Mechanical Measurements and

Control
Prof. Saurabh Korgaonkar
 Introduction to Metrology
• Gained Importance in the Industrial revolution
• Metrology Practice almost everyday Unknowingly
• Its role is ever increasing and encompasses
different fields
– Engineering
– Health sciences
– Cooking
– Games / Sports
– Arts
– Transportation
 Introduction to Metrology
• Measurement is an Act of assigning Accurate and
precise value to a physical Value -> Measurand
• Metrology Literally means Science of
Measurements
• Meaningful measurements require Common
measurement standards
– Hence measurements are often based on
International Standards
• SI Units
• Metric Units
• Imperial Units
 Introduction to Metrology
• Important to mention Classic Statement Made
by Lord Kelvin –
– ‘When you can measure what you are speaking about and express it in
numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot measure it,
when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge of it is of a meagre
and unsatisfactory kind. It may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have
scarcely in your thought advanced to the stage of science.’

• Galileo (1564 -1642)

– ‘Measure everything that is measurable and make measurable what is not so.’
 Introduction to Metrology
• Metrology deals with
– establishing the units of measurements and
– their reproduction in the form of standards,
ascertaining the uniformity of measurements,
– developing methods of measurement,
– analyzing the accuracy of methods of
measurement,
– establishing uncertainty of measurement,
– and investigating the causes of measuring errors
and subsequently eliminating them
 Introduction to Metrology
• Metrology is also concerned with reproduction ,
conservation and transfer of units of
measurements and standards
– Provide judgement about process information
– Quality assurance
– Process control
• Eg. Design-> to assess proper
– Functioning
– Performance
– Replication
– Quality
 Introduction to Metrology
• Legal Metrology
– Applies to any application of metrology that is
subjected to national laws or regulation
– There will be mandatory and legal binding on the
units and method of measurements and
measuring instruments
– Aim is to ensure uniformity of measurement
– Ensure the conservation of national standards and
guarantees their accuracy in comparison with the
international standards, thereby imparting proper
accuracy to the secondary standards country.
 Introduction to Metrology
• Metrology is an indispensible part of the modern
day Infrastructure
• Economic success of the Manufacturing
industries depend upon the quality and reliability
of the products-> measurement play a key role
• Extremely essential to compete and trade in
international markets
• Only possible through proper application of
measurement methods to enhance quality and
productive power of plants.
 Need for inspection
• Early craftsman used to manufacture by hand and
the quality was entirely dependent upon them
• Inspection has a scientific approach and acquired
importance during the industrial revolution
• Modern Manufacturing Process –
– components of products manufactured independently
– Independent process
 Need for inspection
• Frederick Winslow Taylor –
Father of scientific management
of manufacturing industry
• Created modern philosophy of
production and metrology
• He decomposed a job into
multiple tasks – giving rise to
task related to inspection
• Hence giving birth to the
INSPECTION department
 Need for inspection
• Inspection is defined as a procedure in which a part or
product characteristic, such as a dimension, is
examined to determine whether it conforms to the
design specification.
• is carried out to isolate and evaluate a specific design
or quality attribute of a component or product
• Importance due too the inter-changeability of parts
required
• Measurement is integral part of Inspection
– Many inspection process rely on measurement of parts
– Others employ gauging
 Need for inspection
• Inspection essentially encompasses the following:
– 1. Ascertain that the part, material, or component
conforms to the established or desired standard.
– 2. Accomplish interchangeability of manufacture.
– 3. Sustain customer goodwill by ensuring that no defective
product reaches the customers.
– 4. Provide the means of finding out inadequacies in
manufacture.
• The results of inspection are recorded and reported to the
manufacturing department for further action to ensure production
of acceptable parts and reduction in scrap.
– 5. Purchase good-quality raw materials, tools, and
equipment that govern the quality of the finished
products.
 Need for inspection
• Inspection essentially encompasses the following:
– 6. Coordinate the functions of quality control,
production, purchasing, and other departments of the
organizations.
