WORK STUDY PRINCIPLES
Detailed Study Notes
Method Study • Work Measurement • Predetermined Motion Time Systems • Standardized Vocational Work Samples
1. Work Study: Definition and Components
Definition: Work study is a generic term for the techniques of method study and work measurement, used systematically to
examine human work in all its contexts, and which lead to the systematic investigation of all factors affecting the efficiency
and economy of the situation being reviewed, in order to effect improvement (British Standards Institution definition).
In simple terms, work study is a management technique used to raise productivity by studying how work is done, identifying
wasteful or unnecessary elements in it, and establishing the most efficient method and the time required to carry it out.
1.1 Components of Work Study
Work study has two complementary, interlinked branches:
• Method Study — concerned with HOW a job is done: it records, analyses and critically examines existing/proposed
methods of doing work, and develops and applies easier, more effective methods.
• Work Measurement — concerned with HOW LONG a job should take: it applies techniques designed to establish the
time a qualified worker takes to carry out a defined task at a defined standard of performance.
The two are sequential in practice — method study is normally carried out first to fix the best method, and work
measurement is then applied to that established method to set a fair standard time.
1.2 Objectives / Purpose of Work Study
• To improve productivity and utilisation of resources (manpower, machines, materials).
• To improve the layout of the workplace, plant and equipment.
• To eliminate unnecessary, wasteful or fatiguing movements/motions.
• To establish standard methods and standard times for tasks (basis for planning, costing, incentive schemes).
• To reduce operator fatigue and improve working conditions/safety.
• To provide objective data for comparing alternative methods, equipment or job designs.
1.3 Relevance of Work Study to Occupational Therapy
Work study principles form the scientific foundation of OT practice in industrial and vocational rehabilitation. Just as an
industrial engineer studies a job to make it efficient, the occupational therapist studies a client's job (through job/task
analysis) in order to:
• Match a client's residual functional capacity to the physical, cognitive and environmental demands of a job (job
analysis, job site analysis).
• Identify and grade the motions/postures/tools involved in a task for use in work hardening, work conditioning and
ergonomic modification programmes.
• Use timed, standardized work samples (e.g. VALPAR, WEST) — a direct clinical application of work-measurement
thinking — to obtain objective, reproducible data on a client's work capacity.
• Recommend workstation, tool or process modifications (an ergonomics application of method study) to fit the task to
the worker rather than the worker to the task.
2. Method Study
Definition: Method study is the systematic recording and critical examination of existing and proposed ways of doing work,
as a means of developing and applying easier and more effective methods, and reducing costs (ILO definition).
2.1 Objectives of Method Study
• Improvement of processes, procedures and the layout of the workplace, equipment and materials.
• Improvement of the design/use of plant, tools and equipment.
• Economy of human effort — reduction of unnecessary fatigue caused by ill-planned motions.
• Improvement of the physical working environment to reduce hazards and improve safety.
• Standardization of methods, materials, machinery and working conditions.
• Improvement of the utilisation of materials, machines and manpower.
2.2 Steps in Method Study (SREDIM)
Method study follows a systematic, six-stage sequence, often remembered by the mnemonic SREDIM:
1. Select — the job or process to be studied (usually one that is a bottleneck, hazardous, fatiguing, uneconomical, or high-
volume/high-cost).
2. Record — all relevant facts/data about the existing (or proposed) method, using direct observation and standard
recording techniques (charts and diagrams).
3. Examine — the recorded facts critically and systematically, questioning purpose, place, sequence, person and means
(the 'why, what, where, when, who, how' questioning technique) to see whether each element is necessary.
4. Develop — the most practical, economic and effective method, drawing on the contributions of those concerned
(workers, supervisors).
5. Install / Define — the new method as standard practice, with agreed times, and train the people involved.
6. Maintain — the new standard practice through periodic checks/audits to ensure it does not drift back to the old method.
2.3 Recording Information — Recording Techniques
Once a job/process is selected, method study requires that the existing facts be recorded accurately, using standardized
graphic tools so that the process can be examined objectively. The commonly used recording techniques include Flow
Process Charts, Flow Diagrams and String Diagrams.
