to
develop; heart tubes fuse, bend, and begin to beat; blood vessels are laid down.
4 weeks Limb buds appear; three primary vesicles of brain formed.
2 months Muscles differentiating; embryo capable of movement; gonad distinguishable as
testis or ovary; bones begin to ossify; principal blood vessels assume final
positions; embryo become foetus; nervous system develops; bones enlarge.
3 months Sex can be determined by external inspection; notochord degenerates; lymph
glands develop.
4 months Face begins to look like human; lobes of cerebrum differentiate; eye, ear, and
nose look more 'normal'; rapid gorwth.
Third trimester Lanugo* appears, later it is shed; neurons become myelinated; tremendous
growth of body.
266 days (from Birth
conceptions)
* Lanugo is the soft hairy covering of the foetus which begins to be shed before birth.

PARTURITION
 The gestation period of the human is about 38 weeks/266 days followed by birth. The process
of giving birth to a baby is called parturition.
• The signals for parturition originate from the fully developed fetus and the placenta which
induce mild uterine contractions called foetal ejection reflex.
 It starts with rise in estrogen/progesterone ratio, increase in the level of oxytocin secretion by
both, mother and foetus.
 It includes 3 stages.
1. Dilation Stage:
 The uterine contraction starts from top and occur at long intervals (once every thirty minutes).
This forces the baby to push its head against cervix.
 As a result, cervix gets dilated with vagina also showing similar dilation. Dilation of cervix
increases the stimulus for oxytocin secretion, further increasing the strength and frequency of
contractions (1-3 every minute).
 With continued powerful contractions, the amnion ruptures and the amniotic fluid flows out
through vagina.
2. Expulsion Stage:
 With further increase in the intensity of uterine and abdominal contraction, the baby comes out
through cervix and vagina with head coming out first.
 It may take 20 -60 min. Umbilical cord is cut. The infant's lungs expand and it begins
breathing. This requires a major switch over in the circulatory system.
 Blood flow through the umbilical cord ductus arteriosus and foramen ovale ceases; the adult
pattern of blood flow through the heart, aorta and pulmonary arteries begins.
 In some infants, the switch over is incomplete, and blood flow through the pulmonary arteries
is inadequate. Failure to synthesise enough nitric oxide (NO) is one cause.
Human Reproduction || 34
 3. After Birth: Within 10-15 minutes after delivery, the placenta and the remains of the
umbilical cord which is called 'after birth' is expelled out.

LACTATION
 Although estrogen and progesterone are essential for the physical development of the breasts
during pregnancy, a specific effect of both these hormones is to inhibit the actual secretion of
milk. Conversely, the hormone prolactin has exactly the opposite effect on secretion:
promotion of milk secretion.
 This hormone is secreted by the mother's anterior pituitary gland and its concentration in her
blood rises steadily from the fifth week of pregnancy until birth of the baby, at that time it has
risen to 10 to 20 times the normal nonpregnant level.
 In addition, the placenta secretes large quantities of human chorionic somatomammotropin,
which probably also has lactogenic' properties, thus supporting the prolactin from the mother's
pituitary during pregnancy.
 The fluid that is secreted in the last few days before and first few days after parturition is called
colostrum, it contains essentially the same concentrations of proteins and lactose as milk but
almost no fat.

Ejection (or "Let-Down") Process in Milk Secretion

 Milk is secreted continuously into the alveoli of the breasts, but milk does not flow easily from
the alveoli into the duct system and, therefore, does not continually leak from the breast
nipples.
 Instead, the milk must be ejected from the alveoli into the ducts before the baby can obtain it.
This is caused by a combined neurogenic and hormonal reflex that involves the posterior
pituitary hormone oxytocin.
 When the baby suckles, sensory impulses are transmitted through somatic nerves from the
nipples to the mother's spinal cord and then to her hypothalamus, there causing nerve signals
that promote oxytocin secretion at the same time they cause prolactin secretion.
 The oxytocin is carried in the blood to the breasts, where it causes myoepithelial cells (that
surround the outer walls of the alveoli) to contract, thereby expelling the milk from the alveoli
into the ducts.

Summary of Human Pregnancy from Fertilization to Birth of the Baby

Week 1 Week 2 Week 3
Cleavages start to form a The three basic layers of the Woman will not have menses.
blastocyst after 4-5 days of embryo develop, namely This may be the first sign that
fertilization. More than 100 cells ectoderm, mesoderm and she is pregnant. Appearance of
are formed. Implantation takes endoderm. No research is backbone, Neural tube and spinal
place after 6-9 days of allowed on human embryos cord (first organs) starts. Embryo
fertilization. beyond this stage. is about 2mm long.
Week 4 Week 5 Week 6
Heart, blood vessels, blood and Brain developing. Limb buds Eyes and ears start their
gut start forming. Umbilical cord and digits start appearing. development.
developing. Embryo about 5 mm Embryo is about 8 mm long.

Human Reproduction || 35
long. Heart sounds can be
heard through stethoscope.
Week 7 By week 12 By week 20
All major internal organs Foetus fully formed, with all Hair begin to grow, including
developing. Face forming. Eyes organs, muscles, bones, toes and eyebrows and eyelashes. First
have some colour. Mouth, fingers. Sex organs start their movement of the foetus is felt.
tongue, hands and feet start development. External genital
appearing. Foetus is 17 mm long. organs start appearing.
By week 24 By week 26 By week 28
Eyelids separate. Body is Has a good chance of survival if Baby moving vigorously.
covered with fine hairs. born prematurely. Responds to touch and loud
Eye-lashes are formed. noises. Swallowing amniotic
fluid and urinating.
By week 30 By week 40 (9 months)
Usually lying head down in the Birth
uterus and it is ready for birth.
Baby is 240 mm from head to
bottom.

Self Assessment
Q.51 Hormone administered for hastening child birth is meant for
(1) Stimulating the striped muscles (2) Raising blood pressure
(3) Increasing energy availability (4) Contraction of smooth muscles
Q.52 Gestation period in human is
(1) 10 weeks (2) 28 weeks (3) 32 weeks (4) 38 weeks
Q.53 Extra-embryonic membrane amnion provides
(1) Cells to embryo (2) Protection to embryo
(3) Nutrition to embryo (4) Both (1) & (2)
Q.54 Gastrulation comprises
(1) Morphogenetic movements (2) Differentiation of archenteron
(3) Differentiation of three germ layers (4) All of these
Q.55 During embryonic development, which of the following organs is formed first ?
(1) Heart (2) Brain (3) Neural tube (4) Skin
Q.56 Which of the following are the derivatives of endoderm ?
(1) Muscles and blood (2) Alimentary canal and respiratory organs
(3) Excretory and reproductive organs (4) Skin and nerve cord
Q.57 Foetal ejection reflex in human female is induced by
(1) Release of oxytocin from pituitary gland (2) Pressure exerted by amniotic fluid
(3) Differentiation of mammary glands (4) Fully developed foetus and placenta
Q.58 Find the incorrect match w.r.t. increase in the levels of following hormones
(1) Oxytocin – Uterine contraction during labour
(2) Prolactin – Lactation after child birth
(3) Progesterone – Uterine contraction
(4) Luteinising hormone – Stimulates ovulation
Human Reproduction || 36
Q.59 Kidneys, heart and gonads are formed from
(1) Ectoderm (2) Endoderm (3) Inner cell mass (4) Mesoderm

Ans. Q.51 (4), Q.52 (4), Q.53 (2), Q.54 (4), Q.55 (3), Q.56 (2), Q.57 (4), Q.58 (3), Q.59 (4)

Concept Builder
1. Amenorrhoea: Non occurrence of menses.
3. Spontaneous ovulator : Ovulation with any external induction.
4. Orchidectomy: Removal of testes. It produces eunuchs.
5. Induced ovulator : Ovulation after copulation e.g., Rabbit.
6. Hysterectomy: Surgical removal of uterus.
7. Unejaculated sperms: Sperm production is a continuous process. unejaculated sperms are
absorbed in vas deferens.
8. Corpus luteum : Persists for two weeks in case of non-pregnancy and four months when
pregnancy has taken place.
9. Cryptorchidism: Failure of testes to descend in to scrotum.
10. Spermatogenesis takes about 74 days.
11. Androgenesis: Development in which the embryo has only paternal chromosomes, male
parthenogenesis.
12. Gynogenesis : Development in which the embryo has only female chromosomes, female
parthenogenesis.
14. Paras: Fertile, can have pregnancy
15. Nulliparous: Women with no children
16. The most common method by which a baby comes out at parturition is left anterior oblique
with head coming out first.
17. Fetal hemoglobin differs from adult hemoglobin because it has  and  chains. It has higher
affinity for O2 and shifts HbO2 dissociation curve to left.
18. 1st Menses is called menarche while the onset of menses and development of secondary sexual
characters is called puberty. Dysmenorrhoea - painful menses.
19. In the three trimesters of preganancy. (0-12 weeks 12-22 weeks and 22-28 weeks) if the baby
dies from 0-22 weeks by natural or man-made causes it is called abortion because embryo is
not called viable.
20. After 20-22 weeks abortion is banned in India.
21. The number of eggs at the time of birth in a young female undergoes drastic reduction by a
process called atresia.
22. Gynandromorphs: An individual possessing both male and female parts.
23. Menopause: Stopping of menses, average age 51 years. Post menopausal effects includes
increased risk to heart attack due to decreased estrogens, hot flushes, irritability, fatigue,
anxiety decreased strength of bones.
24. Implantation takes place in 7 days. Conceptus remains in fallopian tube for 3-4 days and then
by 7-9 days implantation occurs.
25. Vasectomy : Cutting of vas deferens.
26. Gynaecomastia: Males developing breasts due to hormonal imbalances.
Gestation: The period of development of the young in the womb of the mother is called
gestation. Maximum weight gain and maximum growth rate of foetus takes place between 7-9
months of pregnancy.