– 7. Take the decision to perform rework on defective
parts, that is, to assess the possibility of making some
of these parts acceptable after minor repairs.
– 8. Promote the spirit of competition, which leads to
the manufacture of quality products in bulk by
eliminating bottlenecks and adopting better
production techniques.
 General Measurement Concepts

• Objective of Industrial Inspection to check quality of the

component manufactured
– In terms of permissible tolerances , fits, form , surface finish,
size and flatness etc.
• Any measurement system consist of three basic elements
– Measurand -> Physical Quantity
– Reference -> Physical quantity or property to which physical
comparisons are to be made
– Comparator -> to compare the measurand with a known
reference
 Errors in Measurement
• Measurements obtained are not completely
accurate and are associated with uncertainty
• Hence in order to analyse the measurement ->
important to understand
– the nature of error associated with the measurement
– Causes or sources of these errors in measurement
• Two broad categories have been identified
– Systematic errors
– Dynamic errors
Error in Measurement
 Systematic or Controllable Errors
• A systematic error is a type of error that deviates by a fixed amount from
the true value of measurement.
• Controllable both in magnitude and direction
– Can be assessed, analysed and efforts can be made to minimise them
• They are ->
– Difficult to Identify
– They are reproducible that are consistently in same direction
– Hence cannot be eliminated by taking large number of reading and averaging
them out
• Mainly consist of Four types
– Calibration errors -> Inertia , Hysteresis , linearity
– Ambient condition errors
• standard value for ambient condition is 20 (c) and 760 mmHg
• an increase in temp by 1 degree can increase the length of c25 stainless steel by
0.3micrometer
– Deformation errors
• During Hardness Testing Deformation of Stylus
– Avoidable errors
 Avoidable errors
• Datum errors
• Reading errors
• Error due to parallax effect
• Effect of misalignment
– Improper use, handling or selection of
instruments
• Zero errors
 Random Error
• Cause random deviations in measurement when
carried out repeatedly
• Causes of these variations cannot be determined
due to
– Unpredictability
– Uncontrollable by the experimenter
• When these repeated meaurements are ploted
they follow the normal (also known as gaussian
distribution)
• They can be statistically evaluated and their mean
and standard deviation can be determined
 Random Error
The following are the likely sources of random errors:
• Presence of transient fluctuations in friction in the
measuring instrument
• Play in the linkages of the measuring instruments
• Error in operator’s judgement in reading the fractional
part of engraved scale divisions
• Operator’s inability to note the readings because of
fluctuations during measurement
• Positional errors associated with the measured object
and standard, arising due to small variations in setting
Relationship between systematic and
Random errors
Comparison between systematic and
Random Errors
 Methods Of Measurement
• Direct • Null measurement
• Indirect • Substitution method
• Fundamental Method • Contact method
• Comparative • Contactless Method
• Transposition • Composite method
• Coincidence
• Deflection
• Complementary
 Methods Of Measurement
• Direct
– the quantity to be measured is directly compared with the primary or
secondary standard.
– Scales , Vernier, micrometer
• Indirect
– the value of a quantity is obtained by measuring other quantities that are
functionally related to the required value.
– Eg. Coefficent of Friction Measurement
• Fundamental or absolute Method
– the measurement is based on the measurements of base quantities used to
define the quantity.
– Weight = l*b*h*density
• Comparative
– the quantity to be measured is compared with the known value of the same
quantity
– Dial gauge indicators
 Methods Of Measurement
• Transposition
– Quantity to be measured is first balanced by a known value and then balanced by an other
new known value.
– example
• Coincidence
– This is a differential method of measurement wherein a very minute difference between the
quantity to be measured and the reference is determined by careful observation of the
coincidence of certain lines and signals.
– Example -> vernier scale
• Deflection
– the indication of the value of the quantity to be measured directly by deflection of a pointer
on a calibrated scale.