2.3.1 Flow Process Chart
Definition: A flow process chart is a graphic, chronological representation of all the events (operations, transportations,
inspections, delays and storages) that occur during the performance of a task or a series of actions, usually involving a
person, material or equipment.
Types of flow process chart:
• Man/Operator type — records what the worker does.
• Material type — records what happens to the material or product.
• Equipment type — records how equipment/machines are used.
Symbols used in a process chart (ASME standard symbols):
Symbol Name Meaning / What it represents Example
⬤ (Large Operation An activity that changes the physical or chemical characteristics Cutting a plank,
Circle) of an object, or adds/assembles/dismantles parts, or typing a letter,
provides/receives information, or plans/calculates. The main assembling a
productive step. component
▭ (Arrow / Transport / The movement of workers, materials or equipment from one Carrying
Small Circle) Transportation place to another (not part of an operation or inspection). material from
store to work
bench, moving a
trolley
□ (Square) Inspection An activity in which an object is checked/verified for quality or Checking
quantity against a standard, without being altered. dimensions,
counting finished
pieces
D (Capital Delay / Temporary A condition in which an object or worker waits for the next Material waiting
D) Storage planned action (unplanned/unavoidable waiting). at a machine,
worker waiting
for instructions
▽ (Inverted Storage / Permanent An object is kept and protected against unauthorised removal, Finished goods
Triangle) Storage usually under authorisation (planned storage). kept in
warehouse
⬤ inside □ Combined Activity Used when two activities are performed simultaneously by the Operator
same worker at the same workplace (e.g., operation + inspection inspects the part
together). while machining
it
Each recorded step is given a symbol, a brief description, and usually the distance moved, time taken and any remarks. At the
end, the number of operations, transports, inspections, delays and storages, together with total distance and total time, are
summarised — this summary immediately highlights non-value-adding activities (transport, delay, storage) that method study
aims to reduce or eliminate.
2.3.2 Flow Diagram
Definition: A flow diagram is a drawing of the workplace (drawn to scale on a plan/layout of the building, floor or work
area) on which the path/movement of the worker, material or equipment is traced and marked, using the same symbols as the
flow process chart, connected by a line showing the actual sequence of movement.
• It shows WHERE movements take place (spatial relationship), which the flow process chart (a chronological list)
cannot show by itself.
• It is especially useful for identifying back-tracking, criss-cross movement, congestion points and excessively long
travel distances.
• The flow diagram is normally used together with the flow process chart, each supplementing the other — the chart
gives the sequence and details, the diagram gives the layout picture.
2.3.3 String Diagram
Definition: A string diagram is a scale model/drawing of the work area on which a thread or string is used to trace and
measure the actual path and distance travelled by a worker, material or equipment during a specified sequence of activities
(or over a given period).
• Pins are fixed at each point visited (on a scale layout board), and a measured length of string/thread is wound around
the pins in the exact sequence of movement recorded.
• The total length of string used, converted using the scale of the drawing, gives the total distance travelled — useful
when movement is irregular/non-repetitive and difficult to show clearly with a simple flow diagram.
• Particularly valuable for studying multi-activity/complex movement patterns, e.g. a worker attending several machines,
or (in a rehabilitation context) mapping a client's movement pattern around a simulated workstation or kitchen during
an ADL/IADL assessment.
3. Work Measurement
Definition: Work measurement is the application of techniques designed to establish the time for a qualified worker to carry
out a specified job at a defined level of performance (ILO definition).
Where method study removes wasted movement/effort and fixes the best method, work measurement quantifies how long
that best method should take. This 'standard time' is used for production planning, costing, manpower requirement estimation,
incentive-scheme design, and — in a rehabilitation context — for setting objective, graded work-tolerance and productivity
goals.
3.1 Purpose of Work Measurement
• To reveal ineffective time and its causes (so that it can be reduced).
• To set standard times of performance for planning and control.
• To provide data for costing and wage-incentive schemes.
• To compare the efficiency of alternative methods.
• To provide a basis for balancing the work of members of a team/production line.
3.2 Techniques of Work Measurement
3.2.1 Time Study
Definition: Time study is a direct, continuous observation technique in which a trained observer times and rates a worker's
performance for a defined task, using a stopwatch (or electronic timing device), in order to determine the time required to
complete the task at a defined standard rate of performance.