Human Reproduction || 37
27. Human Egg 0.1 mm in diameter or 100 µm.
28. Human sperm 0.06 mm or 60 µm long
29. Largest sperm 5.8 cm (20 times longer than the body of fly) in Drosophila bifurca.
30. Ectopic Pregnancy : It is the growth of the foetus outside the uterus, commonly inside the
fallopian tube. Hence also called as tubal pregnancy. By 6th week as growing foetus may
cause rupturing of fallopian tube hence its immediate surgical removal.
31. Animal cloning: First performed by Willmut and Campbell (1997). The first cloned animal
was sheep Dolly (Feb. 13, 1997). Egg cell was taken out when maturation promoting factors
(MPF) were maximum. It was denucleated. A nucleus from udder cell arrested in non-dividing
growth phase (GP) by serum starvation was inserted in the denucleated egg.
32. Spermatozoa of turbellarians and Ascaris (nematode) and sporozoans lack acrosome.
33. Non flagellate sperms are found in Ascaris, Procambarus (Crayfish) Callinectes (blue crab).
34. Biflagellate spermatozoa are found in Opsanus (toad fish)
35. Tail-less, (non-flagellate) 'amoeboid' sperm is found in the roundworm Ascaris.
38. Lampbrush chromosomes : Found in oocytes of amphibians. They resemble the brushes used
to clean the chimneys in London. They store extra information for survival of egg. They
consist of two homologous chromosomes held together at chiasmata present in (diplotene)
prophase cell stage
39. Polytene chromosomes : Found in the interphase stage of cells of salivary glands of
chromosomes of Drosophila larvae. They exhibit gene amplification.
40. Fecundity: Animals potential capability to produce off springs.
41. Fertility -Animal's actual capability to conceive or induce conception.
42. Precocial young ones: ungulates and jackrabits -hair and open eyes, ability to move around.
43. Altricial: young ones are naked blind and helpless.
44. Estrous cycle: When females are most receptive to male (not in man) -phases -Estrus
-Metaestrus -Diestrus -Proestrus. It occurs in non-primates.
45. Rut cycle: Testicular activity in the majority of mammals, is a seasonal event as is the
associated period of sexual excitement.
46. F.R. Lillie gave the fertilization theory. Fertilizin of egg of one species locks with antifertilizin
of same species (1914).
47. Sperms are decapacitated in epididymis where they mature. They are recapacitated in vaginal
fluid / uterus.
52. Semination : Is the process of ejaculation of semen from the male reproductive system.
53. Menarche : Is the process of start of menstrual cycle in the life of a female human at puberty.
54. Follicular phase : Primary follicles in the ovary grow to become mature follicle (Graafian
follicle).
55. Luteal phase : The process of transformation of ruptured Graafian follicle into corpus luteum.
56. Capacitation : Is the process of activation of sperms in the female reproductive system after
their ejaculation into it.

Human Reproduction || 38
 SUMMARY
 Human are sexually reproducing and viviporous.
Male reproductive system :
(i) Pair of testes, (ii) Accessory ducts, (iii) Accessory glands, (iv) External genitalia
 Each testis has about 250 testicular lobules.
 Each lobule contains about 2-3 seminiferous tubules.
 Semineferous tubule is lined by spermatogonia and sertoli cells.
 Spermatogoia produce sperms by meiosis while sertoli cells provide nutrition.
 Leidig's cells present outside the seminiferous tubules secrete androgens.
 Male external genital organ is called penis.
Female reproductive system :
(i) Pair of ovaries, (ii) Female accessory ducts (Pair of oviducts, Uterus, Vagina), (iii) External
genitalia, (iv) Pair of mammary glands
 Ovaries produce ovum and some steroid hormones.
 Uterus is made of perimetrium, myometrium and endometrium.
 Spermatogenesis is the formation of sperms in the testis.
 Normal sperm has head, neck, middle piece and tail.
 Oogenesis is the formation of ovum in the ovary.
 The reporductive cycle of female primates is called menstrual cycle.
 Only one ovum is released per menstrual cycle from either of the two ovaries.
 The cyclical changes during menstural cycle are controled by pituitary and ovarian hormones.
 Fertilization occurs at the junction of isthmus and ampulla of oviduct to form zygote.
 Sex of the embryo is determined by presence of X or Y chromosome.
 Zygote divides mitotically to form blastocyst that gets implanted in the uterus resulting in
pregnancy.
 After gestation period of nine months the foetus get ready for delivary.
 Process of child birth is called parturition which is controlled by cortisol, estrogens and
oxytocin.
 Mammary glands secrete milk after child birth to feed the new born.
 Colostrum is thick, pale yellow coloured milk secreted by mammary glands, soon after the
birth of the baby for few days.
 Colostrum is rich in antibodies that can provide passive immunity to the delicate new-born.

Human Reproduction || 39
 EXERCISE – 1
Q.1 Which of the following is not true for asexual reproduction?
(1) Non formation of gametes
(2) Absence of syngamy
(3) Progeny being genetically similar to parent
(4) Male and female parent i.e. biparental

Q.2 Transverse binary fission occurs in case of

(1) Euglena (2) Vorticella (3) Paramoecium (4) Plasmodium

Q.3 Select the correct dioecious group

(1) Frog, cockroach, leech (2) Earthworm, Taenia, leech
(3) Cockroach, frog, Ascaris (4) Cockroach, Taenia, Ascaris

Q.4 In case of mammals, testis are found in scrotal sacs outside the viscera because
(1) Spermatogenesis require a lower temperature
(2) Mammals are highly evolved animals
(3) Of the presence of long vas deferens
(4) Of the presence of urinary bladder

Q.5 Failure of testis to descend in scrotal sac is known as

(1) Impotency (2) Castration (3) Synorchidism (4) Cryptorchidism

Q.6 Which of the following releases inhibin to control spermatogenesis?

(1) Rete testis (2) Follicular cells (3) Sustentacular cells (4) Leydig's cells

Q.7 Testosterone is secreted by

(1) Sertoli cells (2) Sustentacular cells
(3) Both (1) & (2) (4) Leydig cell or interstitial cell

Q.8 Vas deferens starts from which part of the epididymis?

(1) Caput epididymis (2) Corpus epididymis
(3) Cauda epididymis (4) None of these

Q.9 Rete testis is highly anastomosing labyrinth lined by

(1) Simple squamous epithelium (2) Cuboidal epithelium
(3) Columnar epithelium (4) Tessalated epithelium

Q.10 Which of the following gland is a collection of 30-40 tubuloalveolar gland and surrounds the
first part of urethra?
(1) Corpus spongiosum (2) Corpus cavernosum
(3) Prostate (4) Cowper's gland

Q.11 In man, the sperms released from the testis take the following route to reach the urethera
(1) Vasa efferentia, Bidder 's canal, uriniferous tubule
(2) Vasa efferentia, epididymis, vas deferens
(3) Vasa efferentia, Bidder's canal, nephrostome
(4) Vasa efferentia, collecting tubules and Bidder's canal

Q.12 The life span of a human sperm in male genital duct is

(1) 24 hrs. (2) 48 hrs. (3) 72 hrs. (4) Many weeks

Human Reproduction || 40
Q.13 Lower narrow end of uterus is called
(1) Urethra (2) Cervix (3) Clitoris (4) Vulva

Q.14 One of the following is adapted for receiving the male's penis during copulation and for
serving as the birth canal during parturition
(1) Cervix (2) Vagina (3) Fundus (4) Body

Q.15 Clitoris in human female is

(1) Vestigial organ (2) Analogous to penis in the male
(3) Homologous to the penis in male (4) None of these

Q.16 Which of the following is not true for clitoris?

(1) It is the erectile part of female reproductive system
(2) It ends in glans clitoris
(3) It has three erectile bodies with it
(4) Its end is covered with prepuce

Q.17 Axial filament of the sperm arises from

(1) Proximal centriole (2) Distal centriole
(3) Acrosome (4) Nucleus

Q.18 Acrosome of sperm develops from

(1) Mitochondria (2) Golgi complex (3) Ribosomes (4) Centriole

Q.19 Phase of transformation of spermatid into sperm is called

(1) Spermiogenesis (2) Spermateleosis (3) Gametogenesis (4) Both (1) & (2)

Q.20 Amoeboid sperms or tailless non flagellated sperms are found in

(1) Earthworm (2) Taenia (3) Ascaris (4) All of these

Q.21 Oogenesis in the human female starts

(1) At puberty (8 yrs. of age) (2) At puberty (13 yrs. of age)
(3) At menarche (4) Before birth

Q.22 The hormone that is present in greatest concentration in the blood during ovulation in a female
is
(1) FSH (2) LH (3) Prolactin (4) Progesterone

Q.23 Menses occurs in

(1) Human beings only (2) Old world monkeys and apes (primates)
(3) Every mammal (4) Both (1) & (2)

Q.24 Secondary oocyte is

(1) Haploid (2) Diploid (3) Polyploid (4) None of these

Q.25 Oral contraceptives check

(1) Ovulation (2) Fertilization
(3) Implantation (4) Entry of sperm into vagina

Q.26 Which part of the ovary in mammals acts as an endocrine gland after ovulation?
(1) Vitelline membrane (2) Graffian follicle
(3) Corpus luteum (4) Germinal epithelium

Human Reproduction || 41
Q.27 The transparent layer found around the outer surface of a developing ovum is called
(1) Zona radiata (2) Zona pellucida (3) Theca externa (4) Theca interna

Q.28 Cessation of menstrual cycle is called

(1) Ovulation (2) Puberty (3) Menopause (4) Implantation

Q.29 Based on distribution of yolk, the egg of human is

(1) Telolecithal (2) Centrolecithal (3) Microlecithal (4) Alecithal

Q.30 Egg will be having moderate amount of yolk in case of

(1) Sea urchin (2) Starfish (3) Frog (4) All of these

Q.31 Vitelline layer around the egg is deposited by

(1) Ovary (2) Oviduct (3) Egg itself (4) Coelom

Q.32 In bony fishes, reptiles and birds, the cleavage pattern is

(1) Meroblastic centrolecithal (2) Holoblastic unequal
(3) Meroblastic discoidal (4) Holoblastic radial