– Pressure Measurement
• Complementary
– The value of the quantity to be measured is combined with a known value of the same
quantity. The combination is so adjusted that the sum of these two values is equal to the
predetermined comparison value.
– Determination of volume by displacement of liquid
• Null measurement
– the difference between the value of the quantity to be measured and the known value of the
same quantity with which comparison is to be made is brought to zero.
– Example -> finding unknown resistance through Wheatstone bridge experiment
 Methods Of Measurement
• Substitution method
– This method involves the replacement of the value of the quantity to be
measured with a known value of the same quantity, so selected that the
effects produced in the indicating device by these two values are the same.
– The Borda method of determining mass is an example of this method.
• Contact method
– In this method, the surface to be measured is touched by the sensor or
measuring tip of the instrument.
– Vernier, Micrometer
• Contactless Method
– As the name indicates, there is no direct contact with the surface to be
measured.
– Profile projector
• Composite method
– The actual contour of a component to be checked is compared with its
maximum and minimum tolerance limits.
– For measuring center to center distance of a gear
 Metrological terminologies
• Accuracy
– Accuracy is the closeness between a test result and accepted
value.
• Precision
– Precision is the closeness of agreement between independent
test results obtained under stipulated conditions.
• Bias
– Bias is the difference between the expected value and the
accepted reference value.
 Metrological terminologies
• Magnification
– The output result from a measuring device to be magnified many
times to make it more readable, called Magnification.
• Resolution
– The smallest change of the measured quantity which changes the
indication of a measuring instrument is called Resolution.
• Traceability
– Traceability means a measured result can be related to references.
• Drift
– Drift is slow to change of a metrological characteristic of measuring
instrument.
• Calibrations
– Calibration is the set of operations that establish under specified
conditions, the relationship between values of quantities indicated
by a measuring instrument or values represented by a material
measure and the corresponding values realized by standards.
 Standards and their Roles
• In order to make measurements a meaningful exercise,
some sort of comparison with a known quantity is very
essential.
• It is necessary to define a unit value of any physical
quantity under consideration such that it will be
accepted internationally
• It is not sufficient to only define these unit values of
physical quantities; these should also be measureable.
• A standard is defined as the fundamental value of any
known physical quantity, as established by national and
international organizations of authority, which can be
reproduced.
• Fundamental units of physical quantities such as
length, mass, time, and temperature form the basis for
establishing a measurement system.
 Evolution of Standard
• The Egyptian cubit was the earliest recorded length
standard—the length of the Pharaoh’s forearm plus the
width of his palm.
– First master standard made out of black granite
• The actual foot length of the Greek monarch was
defined as a foot.
• King Henry I decreed the length from the tip of nose to
the end of the middle finger, when the arm is fully
stretched as one yard.
• One of the important prerequisites for progress in
science is to gain mastery over the science of
measurement.
 Evolution of Standard
• The metric system, which was accepted by France in 1795,
coexisted with medieval units until 1840, when it was
declared as the exclusive system of weights and measures.
• In 1798, Eli Whitney introduced the concept of
manufacturing interchangeable components for assembling
guns.
• John Quincy Adams in 1821 submitted a report on the
metric system and the modernization of our measurement
system to the United States Congress. Highlighting the
importance of measurement in his report, he stated,
‘Weights and measures may be ranked among the
necessaries of life to every individual of human society.
• In 1855, the imperial standard yard was developed in
England, which was quite accurate.
 Evolution of Standard
• In 1872, the first international prototype metre was developed in
France
• . The International Metric Convention, which was held in France in
1875, universally accepted the metric system, and provisions were
also made to set up the International Bureau of Weights and
Measures (BIPM) in Paris, which was signed by 17 countries
• The National Physical Laboratory (NPL) was established in UK in
1900. It is a public institution for standardizing and verifying
instruments, testing materials, and determining physical constants.
• The internationally adopted standards were required to extend
support to the rapid increase in trade between industrialized
countries. This resulted in the establishment of international
organizations for standardization such as the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) in 1906 and the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1947.