Basic steps in a time study:
7. Select the job/task and the worker to be studied.
8. Break the task down into observable, measurable 'elements' (small, describable, timeable parts of the task).
9. Time each element over a number of work cycles using a stopwatch (flyback, cumulative, or snapback timing).
10. Rate the worker's observed pace against a 'normal'/standard pace (performance rating, e.g. 100 = normal).
11. Calculate the Basic (Normal) Time = Observed time × Rating factor / 100.
12. Add appropriate allowances (relaxation/fatigue allowance, personal-needs allowance, contingency allowance,
interference allowance) to the basic time.
13. Standard Time = Basic Time + Allowances — this becomes the fair, achievable time standard for the task.
Time study is best suited to short-cycle, repetitive tasks that can be observed directly and are already performed by a
reasonably skilled/qualified worker.
3.2.2 Work Sampling (Activity/Ratio-Delay Sampling)
Definition: Work sampling is a statistical technique in which a large number of instantaneous, randomly-timed observations
are made of a worker (or group of workers/machines) over a period, and the proportion of observations found in each defined
activity category (e.g. working, idle, waiting, on machine, on material handling) is used to estimate the percentage of total
time spent on each activity.
Basic steps in work sampling:
14. Define the activities/categories to be observed (e.g. productive work, unavoidable delay, avoidable delay/idle).
15. Decide on the required accuracy/confidence level, which determines the number of observations needed.
16. Generate a random observation schedule (random times, e.g. via random number tables) so observations are not
predictable to the worker.
17. Make brief, instantaneous observations at each scheduled time and record only the category of activity seen at that
instant.
18. Tabulate the results — the percentage of observations in each category is taken as the percentage of total time spent in
that activity.
Work sampling is well suited to long-cycle, non-repetitive or group activities where continuous stopwatch timing (as in time
study) would be impractical or excessively time-consuming.
3.2.3 Comparison of Time Study and Work Sampling
Feature Time Study Work Sampling
Basis Continuous / repeated direct observation of Large number of instantaneous, randomly-
one job with a stopwatch timed observations across many jobs/workers
Purpose Establishes precise standard time for a Estimates the percentage of time spent on
specific task different activities/idle time
Observer time required High – observer stays with the worker Low – observer makes brief random visits
throughout the cycle
Suitability Repetitive, short-cycle jobs Long-cycle, non-repetitive, or
group/multiple-worker activities
Output Standard time in minutes per unit/task Percentage of time in each activity category
Worker reaction Can feel closely watched/stressful Less intrusive, less resented
4. Standardized Vocational Assessment Tools: VALPAR-WCS, WEST
and MODAPTS
These three tools apply work-study thinking directly within occupational therapy/vocational and industrial rehabilitation —
VALPAR and WEST are standardized, timed work samples (an application of work measurement to clinical assessment),
while MODAPTS is a predetermined-motion-time system used for building standard times without direct stopwatch timing.
Tool What it is Clinical use in OT / Vocational-
Industrial Rehabilitation
VALPAR-WCS A set of 19 (later expanded to ~23, e.g. Used during Functional Capacity
work samples 202–205) standardized, job- Evaluation and vocational exploration to
simulated 'Component Work Samples', objectively match a client's abilities to real
each isolating a cluster of worker traits job demands; helps set realistic return-to-
Tool What it is Clinical use in OT / Vocational-
Industrial Rehabilitation
(e.g. small tools, clerical comprehension, work/vocational goals.
whole-body range of motion).
WEST (Work A family of standardized work-sample and Used in Physical/Functional Capacity
Evaluation lifting-evaluation systems, e.g. West Tool Evaluation to assess tool handling, lifting
Systems Sort, West 2A/3/4A/7, and the West 2 capacity and work tolerance; results feed
Technology) Lifting Protocol, simulating tool-use, into work-hardening and work-
sorting and material-handling tasks under conditioning programme design.
controlled, timed conditions.