Q.33 The eggs of insect are

(1) Homolecithal (2) Centrolecithal (3) Meiolecithal (4) Telolecithal

Q.34 Spiral cleavage is found in

(1) Coelenterates (2) Annelids (3) Echinodermata (4) Mollusca

Q.35 After a sperm has penetrated an ovum in the process of fertilization, entry of further sperms is
prevented by
(1) Development of the vitelline membrane (2) Development of the pigment coat
(3) Condensation of yolk (4) Formation of fertilization membrane

Q.36 Fertilization in human beings occurs in

(1) Fallopian tube (2) Uterus
(3) Ampulla part of oviduct (4) Isthmus part of oviduct

Q.37 The function of hyaluronidase is

(1) To form cone of reception in egg
(2) To dissolve the cementing part of granulosa cells
(3) To release IInd polar body
(4) None of these

Q.38 Fertilizin proteins are associated with

(1) Corona radiata of the ovum (2) Zona pellucida of the ovum
(3) Acrosome of the sperm (4) Tail part of the sperm

Q.39 Blastocyst comes out of slit of zona pellucida in

(1) Ampulla part of fallopian tube (2) Isthmus part of fallopian tube
(3) Uterine part of fallopian tube (4) Uterus

Q.40 Cervical gland start secreting viscous mucus for filling the cervical canal to form a protective
plug during pregnancy under the influence of
(1) FSH (2) LH (3) Progesterone (4) Oxytocin

Human Reproduction || 42
Q.41 Skeleton and muscles in a vertebrate embryo develop from
(1) Ectoderm (2) Mesoderm (3) Endo-mesoderm (4) Endoderm

Q.42 Gestation period in man is about

(1) 10 weeks (2) 28 weeks (3) 36 weeks (4) 38 weeks

Q.43 Umbilical cord suspends embryo in amniotic cavity and is attached to the midgut region of the
embryo. In eutherians, this umbilical cord is formed of the stalk of
(1) Yolk sac and Amnion (2) Allantois and Chorion
(3) Yolk sac and Chorion (4) Allantois and Yolk sac

Q.44 If both the ovaries of a pregnant female are removed in the second trimester it will lead to
(1) Abortion (2) Slow development of fetus
(3) Normal development (4) Premature birth

Q.45 Amniotic fluid comes out through vagina during which stage of parturition?
(1) Dilation stage (2) Expulsion stage (3) After birth stage (4) None of these

Q.46 The placenta in mammals is formed by

(1) Allantois (2) Amnion (3) Chorion (4) Both (1) & (3)

Q.47 The placenta in man is

(1) Haemochorial (2) Epitheliochorial (3) Syndesmochorial (4) Haemo-endothelial

Human Reproduction || 43
 EXERCISE – 2
Q.1 Type of parthenogenesis in the honey bee is
(1) Complete; Thelytoky (2) Incomplete; Thelytoky
(3) Complete; Arrhenotoky (4) Incomplete; Arrhenotoky

Q.2 The main white fibrous cover around the testis is called
(1) Tunica vasculosa (2) Tunica albuginea (3) Tunica vaginalis (4) Tunica media

Q.3 The muscles playing major role in the positioning of the testis are
(1) Cremaster (2) Dartos (3) Detrusor (4) Both (1) & (2)

Q.4 Which of the following is not the part of intratesticular genital duct system?
(1) Rete testis (2) Tubuli recti (3) Vas deferens (4) Vas efferens

Q.5 Ampulla part in the male reproductive system is related to

(1) Epididymis (2) Vas deferens (3) Fallopian tube (4) Tubuli recti

Q.6 The inhibin hormone is released by

(1) Medulla (2) Granulosa cells (3) Theca cells (4) Zona pellucida

Q.7 Ostium is the aperture present in

(1) Oviduct (2) Fallopian funnel (3) Ovisac (4) Cloaca

Q.8 In humans, perineum refers to the space between the

(1) Incisor and premolar teeth (2) Mouth and nostril
(3) Upper and lower lips (4) Anus and vulva

Q.9 The scrotal sac of a male mammal is homologous to which part of female genitalia?
(1) Vagina (3) Clitoris (2) Uterus (4) Labia majora

Q.10 The function of Bartholin's gland in a female is

(1) To nourish the growing embryo (2) To neutralize the acidity of vagina
(3) Secretion of fructose (4) To render the vagina slimy

Q.11 If in a sperm the proximal centriole becomes nonfunctional, which of the following shall not
occur?
(1) First cleavage (2) Second cleavage
(3) Maturation of oocyte (4) Spermiogenesis

Q.12 Which of the following plays important role in concentrating testosterone in the seminiferous
tubules?
(1) Leydig's cells (2) Sertoli cells (ABP)
(3) Granulosa cells (4) Tubuli recti

Q.13 The fall in the number of sperms per ml of semen causes steriility. This is due to the
insufficient amount of
(1) Acid phosphates (2) Alkaline phosphates
(3) Testosterone (4) Hyaluronidase

Human Reproduction || 44
Q.14 Anestrum state is
(1) Non-ovulation in human female
(2) Suspension of menstrual cycle in human female
(3) Suspension of estrous cycle in non-primates
(4) 'Period of heat' in non-primates

Q.15 The principle chemical components of yolk are

(1) Proteins and carbohydrates (2) Proteins, phospholipids and fats
(3) Proteins and vitamins (4) Carbohydrates and lipids

Q.16 Vitelline membrane is a

(1) Primary egg membrane (2) Secondary egg membrane
(3) Tertiary egg membrane (4) None of these

Q.17 When cleavage furrow bisects both the poles of the egg passing through the animal-vegetal
axis, the plane of cleavage is called
(1) Meridional (2) Equatorial (3) Vertical (4) Horizontal

Q.18 Which one of the following is not a characteristic of cleavage?

(1) Mitotic divisions (2) Increase in the synthesis of DNA
(3) Increase of protoplasm (4) Cells of continuously smaller size

Q.19 Right and left sides of an embryo become apparent during

(1) Radial cleavage (2) Bilateral cleavage (3) Spiral cleavage (4) Biradial cleavage

Q.20 A blastula consisting of a blastoderm of one or several layers of cells arranged around a
spacious blastocoel is termed as
(1) Periblastula (2) Coeloblastula (3) Stereoblastula (4) Discoblastula

Q.21 Movement of micromeres over the surface of blastula, resulting in elongation of the embryo is
known as
(1) Divergence (2) Convergence (3) Involution (4) Epiboly

Q.22 Which of the following is involved in capacitation?

(1) Removal of membrane cholesterol present over acrosome
(2) Entry of Ca2+ into sperms
(3) Dilution of decapacitation factors
(4) All of these

Q.23 The function of cortical granules in the cortex of the ovum is the
(1) Formation of vitelline membrane (2) Formation of perivitelline membrane
(3) Formation of fertilization membrane (4) Formation of plasma membrane

Q.24 The fertilization membrane is secreted because

(1) It checks the entry of more sperms after fertilization
(2) It checks the entry of antigens in ovum
(3) It checks syngamy
(4) None of these

Human Reproduction || 45
Q.25 Which of the following is involved in slow block to the polyspermy?
(1) Cortical reaction
(2) Zona reaction
(3) Depolarisation starting at the fertilization cone
(4) Both (1) & (2)

Q.26 'Cells of Rauber' are

(1) Trophoblast cells in contact with embryonal knob
(2) Cells of inner cell mass
(3) Cells present in the blastocoel
(4) Uterine epithelial cells making contact with blastocyst

Q.27 Part of the decidua present between embryo and, the lumen of uterus is called
(1) Decidua basalis (2) Decidua capsularis
(3) Decidua parietalis (4) Perimetrium

Q.28 Which of the following is true regarding the first germinal layer to differentiate during
embryonic development?
(1) Endoderm, epiblast (2) Endoderm, hypoblast
(3) Mesoderm, epiblast (4) Mesoderm, hypoblast

Q.29 Ontogenically liver and pancreas are

(1) Ectodermal (2) Mesodermal (3) Endodermal (4) None of these

Q.30 The mesoderm gives rise to all structures except

(1) Nervous system (2) Muscular system
(3) Circulatory system (4) Gonads

Q.31 Effect of teratogens is maximum during

(1) First trimester (2) Second trimester (3) Third trimester (4) Both (2) & (3)

Q.32 Each primary oocyte on meiosis produces :

(1) one ovum (2) two ova (3) four ova (4) three ova

Q.33 In oogenesis, haploid egg is fertilized by sperm at which stage?

(1) Ovum (2) Oogonium (3) Primary oocyte (4) Secondary oocyte

Q.34 1st polar body is formed at which stage of oogenesis?

(1) 1st meiosis (2) 2nd mitosis (3) 1st mitosis (4) differentiation

Q.35 Foetal ejection reflex in human female is induced by :

(1) release of oxytocin from pituitary (2) fully developed foetus and placenta
(3) differentiation of mammary glands (4) pressure exerted by amniotic fluid

Q.36 Sertoli cells are found in :

(1) ovaries and secrete progesterone
(2) adrenal cortex and secrete adrenaline
(3) pancreas and secrete cholecystokinin
(4) seminiferous tubules and provide nutrition to germ cells

Q.37 The second maturation division of the mammalian ovum occurs:

Human Reproduction || 46
 (1) Shortly after ovulation before the ovum makes entry into the Fallopian tube
(2) After the ovum has been penetrated by a sperm
(3) Until the nucleus of the sperm has fused with that of the ovum
(4) In the Graafian follicle following the first maturation division

Q.38 Which one of the following statements about human sperm is correct?
(1) Acrosome has a conical pointed structure used for piercing and penetrating the egg,
resulting in fertilization
(2) The sperm lysins in the acrosome dissolve the egg envelope facilitating fertilization
(3) Acrosome serves as a sensory structure leading the sperm towards the ovum
(4) Acrosome serves no particular function

Q.39 The part of Fallopian tube closest to the ovary is :

(1) Cervix (2) Isthmus (3) Ampulla (4) Infundibulum

Q.40 In human female the blastocyst :

(1) forms placenta even before implantation
(2) gets implanted into uterus 3 days after ovulation
(3) gets nutrition from uterine endometrial secretion only after implantation
(4) gets implanted in endometrium by trophoblast cells

Q.41 Which of the following induces parturition?