Material and Wavelength Standard
• 2 standards for linear measurement accepted
worldwide
– Metre
– English (Imperial)
• Most countries have realized the importance and
advantages of the metric system and accepted metre
as the fundamental unit of linear measurement.
• Scientists across the world have always been in the
pursuit of a suitable unit for length, and consistent
efforts have been made to keep the unit of length
constant irrespective of the environmental conditions.
 Yard
• The imperial standard yard is a bronze bar 1 sq. inch in cross-section and 38 inches
in length, having a composition of 82% Cu, 13% tin, and 5% Zn.
METRE/METER
• This standard is also known as
international prototype metre, which
was established in 1875
• It is defined as the distance between
the centre positions of the two lines
engraved on the highly polished
surface of a 102 cm bar of pure
platinum–iridium alloy (90% platinum
and 10% iridium) maintained at 0 °C
under normal atmospheric pressure
and having the cross-section of a web
Material and Wavelenght Standard
• The problem with material standards used earlier was that
the materials used for defining the standards could change
their size with temperature and other conditions.
• In order to keep the fundamental unit unchanged, great
care and attention had to be exercised to maintain the
same conditions
• The natural and invariable unit for length was finalized as
the primary standard when they found that wavelength of
monochromatic light was not affected by environmental
conditions.
• They were able to express easily the previously defined
yard and metre in terms of the wavelength of light.
 Disadvantages of Material Standard
• The following disadvantages are associated with
material standards:
• 1. Material standards are affected by changes in
environmental conditions such as temperature,
pressure, humidity, and ageing, resulting in variations
in length.
• 2. Preservation of these standards is difficult because
they must have appropriate security to prevent their
damage or destruction.
• 3. Replicas of material standards are not available for
use at other places.
• 4. They cannot be easily reproduced.
 Wavelength Standard
• Difficulty arised because the working standard used as
a reference is derived from a physical standard and
successive comparisons are required to establish the
size of a working standard using the process discussed
earlier, leading to errors that are unacceptable.
• By using wavelengths of a monochromatic light as a
natural and invariable unit of length, the dependency
of the working standard on the physical standard can
be eliminated.
• The use of the interference phenomenon of light waves
to provide a working standard may thus be accepted as
ultimate for all practical purposes.
• There were some objections to the use of the light wavelength
standard because of the impossibility of producing pure
monochromatic light, as wavelength depends upon the amount of
isotope impurity in the elements.
• However, with rapid advancements in the field of atomic energy,
pure isotopes of natural elements have been produced. Cadmium
114, krypton 86, and mercury 198 are possible sources of radiation
of wavelengths suitable for the natural standard of length
• Finally, in 1960, at the 11th General Conference of Weights and
Measures held in Paris, it was recommended and decided that
krypton 86 is the most suitable element if used in a hot cathode
charge lamp maintained at a temperature of 68 K
• According to this standard, metre is defined as 1,650,763.73 ×
wavelengths of the red–orange radiation of a krypton 86 atom in
vacuum.
 Modern Meter
• More recently (1984), the Geneva Conference on
Weights and Measures, the metre is the length of
the path travelled by light in vacuum during a
time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second.
• This standard is technologically more accurate
and feasible when compared to the red–orange
radiation of a krypton 86 atom and can be
realized in practice through the use of an iodine-
stabilized helium–neon laser
• The seven SI base units, which are comprised of:
• Length - meter (m)
• Time - second (s)
• Amount of substance - mole (mole)
• Electric current - ampere (A)
• Temperature - kelvin (K)
• Luminous intensity - candela (cd)
• Mass - kilogram (kg)
 Limits , Fits and tolerances of
Interchangeable Manufacture
 Elements of Interchangeable system
• For manufacturing a large number of components, it is not
economical to produce both the mating parts (components) using
the same operator
• Modern production techniques require that a complete product be
broken into various component parts so that the production of each
part becomes an independent process, leading to specialization.