(1) GH (2) TSH (3) Oxytocin (4) Vasopressin

Q.42 The first movements of the foetus and appearance of hair on its head are usually observed
during which month of pregnancy?
(1) Fourth month (2) Fifth month (3) Sixth month (4) Third month

Q.43 Correctly matched pairs are :

A. Clitoris – Erectile body in female homologous to glands penis of male
B. Sexual intercourse – Coitus
C. Colostrum – Secretion found in seminal fluid
D. Areola – Pigmented circular area around the nipple
Codes :
(1) A and B are correct (2) B and D are correct
(3) A and C are correct (4) A, B and C are correct

Q.44 Utrerine endometrium, uterine glands and connective tissue are broken during menstrual phase.
That is due to :
(1) lack of estrogen (2) lack of progesterone
(3) over secretion of FSH (4) over production of progesterone

Q.45 Menstrual cycle is controlled by :

A. Estrogen and progesterone of ovary B. FSH of pituitary
C. FSH and LH of pituitary D. Oxytocin hormone
Codes :
(1) A and B are correct (2) B and D are correct
(3) A and C are correct (4) A, B and C are correct

Q.46 Which hormone level reaches its peak during luteal phase of menstrual cycle?
(1) Estrogen (2) Progesterone
Human Reproduction || 47
 (3) Luteinizing hormone (4) Follicle stimulating hormone

Q.47 The 32 cells stage of the human embryo is :

(1) smaller than the fertilized egg (2) same size as the fertilized egg
(3) two times of the size of the fertilized egg (4) four times the size of the fertilized egg

Q.48 Which one of the following is the correct matching of the events occurring during menstrual
cycle?
(1) Menstruation : Breakdown of myometrium and ovum not fertilized.
(2) Ovulation : LH and FSH attain peak level and sharp fall in the secretion of
progesterone.
(3) Proliferative : Rapid regeneration of myometrium and maturation of Graafian
phase follicle.
(4) Development of : Secretory phase and increased secretion of progesterone.
corpus luteum

Human Reproduction || 48
EXERCISE – 3 AIIMS Special Questions
INSTRUCTIONS
In the following questions, a statement of assertion is followed by a statement of reason.
(1) If both Assertion & Reason are true and the reason is the correct explanation of the assertion,
then mark (1).
(2) If both Assertion & Reason are true but the reason is not the correct explanation of the
assertion, then mark (2).
(3) If Assertion is true statement but Reason is false, then mark (3).
(4) If both Assertion and Reason are false statements, then mark (4).
Q.1 Assertion : Scrotum provides optimum temperature conditions for spermatogenesis.
Reason : Dartos and cremaster muscles in scrotum contract and relax involuntarily in
response to temperature.

Q.2 Assertion : The process of reproduction does not suffer if one ovary is removed.
Reason : The other ovary enlarges to take over the function of the missing ovary too.

Q.3 Assertion : "Nothing lives forever, but life continues".

Reason : Death keeps the population growth under check.

Q.4 Assertion : Placenta is connected to the foetus by an umbilical cord.

Reason : Foetal components of the placenta are derived from the endometrium.

Q.5 Assertion : Polar bodies have small amount of cytoplasm.

Reason : It is formed by unequal mitotic division.

Q.6 Assertion : Ovulation takes place when blood level of luteinizing hormone is high.
Reason : Leutinizing hormone is responsible for ovulation.

Q.7 Assertion : Umbilical cord contains 100% foetal blood.

Reason : It has single umbilical artery and single umbilical vein.

Q.8 Assertion : Activation of sperm is called capacitation.

Reason : Capacitation takes about 5-6 hours.

Q.9 Assertion : Before fusion spermatozoa has to penetrate egg membrane.

Reason : The activated spermatozoa undergoes acrosomal reactions and release sperm
lysin.

Q.10 Assertion : In post natal life, oocyte development occurs in mature follicle.
Reason : After ovulation, graafian follicle transforms in corpus luteum.

Q.11 Assertion : Placenta is combined structure of foetal tissue & maternal tissue.
Reason : Placenta formation is completed before 6 week.

Q.12 Assertion : Seminal vesicle is called as accessory sex organ of male.

Reason : Seminal vesicle conserve sperm energy & provide fuel to sperm.

Human Reproduction || 49
Q.13 Assertion : Testes are retroperitoneal organ in man.
Reason : Peritoneal layer covers the testes on dorsal side.

Q.14 Assertion : Cervix contain most weak sphincter muscle in the body.
Reason : Cervix open into fallopian by os-external.

Q.15 Assertion : In ovarian cycle corpus luteum is exocrine gland.

Reason : It secretes the pheromones.

Q.16 Assertion : Failure of testes to descend into the scrotum causes sterility in man.
Reason : Higher temperature of the abdomen than in the scrotum is suitable for sperm
development.

Q.17 Assertion : Primary mammalian follicle are called graffian follicle.

Reason : These were discovered & described by graaf.

Q.18 Assertion : Corpus albicans is inactive structure which found in the ovary.
Reason : Corpus albicans secretes the progesteron hormone after ovulation.

Q.19 Assertion : Placenta functions as a temporary endocrine gland during development of embryo.
Reason : Placenta produces pheromones.

Q.20 Assertion : Menarche starts at the age of puberty.

Reason : After birth oocyte is matured and developed in Graffian follicle.

Q.21 Assertion : Corpus luteum present in proliferative phase of menstrual cycle.

Reason : High concentration of present in proliferative phase.

Q.22 Assertion : Testes are situated in the extra abdominal cavity.

Reason : Spermatogenesis process required less temperature as compared to body
temperature.

Q.23 Assertion : Up to morula stage, the cells divide without any increase in size.
Reason : Zona pellucida remains intact till cleavage is complete.

Q.24 Assertion : A sperm sticks to an egg for fertilization.

Reason : Interaction of surface receptor’s, fertilizen on the egg and antifertilization on the
sperm head, makes them, adhere together.

Q.25 Assertion : Zona pellucida disappears when blastocyst reaches the uterus.
Reason : Role of zona pellucida is to check the implantation of the blastocyst at an
improper site.

Q.26 Assertion : All members of bee society are diploid except the drones.
Reason : Drones are produced parthenogenetically.

Q.27 Assertion : Testes originates in the abdomen but later descend in to the scrotum under the
influence of testesterone.
Reason : The interstial cells of the testes secreates male sex harmone the testosterone.
Human Reproduction || 50
Q.28 Assertion : A woman passes out HCGH in the urine during pregnancy.
Reason : Excess hormones are excreted by the kidneys presence of HCGH in urine is the
basis for pregnancy test.

Q.29 Assertion : Cervix contains the largest and the most powerful sphincter muscles in the
body.
Reason : Cervix opens into the vagina by external O.S.

Q.30 Assertion : The fate of germ layers is same in all triploblastic animals.
Reason : There is a close relationship Among all triploblastic animals due to their
evolution from common source.

Q.31 Assertion : Foetal blood & maternal blood are in direct contact.
Reason : The placenta works as a link between them.

Q.32 Assertion : Twins may arise from a single egg or from two eggs..
Reason : One egg gives rise to identical twins by separtion of blastomeres, and two eggs
produce nonidentical twins.

Q.33 Assertion : In a graffian follicles, the primary oocyte and the follicle cells may be regarded
sibling cells.
Reason : Both arise from the same parent cell, the oogonium by mitotic division.

Q.34 Assertion : A tadpole whose thyroid gland has been removed does not metamorphore into
adult.
Reason : Calcitonin and thyroxine are produced from thyroid gland ; these hormones
stimulate protein synthesis for the development and growth of tadpole larva.

Q.35 Assertion : Amniotic fluid serves as a protective cushion.

Reason : It breaks the mechanical shocks and lessens the effect of changes of
temperature.

Q.36 Assertion : Sperm of man not fertilized egg of rat.

Reason : Fertilizine and antifertilizine reaction not takes place between egg & sperm.

Q.37 Assertion : Sperms of human being perform chemotaxis movement.

Reason : Egg of human being secrete antifertilizine.

Q.38 Assertion : Asexual reproduction is also called blastogenesis.

Reason : In asexual reproduction, there is no formation & fusion of gametes.

Q.39 Assertion : The middle part of sperm term as energy chamber.

Reason : Mitochondria of middle part provide the energy for activation of sperm.

Q.40 Assertion : There is generally monospermy in most animals.

Reason : Vitelline membrane of ovum checks polyspermy.

Human Reproduction || 51
EXERCISE – 4 Previous Years Questions
Q.1 The lytic enzyme present in semen is –
(1) Ligase (2) estrogenase (3) androgenase (4) hyaluronidase

Q.2 Progesterone is secreted by

(1) Corpus aorta (2) Corpus albicans (3) Corpus luteum (4) Corpus callosum

Q.3 Which of the following causes abortion in ladies-

(1) Virus (2) Bacteria (3) Mycoplasma (4) None of these

Q.4 Accessory sexual character in female is promoted by -

(1) Androgen (2) Progesterone (3) Estrogen (4) Testosterone

Q.5 Sertoli cells are found in testis. These cells are–

(1) Nurse cell (2) Reproductive cell (3) receptor cell (4) None of these

Q.6 Cryptorchidism is a condition in which –

(1) Testis does not descend into scrotal sac (2) Sperm in not found
(3) Male hormones are not reactive (4) Ovaries are removed

Q.7 The cellular layer that disintegrates and regenerates again and again in humans is

(1) Endometrium of uterus (2) Cornea of eye

(3) Dermis of skin (4) Endothelium of blood vessels

Q.8 The functional maturation of sperms takes place in -

(1) Oviduct (2) Epididymis (3) Vagina (4) All of these

Q.9 Surgical removal or cutting and ligation of the ends of oviduct is known as -
(1) tubectomy (2) Oviductomy (3) Castration (4) Vasectomy

Q.10 The follicle that ruptures at the time of Ovulation promptly fills with blood, forming

(1) Corpus haemorrhagicum (2) Corpus luteum

(3) Corpus albicans (4) Corpus callosum

Q.11 In mammals the estrogens are secreted by the Graafian follicle from its
(1) External theca (2) Internal theca (3) Zona pellucida (4) Corona radiata

Q.12 Supporting cells found in the germinal epithelium of testis are called-
(1) Interstitial cells of leydig (2) Sertoli cells
(3) Granular cells (4) Phagocytes

Q.13 In mammals the female secondary sexual characters are developed mainly by the hormone

(1) Relaxin (2) Estrogens (3) Progesterone (4) Gonadotropins

Q.14 Cryptorchidism is a condition of testes

(1) Unable to descend in scrotal sacs (2) Unable to produce sperms
(3) Having been surgically removed (4) Having remained undeveloped

Human Reproduction || 52
Q.15 In between spermatogonia are found -
(1) Germinal cells (2) Sertoli cells (3) Epithelial cells (4) Lymph space

Q.16 Which acessory genital gland occurs only in male mammal

(1) Bartholin's gland (2) Perineal gland (3) Prostate gland (4) All

Q.17 During differentiation the spermatids remain associated with -

(1) Leyding's cells (2) Kuffer's cells (3) Spermatogonia (4) Sertoli cell

Q.18 What whould happen if vasa deferantia of man are cut

(1) Sperms are non nucleate (2) Spermatogenesis does not occur
(3) Semen is with out sperms (4) Sperm are non motile

Q.19 Sertoli cells occur in -

(1) Human testis (2) Frog testis (3) Human ovary (4) Frog ovary

Q.20 Which one is primary sex organ

(1) Scrotum (2) Penis (3) Testis (4) Prostrate

Q.21 If somatic chromosomes number is 40. What shall be chromosomal number in the cell of
seminiferous tubules -
(1) 40 (2) 20 (3) 10 (4) 40

Q.22 Eggs librated from ovary in human in

(1) Secondary oocyte stage (2) Primary oocyte stage
(3) Oogonial stage (4) Mature ovum stage

Q.23 Graafian follicle are found in

(1) Testis of mammal (2) Ovary of frog
(3) Ovary of cockroach (4) Ovary of mammals

Q.24 Site of fertilization in mammal is –

(1) Ovary (2) Uterus (3) Vagina (4) Fallopian tube

Q.25 Endometrium is lining of

(1) Testis (2) Urinary bladder (3) Uterus (4) Ureter

Q.26 A secondary sexual character is

(1) Breast (2) Ovary (3) Testis (4) Thyroid

Q.27 Expanded proximal part of oviduct in female is –

(1) Uterus (2) Fallopian tube (3) Fimbriated funnel (4) Vestibule

Q.28 The Endocrinal structure formed after ovulation (release of ovum from graafian follicle is

(1) Corpus albicans (2) Corpus callosum (3) Corpus luteum (4) Corpus striatum

Q.29 Corpus luteum is

(1) Excretory (2) Endocrine (3) Digestive (4) Reproductive

Q.30 A female gland corresponding to prostrate of males is

Human Reproduction || 53
 (1) Bartholin's gland (2) Bulbourethral gland
(3) Clitoris (4) None

Q.31 Progesterone is secreted by

(1) Corpus Luteum (2) Thyroid (3) Thymus (4) Testis

Q.32 Spermatogenesis and sperm differentiation are under the control of

(1) FSH (2) LH (3) Progesterone (4) Parathyroid Ho

Q.33 During pregnancy, the urine would contain

(1) LH (2) Progesterone (3) FSH (4) HCG

Q.34 In the absence of pregnancy, corpus luteum-

(1) Becomes active, secretes FSH and LH (2) Produces lot of oxytocin and relaxin
(3) Degenerates after some time (4) Is maintained by progesterone

Q.35 10 oogonia yield 10 primary oocytes, then how many ova are produced on completion of
oogenesis-
(1) 5 (2) 10 (3) 20 (4) 40

Q.36 Parturition duct in female is called-

(1) Uterus (2) Oviduct (3) Vagina (4) Cervix

Q.37 Which temporary endocrine gland forms in ovary after ovulation-

(1) Corpus callosum (2) Corpus albicans (3) Corpus luteum (4) Corpus striata

Q.38 In mammals, maturation of sperms take place at a temperature-

(1) Equal to that of body (2) Higher than that of body
(3) Lower than that of body (4) At any piece of mammalian sperm

Q.39 Onset of pregnancy-

(1) Stimulates testosterone secretion (2) Inhibits further ovulation
(3) Leads to degeneration of ovary (4) Inhibits fusion of egg and sperm nuclei

Q.40 Graffian follicles contain

(1) Corpus luteum (2) Corpus albicans
(3) Theca externa and theca interna (4) Oogonial cells

Q.41 Bartholin's glands occurs in-

(1) Females and help in vestibular lubrication
(2) Females and produce oestrogen for regulating secondary sexual characters
(3) Males and form liquid part of spermatic field
(4) Males and produce alkaline fluid for neutralising urethral acidity

Q.42 Which is correct?

(1) Menstrual cycle is present in all mammals
(2) Menstrual cycle is present in all primates
(3) Estrous cycle occurs in all mammals
(4) Most mammals are ovoviviparous

Q.43 Yellow corpus luteum occurs in a mammals in-

(1) Heart to initiate heart beat (2) Skin to function as pain receptor
Human Reproduction || 54
 (3) Brain and connects cerebral hemisphere (4) Ovary for secretion of progesterone

Q.44 Human sperm was discovered by-

(1) Leeuwenhoek (2) Aristotle (3) Graaf (4) Pander

Q.45 Corpus luteum secretes-

(1) LH (2) Estrogen (3) Progesterone (4) FSH

Q.46 In case of nonfertilization, corpus luteum-

(1) Stops secreting progesterone (2) Changes to corpus albicans
(3) Starts producing progesterone (4) None of the above

Q.47 Correct sequence of hormone secretion from beginning of menstruation is-

(1) FSH, progesterone, estrogen (2) Estrogen, FSH, progesterone
(3) FSH, estrogen, progesterone (4) Esterogen, progesterone, FSH

Q.48 Graafian follicle contains -

(1) Many oocytes (2) Many sperms (3) A single oocyte (4) Site for egg fertilisation

Q.49 Progesterone level falls leading to-

(1) Gestation (2) Menopasue (3) Lactation (4) Mensturation

Q.50 Head of epididymis present at head of testis is-

(1) Caput epididymis (2) Cauda epidiymis (3) Vas deferens (4) Gubernaculum

Q.51 Human female reaches menopause at the age of about-

(1) 25 years (2) 35 years (3) 50 years (4) 70 years

Q.52 Glands secreting male sex hromone are-

(1) Leydig cells (2) Seminiferous tubules
(3) Vasa deferentia (4) Testes

Q.53 Estrogen is secreted by-

(1) Corpus luteum (2) Graafian follicle
(3) Germinal epithelium of ovary (4) Pitiutary

Q.54 Testes descent into scrotum in mammals for-

(1) Spermatogenesis (2) Fertilization
(3) Development of sex organs (4) Development of visceral organs

Q.55 Phase of menstrual cycle in human that lasts for 7-8 days is-
(1) Follicular phase (2) Ovulatory phase (3) Luteal phase (4) Menstruation

Q.56 Menstruation is caused by-

(1) Increase in FSH level (2) Fall in oxytocin level
(3) Fall in progesterone level (4) Increase in oestrogen level

Q.57 In the urinogenital system one of the following part is present in males and not in females

(1) Urethra (2) Fallopian tube (3) Vagina (4) Vas deferens
Q.58 Number of sperms formed from four spermatocytes is
(1) 4 (2) 1 (3) 16 (4) 32

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Q.59 In human females, ova are produced in
(1) Ovarian follicles (2) Oviduct (3) Uterus (4) Vagina

Q.60 Which is correctly matched in a normal menstrual cycle?