• To achieve this, it is essential that the parts are manufactured in
bulk to the desired accuracy and, at the same time, adhere to the
limits of accuracy specified.
• Manufacture of components under such conditions is called
interchangeable manufacture.
• When interchangeable manufacture is adopted, any one
component selected at random should assemble with any other
arbitrarily chosen mating component.
• Another major advantage of interchangeability is the ease
with which replacement of defective or worn-out parts is
carried out, resulting in reduced maintenance cost.
• In addition, the operator, by performing the same limited
number of operations, becomes a specialist in that work.
• Interchangeable manufacture increases productivity and
reduces production and time costs.
 Selective Assembly Approach
• if a part of minimum limit is assembled with a mating part of
maximum limit, the fit obtained may not fully satisfy the functional
requirements of the assembly.
• complete interchangeability is not always feasible; instead, selective
assembly approach can be employed.
• In selective assembly, the manufactured components are classified
into groups according to their sizes.
• Automatic gauging is employed for this purpose. Both the mating
parts are segregated according to their sizes, and only matched
groups of mating parts are assembled.
• This ensures complete protection and elimination of defective
assemblies, and the manufacturing costs are reduced because the
parts are produced with wider tolerances.
Tolerance
 Tolerance
• Tolerance can be defined as the magnitude of permissible variation
of a dimension or other measured value or control criterion from the
specified value
• The basic purpose of providing tolerances is to permit dimensional
variations in the manufacture of components, adhering to the
performance criterion as established by the specification and design
• If high performance is the sole criterion, then functional
requirements dictate the specification of tolerance limits; otherwise,
the choice of setting tolerance, to a limited extent, may be
influenced and determined by factors such as methods of tooling and
available manufacturing equipment
• The industry follows certain approved accuracy standards, such as
ANSI (American National Standards Institute) and ASME (American
Society of Mechanical Engineers), to manufacture different parts.
 Classification of tolerance
• Unilateral Tolerance
– When the tolerance distribution is only on one
side of the basic size
• Bilateral Tolerance
– When the tolerance distribution lies on either
side of the basic size, it is known as bilateral
tolerance
• Compound Tolerance
– When tolerance is determined by established
tolerances on more than one dimension, it is
known as compound tolerance
• Geometric Tolerance
– Geometric tolerance is defined as the total
amount that the dimension of a manufactured
part can vary.
– Eg : straightness, Circularity, Concentricity
 Geometric Tolerance
• Form Tolerance
– Form tolerances are a group of geometric tolerances applied to individual
features.
– These include straightness, circularity, flatness, and cylindricity.
• Orientation Tolerances
– Orientation tolerances are a type of geometric tolerances used to limit the
direction or orientation of a feature in relation to other features.
– Orientation tolerance examples include squareness/perpendicularity,
parallelism and angularity

• Positional Tolerances
– Positional tolerances are a group of geometric tolerances that controls the
extent of deviation of the location of a feature from its true position.
– Location tolerance examples include symmetry, concentricity and position.
Maximul and Minimum Metal
Conditions
 Types of Fits
• The relationship between the two mating
parts that are to be assembled, that is, the
hole and the shaft, with respect to the
difference in their dimensions before
assembly is called a fit.
• The three Basic Types of Fit
– Clearance
– Transition
– Interference Fit
 Types of Fit
• Clearance Fit
– The largest permissible diameter of the shaft is smaller than the
diameter of the smallest hole.
 Types of Fit
• Transition Fit
– The diameter of the largest permissible hole is greater than the diameter of the smallest
shaft and the diameter of the smallest hole is smaller than the diameter of the largest
Shaft
 Types of Fit
• Interference Fit
– The minimum permissible diameter of the shaft exceeds the maximum allowable diameter
of the hole
– An interference fit, also known as a pressed fit or friction fit is a form of fastening between
two tight fitting mating parts that produces a joint which is held together by friction after
the parts are pushed together
• maximum clearance is the arithmetical difference between
the maximum size of the hole, that is, high limit of the hole
(HLH), and the minimum size of the shaft, that is, low limit
of the shaft (LLS), before assembly.