(1) Endometrium regenerates – 5 to 10 days
(2) Release of egg – 5th day
(3) Endometrium secretes nutrients for implantation – 11 to 18 days
(4) Rise in progesterone level – 1 to 15 days

Q.61 Spermatogonia develop through division

(1) Ovary (2) Ovum (3) Sperm (4) Zygote

Q.62 Spermatogonia develop through division

(1) Amitosis (2) Mitosis (3) Meiosis I (4) Meiosis II

Q.63 Graafian follicles occur in

(1) Ovary (2) Testis (3) Egg (4) Sperm

Q.64 Ovulation occurs in and on

(1) Ovary (2) About 14th day (3) Both A and B (4) None of these

Q.65 Blastopore occurs in

(1) Gastrula (2) Blastula (3) Blastocoel (4) Morula

Q.66 Mesoderm is formed through invagination of

(1) Ectoderm (2) Endoderm (3) Inner mass of cells (4) Primitive streak

Q.67 Secretion of which structure prepares the inner wall of uterus for implantation

(1) Ovary (2) Corpus luteum (3) Pituitary gland (4) Ovarian follicle

Q.68 Energy centre of sperm is

(1) Head (2) Middle piece (3) Entire sperm (4) Tail

Q.69 Fusion of sperm and ovum is

(1) Amphimixis (2) Regeneration (3) Fertilization (4) None of the above

Q.70 Embryo at 16-called stage is called

(1) Morula (2) Blastula (3) Blastomere (4) Gastrula

Q.71 Layers of ovum from outside to inside are

(1) Corona radiata, zona pellucida, vitelline membrane
(2) Zona pellucida, corona radiata, vitelline membrane
(3) Vitelline membrane, zona pellucida, corona radiata
(4) Zona pellucida, vitelline membrane, corona radiata

Q.72 Which layer of embryo is formed first

(1) Ectoderm (2) Mesoderm (3) Endoderm (4) Both B and C

Q.73 In which phase of cell division are oogonia arrested

(1) Anaphase II (2) Anaphase I (3) Interphase (4) Both A and B

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Q.74 Capacitation of sperms occurs in
(1) Female genital tract (2) Vagina
(3) Vas efferens (4) Vas deferns

Q.75 Fertilization of ovum occurs in

(1) Fimbriae of oviduct (2) Isthmus of oviduct
(3) Ampulla of oviduct (4) None of the above

Q.76 Function of Sertoli cells is controlled by

(1) Estrogen (2) FSH (3) Testosterone (4) ACTH

Q.77 Corpus spongiosum occurs in

(1) Ovary (2) Penis (3) Testis (4) Uterine w

Q.78 Cytoplasm of ovum does not possess

(1) Golgi complex (2) Mitochondria (3) Centrosome (4) Ribosomes

Q.79 Which provides nutrition to maturing sperms?

(1) Leydig cell (2) Scrotum (3) Epididymis (4) Sertoli cells

Q.80 LH and FSH are collectively called

(1) Oxytocin (2) Somatotropins (3) Gonadotropins (4) Luteotropins

Q.81 Mammalian blastula is known as

(1) Trophoderm (2) Blastocyst (3) Foetal blastula (4) Oedema

Q.82 Acrosome of sperm contains

(1) Hydrolytic enzymes (2) DNA
(3) Fructose (4) Mitochondria

Q.83 Radial cleavage is found in

(1) Tunicates (2) Protozoans (3) Coelenterates (4) Anneli

Q.84 Cavity formed during gastrulation is

(1) Primitive gut (2) Gastrocoel (3) Archenteron (4) All the above

Q.85 Menstual phase is followed by

(1) Luteal phase (2) Follicular phase (3) Fertilization (4) Implantation

Q.86 If for some reason, the vasa efferentia in the human reproductive system get blocked, the
gametes will not be tranported from
(1) Testes to epididymis (2) Epididymis to vas deferens
(3) Ovary to uterus (4) Vagina to uterus
Q.87 The testes in humans are situated outside the abdominal cavity inside a pouch called scrotum.
The purpose served is for
(1) Maintaining the scrotal temperature lower than the internal body temperature
Human Reproduction || 57
 (2) Escaping any possible compression by the visceral organs
(3) Providing more space for the growth of epididymis
(4) providing a secondary sexual feature for exhibiting the male sex.

Q.88 The figure given below depicts a diagrammatic sectional view of the human female
reproductive system. Which set of three parts out of I-VI have been correctly identified?

(1) (II) endometrium, (III) infundibulum, (IV) fimbriae

(2) (III) infundibulum, (IV) fimbriae, (v) cervix
(3) (IV) oviduct funnel, (V) uterus, (VI) cervix
(4) (I) perimetrium, (II) myometrium, (III) Fallopian tube

Q.89 Singnals for parturition originate from :

(1) Oxytocin released from maternal pituitary
(2) Placenta only
(3) Fully developed foetus only
(4) Both placenta as well as fully developed foetus

Q.90 The secretory phase in the human menstrual cycle is also called :
(1) luteal phase and lasts for about 6 days (2) follicular phase lasting for about 6 day
(3) luteal phase and lasts for about 13 days (4) follicular phase and lasts for about 13 days

Q.91 Human placenta is :

(1) Haemochorial (2) Syndesmochorial (3) Yolk sac (4) Haemo-endothelial

Q.92 Human eggs are

(1) Alecithal (2) Microlecithal (3) Mesolecithal (4) Macrolecithal

Q.93 Human egg has :

(1) One Y-chromosome (2) One X-chromosome
(3) Two Y-chromosome (4) One X-chromosome and one Y-chromosome

Q.94 Fertilizins are emitted by :

(1) Immature eggs (2) Mature eggs (3) Sperms (4) Polar bodies

Q.95 During cleavage, what is true about embryo?

(1) Nucleocytoplasmic ratio remains unchanged
(2) Size does not increase
(3) There is less consumption of oxygen
(4) The division is like meiosis

Q.96 At the end of first meiotic division, male germ cell differentiates into :

(1) Secondary spermatocyte (2) Primary spermatocyte

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 (3) Spermatogonium (4) Spermatid

Q.97 A mature sperm has

(1) A pair of flagella
(2) A nucleus, an acrosome, and a centriole
(3) A nucleus, an acrosome, a pair of centrioles
(4) A nucleus, an acrosome, a pair of centrioles and a tail.

Q.98 Ovulation occurs under the influence of :

(1) LH (2) FSH (3) Estrogen (4) Progesterone

Q.99 Part of sperm involved in penetrating egg membrane is

(1) Tail (2) Acrosome (3) Allosome (4) Autosome

Q.100 Type of cleavage in an egg is determined by :

(1) Amount and distribution of yolk (2) Number of egg membranes
(3) Size and location of nucleus (4) Shape and size of sperm

Q.101 Fertilization is fusion of :

(1) Diploid spermatozoan with diploid ovum to form diploid zygote
(2) Haploid spermatozoan with diploid ovum to from diploid zygote
(3) Diploid spermatozoan with haploid ovum to form diploid zygote
(4) Haploid spermatozoan with haploid ovum to form diploid zygote

Q.102 Correct sequence in development is :

(1) Fertilization  Zygote  Cleavage  Morula  Blastula  Gastrula
(2) Fertilization  Zygote  Blastula  Morula  Cleavage  Gastrula
(3) Fertilization  Cleavage  Morula  Zygote  Blastula  Gastrula
(4) Cleavage  Zygote  Fertilization  Morula  Blastula  Gastrula

Q.103 Middle piece of mammalian sperm contains :

(1) Nucleus (2) Vacuoles (3) Mitochondria (4) Centriole

Q.104 Immediately after ovulation, the mammalian egg is covered by a membrane called :

(1) Chorion (2) Zona pellucida (3) Corona raidata (4) 2 & 3

Q.105 Cleavage in the fertilized egg of humans :

(1) Starts in uterus (2) is meroblastic
(3) starts when egg is in fallopian tube (4) is discoidal

Q.106 Polar body is produced during the formation of :

(1) Sperm (2) Secondary oocyte (3) Oogonium (4) Spermatocytes

Q.107 The head of mature mammalian sperm is made of :

(1) An acrosome
(2) Elongated nucleus covered by acrosome
(3) Two centrioles and an axial filement
(4) Nucleus, acrosome, cytoplasm and mitochondrial sheath
Q.108 Oocyte is liberated from ovary under the influence of LH, after completing :
(1) Metosis and before liberating polar bodies
(2) Meiosis I and before liberating second polar bodies
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 (3) Meiosis
(4) Meiosis II after release of first polar body

Q.109 Which cell division is found during cleavage ?

(1) Amitosis (2) Mitosis (3) Closed mitosis (4) Meiosis

Q.110 10 oogonia yield 10 primary oocytes, then how many ova are produced on comp
oogenesis:
(1) 5 (2) 10 (3) 20 (4) 40

Q.111 At the time of fertilization sperm head enters in the egg from
(1) Anywhere (2) Animal pole (3) Vegetal pole (4) Lateral side of egg

Q.112 In which stage of development the embryonic cells form the germinal layers by the movement:

(1) Morula (2) Blastula (3) Gastrula (4) Nerula

Q.113 In mammals egg are microlecithal and isolecithal because these are :
(1) Oviparou (2) Viviparous (3) Ovoviviparous (4) None of them

Q.114 Which of the following is not the correct for gastrulation

(1) Archenteron is formed (2) All germinal layers are formed
(3) Morphogenetic movements (4) Some blastomeres & blastocoel degenerate

Q.115 At which stage of spermatogenesis sperm aquire their whole structural maturity and they
contain a haploid nucleus & other organs
(1) Spermiogenesis (2) Growth phase
(3) Multiplication phase (4) Maturation phase

Q.116 Sperm enters from which part of egg :

(1) Anywhere in unfertilized egg from vegetal pole
(2) From animal pole in unfertilized egg
(3) In unfertilized egg from vegetal pole
(4) None

Q.117 Completion of gastrulation is indicated by

(1) Obliteration of archenterone (2) Obliteration of blastocoel
(3) Closing of blastopore (4) Closing of neural tube

Q.118 In mammals, egg is fertilised in :

(1) Ovary (2) Fallopian tube (3) Uterus (4) Vagina

Q.119 What is formed at the time of gastrulation?

(1) Gills (2) Heart (3) Myotome (4) Archenteron

Q.120 Which part of the spermatid forms acrosomes of sperm?

(1) Mitochondria (2) Golgibody (3) Nucleus (4) Lysosome
Q.121 How many sperms are formed by one primary spermatocyte ?
(1) 4 (2) 3 (3) 2 (4) 1

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Q.122 The chemical in ovum which attracts sperms :
(1) Fertilizin (2) Antifertilizin (3) Agglutinin (4) Thrombin

Q.123 Which of the following organ is differentiated first during development?

(1) Heart (2) Skin (3) Brain (4) Neural tube

Q.124 In a vertebrate which germ layer forms the skeletal muscles

(1) Ectoderm (2) Endodem (3) Mesoderm (4) Both 1 and 2

Q.125 Which layer develops first during embryonic development :

(1) Ectoderm (2) Mesoderm (3) Endoderm (4) Both 1 and 3

Q.126 The whole nervous system including neuron in frog and other vertebrates is derived from :

(1) Ectoderm (2) Endoderm (3) Mesoderm (4) All of these

Q.127 In a sperm, the mitochondria occurs :

(1) In tail (2) In acrosome (3) In middle piece (4) In head

Q.128 Which set of enzymes is found in the acrosome of mammalian spermatozoa

(1) Hyaluronidase, Corona penetrating Enzyme (CPE)
(2) Hyaluronidase, CPE, Zona lysine
(3) Hyaluronidase, CPE, Peptidase
(4) Hyaluronidase only

Q.129 Fixing up of the blastocyst in the wall of the uterus is known as :

(1) Fertilization (2) Implantation (3) Impreganation (4) Placentation

Q.130 The type of placenta found in human beings is of type

(1) Diffuse (2) Zonary (3) Cotyledonary (4) Discoidal

Q.131 The number of foetal membranes in man is :

(1) 1 (2) 3 (3) 4 (4) 0

Q.132 Placenta in human beings in formed by :

(1) Amnion (2) Chorion
(3) Allantois (4) Allantois, chorion and uterine wall

Q.133 The phenomenon of nuclear fusion of sperm and egg is known as :

(1) Karyogamy (2) Parthenogenesis (3) Vitellogenesis (4) Oogenesis

Q.134 Arrchenteron cavity is found in :

(1) In Blastula (2) In Gastrula (3) In Morula (4) In planula

Q.135 Mammalian placenta originates from :

(1) Allantois and chorion (2) Yolksac
(3) Allantois (4) Amnion

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Q.136 What is true for cleavage?
(1) Size of cell increases (2) Size of embryo increases
(3) Size of cell decreases (4) Size of embryo decreases

Q.137 A blastopore is found in :

(1) Blastula and is the opening of blastocoel
(2) Gastrula and is the opening of blastocoel
(3) Blastula and is the opening of archenteron
(4) Gastrula and is the opening of archenteron

Q.138 The extraembryonic membranes of mammalian embryo are derived from :

(1) Trophoblast (2) Follicle cells (3) Formative cells (4) Inner cell mass

Q.139 Find out the wrong statement :

(1) In mammals allantois is not excretory in function
(2) Amnion is the outer layer containing amniotic fluid that acts as shock absorber to the soft
embryo
(3) Yolk sac is a foetal membrane that helps in the nourishment of the embryo in general
(4) Chorio-allantoic membrane develops villi and contribute much to the development of
placenta

Q.140 Woman who counsumed the durg thalidomide for relief from vomiting during early months of
pregnancy gave birth to children with :
(1) Harelip (2) No spleem
(3) Extra fingers and toes (4) Underdeveloped limbs

Q.141 The chemical substance released by activated spermatozoa that acts on the ground substance of
the follicle cells is known as :
(1) Relaxin (2) Teratogen (3) Progesterone (4) Hyaluronidase

Q.142 Menstrual flow occurs due to lack of :

(1) FSH (2) Oxytocin (3) Vasopressin (4) Progesterone

Q.143 What is the correct sequence of sperm formation?

(1) Spermatogonia, spermatocyte, spermatozoa, spermatid
(2) Spermatogonia, spermatozoa, spermatocyte, spermatid
(3) Spermatogonia, spermatocyte, spermatid, spermatozoa
(4) Spermatid, spermatocyte, spermatogonia, spermatozoa

Q.144 Which one of the following is not the function of placenta? It:
(1) secretes estrogen.
(2) facilitates removal of carbon dioxide and waste material from embryo.
(3) secretes oxytocin during parturition.
(4) facilitates supply of oxygen and nutrients to embryo.

Q.145 The main function of mammalian corpus luteum is to produce :

(1) human chorionic gonadotropin (2) relaxin only
(3) estrogen only (4) progesterone

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Q.146 Select the correct option describing gonadotropin activity in a normal pregnant female:

(1) High level of hCG stimulates the synthesis of estrogen and progesterone.
(2) High level of hCG stimulates the thickening of endometrium.
(3) High level of FSH and LH stimulates the thickening of endometrium.
(4) High level of FSH and LH facilitate implantation of the embryo.

Q.147 The shared terminal duct ot the reproductive and urinary system in the human male is :

(1) Vas deferens (2) Vasa efferentia (3) Urethra (4) Ureter

Q.148 Which of these is not an important component of initiation of parturition in humans?

(1) Synthesis of prostaglandins (2) Release of oxytocin

(3) Release of prolactin (4) Increase in estrogen and progesterone ratio

Q.149 Capacitation refers to changes in the:

(1) ovum before fertilization (2) ovum after fertilization
(3) sperm after fertilization (4) sperm before fertilization

Q.150 Which of the following cells during gametogenesis is normally diploid?

(1) Spermatid (2) Spermatogonia
(3) Secodary polar body (4) Pimary polar body

Q.151 An abnormal human baby with 'XXX' sex chromosomes was born due to :
(1) formation of abnormal ova in the mother (2) fusion of two ova and one sperm
(3) fusion of two sperms and one ovum (4) formation of abnormal sperms in the father

Q.152 Fertilization in humans is practically feasible only if:

(1) the sperms are transported into cervix within 48 hrs of release of ovum in uterus.
(2) the sperms are transported into vagina just after the release of ovum in fallopian tube.
(3) the ovum and sperms are transported simultaneously to ampullary-isthmic junction of the
fallopian tube.
(4) the ovum and sperms are transported simultaneously to ampullary-isthmic junction of the
cervix.

Q.153 Changes in GnRH pulse frequency in females is controlled by circulating levels of :

(1) progesterone and inhibin (2) estrogen and progesterone

(3) estrogen and inhibin (4) progesterone only

Q.154 Embryo with more than 16 blastomeres formed due to in vitro fertilization is transferred into

(1) cervix (2) uterus (3) fallopian tube (4) fimbriae

Q.155 Which of the following depicts the correct pathway of transport of sperms?
(1) Efferent ductules  Rete testis  Vas deferens  Epididymis
(2) Rete testis  Efferent ductules  Epididymis  Vas deferens
(3) Rete testis  Epididymis  Efferent ductules  Vas deferens

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 (4) Rete testis  Vas deferens  Efferent ductules  Epididymis

Q.156 Match Column-I with Column-II and select the correct option using the codes given below :
Column-I Column-II
a. Mons pubis (i) Embryo formation
b. Antrum (ii) Sperm
c. Trophectoderm (iii) Female external genitalia
d. Nebenkern (iv) Graffian follicle
Codes:
(1) a-(i), b-(iv), c-(iii), d-(ii) (2) a-(iii), b-(iv), c-(ii), d-(i)
(3) a-(iii), b-(iv), c-(i), d-(ii) (4) a-(iii), b-(i), c-(iv), d-(ii)

Q.157 Several hormones like hCG, hPL, estrogen progesterone are produced by
(1) pituitary (2) ovary (3) placenta (4) fallopian tube

Q.158 Which of the following statements is correct regarding menstrual cycle?

(1) LH induces rupturing of Graafian follicle.
(2) Proliferative phase is characterized by the increased production of progesterone.
(3) Corpus luteum secretes large amount of estrogen.
(4) Both LH and FSH attain a peak level in secretory phase.

Q.159 Select the correct route for the passage of sperms in male frogs
(1) Testes  Bidder's canal  Kideny  Vasa efferentia  Urinogenital duct  Cloaca
(2) Testes  Vasa efferentia  Kideny  Seminal vesicle  Urinogenital duct  Cloaca
(3) Testes  Vasa efferentia  Bidder's canal  Ureter  Cloaca
(4) Testes  Vasa efferentia  Kideny  Bidder's canal  Urinogenital duct  Cloaca

Q.160 Capacitation occurs in

(1) Rete testis (2) Epididymis (3) Vas deferens (4) Female Reproductive tract

Q.161 The figure given below shows the sectional view of ovary. Select the option which gives
correct identification of marked structure (A to D) and its feature.

(1) A: Primary follicle, it is also called gamete mother cell.

(2) B: Corpus luteum, it cannot be formed and added after birth.
(3) C: Graafian follicle, mature follicle which ruptures to release secondary oocyte.
(4) D: Tertiary follicle, a large number of this follicle degenerates during the phase from birth
to puberty.

Q.162 Assertion : Interstitial cell is present in the region outside the seminiferous tubule called
interstitial spaces.
Reason : Interstitial cells provide nutrition to the sertoli cells.
(1) Assertion is correct, reason is correct; reason is a correct explanation for assertion.

Human Reproduction || 64
(2) Assertion is correct, reason is correct; reason is not a correct explanation for assertion
(3) Assertion is correct, reason is incorrect.
(4) Assertion is incorrect, reason is correct.