• In an interference fit, minimum interference is the
arithmetical difference between maximum size of the hole,
that is, HLH, and minimum size of the shaft, that is, LLS,
before assembly
• In a transition fit, it is the arithmetical difference between
minimum size of the hole, that is, LLH, and maximum size
of the shaft, that is, HLS, before assembly
• in order to find out the type of fit, one needs to determine
HLH − LLS and LLH −HLS.
– Both +ve -> Clearence
– Both –ve -> interference
 Allowance
• An allowance is the intentional difference
between the maximum material limits, that is,
LLH and HLS (minimum clearance or maximum
interference) of the two mating parts
• Allowance may be positive or negative
• Positive allowance indicates a clearance fit,
and an interference fit is indicated by a
negative allowance
• Given by -> LLH -HLS
 Hole basis Systems

• This type of system is widely adopted in industries,

as it is easier to manufacture shafts of varying sizes
to the required tolerances.
• Standard size drills or reamers can be used to obtain
a variety of fits by varying only the shaft limits,
which leads to greater economy of production.
 Shaft Basis System

• This system is not preferred in industries, as it

requires more number of standard-size tools
such as reamers, broaches, and gauges, which
increases manufacturing and inspection costs.
 Tolerance Grades
• The International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) specifies the internationally
accepted system of limits and fits. Indian
standards are in accordance with the ISO.
• The ISO system of limits and fits comprises 20
grades of fundamental tolerances to indicate the
level of accuracy of the manufacture.
• These fundamental tolerances are designated by
the letters IT followed by a number.
• The ISO system provides tolerance grades from
IT01, IT0, and IT1 to IT18 to realize the required
accuracy.
• The greater the number, the higher the tolerance
limit.
• Production of large-sized components is associated
with problems pertaining to manufacture and
measurement, which do not exist in the case of
smaller-sized components.
• As the size of the components to be manufactured
increases, the difficulty in making accurate
measurements also increases.
• Variations in temperature also affect the quality of
measurement.
• When the size of the components to be manufactured
exceeds 500 mm, the tolerance grades IT01–IT5 are not
provided, as they are considered to be too small.
 Tolerance Values
• Tolerance values corresponding to grades IT5–IT18 are
determined using the standard tolerance unit (i, in μm),
which is a function of basic size.

• Where D is the geometric mean of the lower and upper

diameter of a particular diameter step and is given by

• The various steps specified for the diameter steps are as

follows:
• 1–3, 3–6, 6–10, 10–18, 18–30, 30–50, 50–80, 80–120, 120–
180, 180–250, 250–315, 315– 400, 400–500 500–630, 630–
800, and 800–1000 mm.
 Tolerance Values
• The standard tolerances corresponding to IT01, IT0,
and IT1 are calculated using the following formulae:
– IT01: 0.3 + 0.008D
– IT0: 0.5 + 0.012D
– IT1: 0.8 + 0.020D
• The values of tolerance grades IT2–IT4, which are
placed between the tolerance grades of IT1 and IT5,
follow a geometric progression to allow for the
expansion and deformation affecting both the gauges
and the workpieces as dimensions increase.
 Fundamental Deviation of Tolerance
• The tolerance zone is governed by two limits:
– the size of the component and
– its position related to the basic size.
• The position of the tolerance zone, from the zero line
(basic size), is determined by fundamental deviation.
• The ISO system defines 28 classes of basic deviations
for holes and shafts
• marked by capital letters A, B, C, ..., ZC (with the
exception of I, L, O, Q, and W) and small letters a, b, c,
..., zc (with the exception of i, l, o, q, and w),
respectively
• Es -> upper deviation & Ei -> lower Deviation
(a) -> Fundamental Deviation of Hole
(b) -> Fundamental Deviation of SHAFT
Ei -> lower deviation & Es -> Upper Deviation
Capital letter for Hole basis , small letter for shaft Basis system
• FOR 60MM
• ->D= GEOMETRIC MEAN -> SQRT (50X80)= 63.2455
• TOLERANCE UNIT =i = 1.868microns
• Tolerance -> 40i=40x1.868=74.72microns
• For hole
– LLH -> 60mm
– HLH ->60+0.07472mm
• For Shaft
– C= ? =-143microns
– HLS-> 60-0.143mm= 59.857
– LLS-> 60 – 0.143-0.07472 = 59.782
 General Terminology
• Basic size This is the size in relation to which all limits
of size are derived
• Limits of size These are the maximum and minimum
permissible sizes acceptable for a specific dimension.
• Tolerance This is the total permissible variation in the
size of a dimension, that is, the difference between the
maximum and minimum limits of size.
• Allowance It is the intentional difference between the
LLH and HLS.
• Grade This is an indication of the tolerance magnitude;
the lower the grade, the finer the tolerance
 General Terminology
• Fundamental deviation It is the minimum difference
between the size of a component and its basic
• Zero line This line is also known as the line of zero
deviation
• Fit It is the relationship that exists between two mating
parts, a hole and a shaft, with respect to their
dimensional difference before assembly size.
• Tolerance zone The tolerance that is bound by the two
limits of size of the component is called the tolerance
zone.
 General Terminology
• International tolerance grade (IT) Tolerance grades are an
indication of the degree of accuracy of the manufacture.
• Tolerance class It is designated by the letter(s) representing
the fundamental deviation followed by the number
representing the standard tolerance.
• Tolerance symbols These are used to specify the tolerance
and fits for mating components.
• For example, in 40 H8f7, the number 40 indicates the basic
size in millimeters ; capital letter H indicates the
fundamental deviation for the hole; and lower-case letter f
indicates the shaft.
• The numbers following the letters indicate corresponding IT
grade.
 Gauges
• In mass production, where a large number of similar
components are manufactured on an interchangeable
basis, measuring the dimensions of each part will be a
time-consuming and expensive exercise.
• In addition, the actual or absolute size of a component,
provided that it is within the limits specified, is not of much
importance
• Therefore, in mass production, gauges can be used to check
for the compliance of the limits of the part with the
permissive tolerance limits, instead of measuring the actual
dimensions.
• ‘limit gauging’ signifies the use of gauges for checking the
limits of the components
 Gauges
• The gauges required to check the dimensions of
the components correspond to two sizes
conforming to the maximum and minimum limits
of the components.
• They are called GO gauges or NO GO or NOT GO
gauges, which correspond, respectively, to the
MML and LML of the component
• Practically, every gauge is a replica of the part
that mates with the part for which the gauge has
been designed
 Importance of Go Gauge and MMLs
• It is important to note that normally clearance fits are preferred for
a majority of the assembly operations. Allowance or minimum
clearance is determined by the algebraic difference of the MMLs of
the mating parts.
• Therefore, for clearance fits, the MMLs of the mating parts become
more critical than the LMLs.
• This assumes importance for the following two reasons:
– 1. MMLs are crucial for effective functioning of the parts.
– 2. If the MMLs slightly exceed the specified values then assembly itself
becomes impossible.
• Whenever the components are gauged for their MMLs, if the GO
gauges fail to assemble during inspection, the components should
not be accepted under any circumstances.
 No go Gauges
• The minimum limits in a clearance fit of a product
are not so critical because even if they exceed the
specified limits and the NOT GO gauge assembles,
its acceptance may result in functional
degradation and because of the reduced quality
the useful life of the product may get affected.
• Hence, it becomes essential that more care is
taken especially when GO gauges are used, when
compared to NOT GO gauges during inspection.