Human Reproduction || 65
EXERCISE – 5 NCERT Based Questions
Q.1 Each testis has how many testicular lobules :-
(1) About 100 (2) About 150 (3) About 250 (4) Infinite

Q.2 The male accessory glands include :-

(1) Prostate gland (2) Bulbourethral gland
(3) Seminal vesicles (4) All of above

Q.3 In male penis is covered by a loose fold of skin is called :-

(1) Foreskin (2) Urethral meatues (3) External genitalia (4) Fimbriae

Q.4 The function of fimbriae :-

(1) Collection of the ovum after ovulation
(2) Maintain the shape of ovary
(3) Provide the path to sperm during fertilization
(4) None of these

Q.5 Which statement is wrong :-

(1) Mammary lobes containing clusters of cells called alveoli
(2) Uterus is also called womb
(3) The last part of the oviduct is called Ampulla
(4) Stroma of ovary divided into two zone

Q.6 Spermatogenesis started then increase the secretion of:-

(1) GnRH (2) LTH (3) Oxitocin (4) Relaxin

Q.7 Antrum is :-
(1) Fluid filled follicle cavity (2) An Inner theca interna
(3) The mature follicle (4) Fluid less follicle cavity

Q.8 Ovulation is :-
(1) Releasing of secondary oocyte from ovary
(2) Releasing of primary oocyte from ovary
(3) Releasing of polar body
(4) Releasing of graffian follicle

Q.9 For normal fertility, how many percentage of sperm must have normal shape and size :-
(1) 50 % (2) 25 % (3) 40 % (4) 60 %

Q.10 In which duration menstrual cycle both LH & FSH attain a peak level
(1) In last week (2) Middle of cycle
(3) Initial days of cycle (4) 4th day of cycle

Q.11 Which statement is not correct :-

(1) In the absence of fertilization, the corpus luteum degenerates
(2) During pregnancy all events of menstrual cycle stop
(3) The secretion of LH & FSH decreases gradually during the follicular phase
(4) The menstrual flow results due to breakdown of endometrial lining

Q.12 In which phase of menstrual cycle Graffian follicle transform as the corpus luteum.
(1) Luteal (2) Proliferation (3) Follicular (4) Growth

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Q.13 Which harmones is essential for maintenance of the endometrium.
(1) FSH (2) LH (3) Progesterone (4) Testosterone

Q.14 Which of the following is an indicator of normal reproductive phase and extends between
menarche and menopause.
(1) Menstruation cycle (2) Estrous cycle
(3) Ovulation (4) Implantation

Q.15 Fertilization takes place at :-

(1) Cervix (2) Ampullary-isthmic junction
(3) Isthmus (4) Vagina

Q.16 The embryo with 8 to 16 blastomeres is called :

(1) Morula (2) Blastula (3) Gastrula (4) Foetus

Q.17 During Implantation, the blastocyst becomes embedded in the which layer of uterus.
(1) Trophoblast (2) Endometrium (3) Myometrium (4) Perimetrium

Q.18 The mitotic division starts as the zygote moves through the _____ of the oviduct called
cleavage.
(1) Ampulla (2) Isthmus (3) Fimbriae (4) Infundibulum

Q.19 During fertilization, a sperm comes in contact with the which layer of the ovum.
(1) Jelly coat (2) Zona pellucida
(3) Vitelline membrane (4) Perivitelline space

Q.20 Function of placenta is :-

(1) Supply of O2 to embryo (2) Removal of CO2 produced by the embryo
(3) Produces several hormones (4) All of above

Q.21 Stem cells are found in :-

(1) Inner cell mass (2) Ectoderm (3) Endoderm (4) Mesoderm

Q.22 The first sign of growing foetus may be noticed by :-

(1) Listening to the heart sound carefully through the stethoscope
(2) Apperance of hair
(3) Apperance of head
(4) Apperance of eye lids

Q.23 During pregnancy only which hormones are secreted in women :-

(1) Progesterone (2) hPL (3) Estrogen (4) Thyroxin

Q.24. Placenta contains :-

(1) Only chorionic villi (2) Only uterine tissue
(3) Chorionic villi + uterine tissue (4) Trophoblast + chorionic villi

Q.25 The average duration of human pregnancy is about nine months which is called :-
(1) Gestation period (2) Parturition (3) Lactation (4) Implantation

Q.26 Parturition is induced by

(1) A complex neuroendocrine mechanism (2) A simple neuroendo crine mechanism
(3) A neuro exocrine mechanism (4) A physio-chemical mechanism

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Q.27 The signals for parturition originate from :-
(1) Fully developed foetus (2) Placenta
(3) Both (1) & (2) (4) Uterus

Q.28 Which hormon acts on the uterine during parturition.

(1) Oxytocin (2) LH (3) Estrogen (4) Relaxin

Q.29 Which gland of female undergo differentiation during pregnancy

(1) Thyroid (2) Mammary (3) Pituitary (4) Thymus

Q.30 Which is correct for colostrum :-

(1) It contains severel antibodies (2) It produced during the last days of lactation
(3) It is a pheromane (4) It is white in colour

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 Answer Key
Exercise – 1
Q.1 4 Q.2 3 Q.3 3 Q.4 1 Q.5 4 Q.6 3 Q.7 4
Q.8 3 Q.9 2 Q.10 3 Q.11 2 Q.12 4 Q.13 2 Q.14 2
Q.15 3 Q.16 3 Q.17 2 Q.18 2 Q.19 4 Q.20 3 Q.21 4
Q.22 2 Q.23 4 Q.24 1 Q.25 1 Q.26 3 Q.27 2 Q.28 3
Q.29 4 Q.30 3 Q.31 3 Q.32 3 Q.33 2 Q.34 2 Q.35 4
Q.36 3 Q.37 2 Q.38 2 Q.39 4 Q.40 3 Q.41 2 Q.42 4
Q.43 2 Q.44 3 Q.45 1 Q.46 4 Q.47 1

Exercise – 2
Q.1 4 Q.2 2 Q.3 4 Q.4 3 Q.5 2 Q.6 2 Q.7 2
Q.8 4 Q.9 4 Q.10 4 Q.11 1 Q.12 2 Q.13 3 Q.14 3
Q.15 2 Q.16 1 Q.17 1 Q.18 3 Q.19 2 Q.20 2 Q.21 4
Q.22 4 Q.23 3 Q.24 1 Q.25 4 Q.26 1 Q.27 2 Q.28 1
Q.29 3 Q.30 1 Q.31 1 Q.32 1 Q.33 4 Q.34 1 Q.35 2
Q.36 4 Q.37 2 Q.38 2 Q.39 4 Q.40 4 Q.41 3 Q.42 2
Q.43 2 Q.44 2 Q.45 4 Q.46 2 Q.47 2 Q.48 4

Exercise – 3 (AIIMS Special Questions)

Q.1 2 Q.2 3 Q.3 2 Q.4 3 Q.5 3 Q.6 1 Q.7 3
Q.8 2 Q.9 2 Q.10 2 Q.11 3 Q.12 1 Q.13 4 Q.14 4
Q.15 4 Q.16 3 Q.17 4 Q.18 3 Q.19 3 Q.20 2 Q.21 4
Q.22 1 Q.23 2 Q.24 1 Q.25 1 Q.26 1 Q.27 2 Q.28 1
Q.29 2 Q.30 1 Q.31 4 Q.32 1 Q.33 1 Q.34 1 Q.35 1
Q.36 1 Q.37 4 Q.38 2 Q.39 1 Q.40 3

Exercise – 4 (Previous Years Questions)

Q.1 4 Q.2 3 Q.3 2 Q.4 3 Q.5 1 Q.6 1 Q.7 1
Q.8 2 Q.9 1 Q.10 1 Q.11 2 Q.12 2 Q.13 2 Q.14 1
Q.15 2 Q.16 3 Q.17 4 Q.18 3 Q.19 1 Q.20 3 Q.21 4
Q.22 1 Q.23 4 Q.24 4 Q.25 3 Q.26 1 Q.27 3 Q.28 3
Q.29 2 Q.30 4 Q.31 1 Q.32 1 Q.33 4 Q.34 3 Q.35 2
Q.36 3 Q.37 3 Q.38 3 Q.39 2 Q.40 3 Q.41 1 Q.42 2
Q.43 4 Q.44 1 Q.45 3 Q.46 2 Q.47 3 Q.48 3 Q.49 4
Q.50 1 Q.51 3 Q.52 4 Q.53 2 Q.54 1 Q.55 1 Q.56 3
Q.57 4 Q.58 3 Q.59 1 Q.60 1 Q.61 3 Q.62 2 Q.63 1
Q.64 3 Q.65 1 Q.66 4 Q.67 2 Q.68 2 Q.69 3 Q.70 1
Q.71 1 Q.72 3 Q.73 2 Q.74 1 Q.75 3 Q.76 2 Q.77 2
Q.78 3 Q.79 4 Q.80 3 Q.81 2 Q.82 1 Q.83 3 Q.84 2
Q.85 2 Q.86 1 Q.87 1 Q.88 3 Q.89 4 Q.90 3 Q.91 1
Q.92 1 Q.93 2 Q.94 1 Q.95 2 Q.96 1 Q.97 4 Q.98 1
Q.99 2 Q.100 1 Q.101 4 Q.102 1 Q.103 3 Q.104 4 Q.105 3
Q.106 2 Q.107 2 Q.108 2 Q.109 3 Q.110 2 Q.111 2 Q.112 3
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Q.113 2 Q.114 4 Q.115 1 Q.116 2 Q.117 2 Q.118 2 Q.119 4
Q.120 2 Q.121 1 Q.122 1 Q.123 3 Q.124 3 Q.125 3 Q.126 1
Q.127 3 Q.128 2 Q.129 2 Q.130 4 Q.131 3 Q.132 4 Q.133 1
Q.134 2 Q.135 1 Q.136 3 Q.137 4 Q.138 1 Q.139 2 Q.140 4
Q.141 4 Q.142 4 Q.143 3 Q.144 3 Q.145 4 Q.146 1 Q.147 3
Q.148 3 Q.149 4 Q.150 2 Q.151 1 Q.152 2,3 Q.153 2 Q.154 2
Q.155 2 Q.156 3 Q.157 3 Q.158 1 Q.159 4 Q.160 4 Q.161 3
Q.162 3

Exercise – 5 (NCERT Based Questions)

Q.1 3 Q.2 4 Q.3 1 Q.4 1 Q.5 3 Q.6 1 Q.7 1
Q.8 1 Q.9 4 Q.10 2 Q.11 3 Q.12 1 Q.13 3 Q.14 1
Q.15 2 Q.16 1 Q.17 2 Q.18 2 Q.19 2 Q.20 4 Q.21 1
Q.22 1 Q.23 2 Q.24 3 Q.25 1 Q.26 1 Q.27 3 Q.28 1
Q.29 2 Q.30 1

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