 Classification of Gauges
• The detailed classification of the gauges is as
follows:
– 1. Plain gauges
• (a) According to their type:
• (i) Standard gauges
• (ii) Limit gauges
– (b) According to their purpose:
• (i) Workshop
• (ii) Inspection
• (iii) Reference, or master, or control gauges
– (c) According to the form of the tested surface:
• (i) Plug gauges for checking holes
• (ii) Snap and ring gauges for checking shafts
 Classification of Gauges
– (d) According to their design:
• (i) Single- and double-ended gauges
• (ii) Fixed and adjustable gauges
– 2. Adjustable-type gap gauges
– 3. Miscellaneous gauges
• (a) Combined-limit gauges
• (b) Taper gauges
• (c) Position gauges
• (d) Receiver gauges
• (e) Contour gauges
• (f) Profile gauges
 Taylor principle
• In 1905, William Taylor developed a concept relating to the
gauging of components, which has been widely used since
then
• Taylor’s principle states that
– the GO gauge is designed to check maximum metal conditions,
that is, LLH and HLS. It should also simultaneously check as
many related dimensions, such as roundness, size, and location,
as possible.
– The NOT GO gauge is designed to check minimum metal
conditions, that is, HLH and [Link] should check only one
dimension at a time.
– During inspection, the GO side of the gauge should enter the
hole or just pass over the shaft under the weight of the gauge
without using undue force
– The NOT GO side should not enter or pass.
• The GO plug is used to check more than one dimension
of the hole simultaneously, the GO plug gauge must
have a full circular section and must be of full length of
the hole so that straightness of the hole can also be
checked.
– Discuss short Go gauges
• During inspection, it can be ensured that if there is any
lack of straightness or roundness of the hole a full
entry of the GO plug gauge will not be allowed.
• Thus, it not only controls the diameter in any given
cross-section but also ensures better bore alignment.
• However Go gauge cannot check for Ovality
Important Points for Gauge Design
• The following points must be kept in mind while
designing gauges:
– 1. The form of GO gauges should be a replica of the form
of the opposed (mating) parts.
– 2. GO gauges enable several related dimensions to be
checked simultaneously and hence are termed complex
gauges.
– 3. During inspection, GO gauges must always be put into
conditions of maximum impassability.
– 4. NOT GO gauges check a single element of feature at a
time.
– 5. In inspection, NOT GO gauges must always be put into
conditions of maximum passability.
Design of Go and No go gauges-> First
Method
Design of Go and No go gauges->
Revised
Design of Go and No go gauges->
British System
This system works according to the following
guidelines:
• 1. The specified tolerance should be wide and,
at the same time, consistent with satisfactory
functioning, economical production, and
inspection.
• 2. During inspection, the work that lies
outside the specified limits should not be
accepted.
Problem
Plug and Snap gauges
 Plug Gauges
• Gauges that are used for gauging holes are known as plug gauges.
• Plain plug gauges are manufactured using hardened and stabilized
wear-resistant steel.
• The gauging surface of the plug gauges are ground and lapped to
make it smooth.
• The surface of these gauges is hardened to not less than 750 HV.
• Handles for these plug gauges may be made using any suitable
steel. Handles made from light metal alloys can be used for heavy
plain plug gauges. For smaller plain plug gauges, handles can be
made using a suitable non-metallic material.
• Double-ended-type plug gauges for sizes up to 63 mm and single-
ended-type gauges for sizes above 63 mm are recommended as
standards.
• In order to protect the plug gauges against climatic conditions, they
are normally coated with a suitable anticorrosive coating.
 Plug Gauge Specification
• Plain plug gauges are designated by specifying
– 1. nominal size
– 2. ‘GO’ and ‘NOT GO’ on the GO and NOT GO sides,
respectively
– 3. class of tolerance of the workpiece to be gauged
– 4. the manufacturer’s name and trademark
– 5. marking the NOT GO side with a red colour band to
distinguish it from the GO side, irrespective of
whether the gauge is single or double ended
• Example : 40 H7 IS: 3484