MODAPTS A simplified Predetermined Motion Time Enables therapists/ergonomists to build
(MODular System (PMTS) that expresses the time for objective standard times for job tasks
Arrangement of basic human motions in one common unit, without stopwatch timing — useful for job
Predetermined the MOD (1 MOD = 0.129 seconds), analysis, setting realistic production quotas
Time Standards) derived from the average time to move a in work hardening, and grading task
finger. difficulty.
4.1 VALPAR Component Work Sample (VALPAR-WCS)
• Developed as a series of standardized, work-related, hands-on 'component' work samples (originally 1–19, later
extended, e.g. 202–205), each isolating and measuring a specific worker trait or cluster of traits (e.g. Sample 1: Small
Tools – Mechanical; Sample 8: Simulated Assembly; Sample 9: Whole Body Range of Motion).
• Each sample is administered under standardized, timed conditions with norm-referenced scoring, so a client's
performance can be compared to established worker trait norms and to specific occupational/DOT (Dictionary of
Occupational Titles) demands.
• Clinically used for functional capacity evaluation, vocational exploration and vocational guidance — helping identify
realistic job matches and the need for job/task modification.
4.2 WEST (Work Evaluation Systems Technology)
• A family of standardized work-sample and physical-capacity assessment tools designed to simulate real job tasks under
controlled conditions, including the West Tool Sort (sorting/handling small tools and hardware), West 2A/3/4A/7
(assorted job-simulated task batteries) and the West 2 Lifting Protocol (a graded, weighted lifting test).
• Used within Functional/Physical Capacity Evaluation to obtain objective, standardized measures of tool-handling,
sorting and material-handling/lifting ability, forming baseline data for work hardening and work conditioning
programme design.
4.3 MODAPTS (MODular Arrangement of Predetermined Time Standards)
Definition: MODAPTS is a simplified predetermined motion-time system (PMTS) that assigns a standard time value to each
basic human body motion, expressed in a single common unit called the MOD.
• 1 MOD = the average time taken to move a finger a standard distance ≈ 0.129 seconds (approx. 0.00215 minutes); all
other body movements are expressed as multiples of this base unit (e.g. a forearm movement, a full-arm reach, or a
walk step each has its own fixed MOD value).
• Because motion time-values are predetermined (established in advance from extensive prior research), MODAPTS
allows a standard time for a new or proposed task to be built up simply by listing the sequence of body motions
required and summing their MOD values — without needing to directly stopwatch-time the actual task.
• Advantages: quick to apply, does not require the task to already exist/be observable, avoids observer-rating error, and
produces consistent standards across similar tasks.
• Clinical relevance: therapists can use a MODAPTS-type motion analysis to objectively grade the physical demand of a
work-hardening task, to design/modify tasks by substituting lower-MOD (less demanding) motions, and to set realistic,
evidence-based productivity/time goals for a client's return-to-work programme.
5. Summary
• Work Study = Method Study (best method) + Work Measurement (standard time for that method).
• Method Study follows the SREDIM sequence: Select – Record – Examine – Develop – Install/Define – Maintain.
• Recording techniques — Flow Process Chart (chronological list of operations/transport/inspection/delay/storage using
standard symbols), Flow Diagram (path of movement drawn on a scaled layout), String Diagram (string/pins on a
scaled board to trace and measure irregular movement patterns).
• Work Measurement techniques — Time Study (direct stopwatch timing + rating + allowances → standard time), Work
Sampling (random instantaneous observations → percentage time in each activity category).
• VALPAR-WCS and WEST translate work-measurement principles into standardized, norm-referenced clinical work
samples used in Functional Capacity Evaluation; MODAPTS translates predetermined motion-time principles into a
practical clinical tool for grading task demand and setting standard times without stopwatch timing.
• Together, these principles equip the occupational therapist to objectively analyse jobs, grade activity, design work-
hardening/work-conditioning programmes and support evidence-based return-to-work decision making.
References
Willard & Spackman's Occupational Therapy.
Creek, J. Occupational Therapy and Mental Health.
Trombly, C. A. Occupational Therapy for Physical Dysfunction.
Turner, A., Foster, M., & Johnson, S. E. Occupational Therapy and Physical Dysfunction: Principles, Skills and Practice.
Pedretti, L. W. Occupational Therapy: Practice Skills for Physical Dysfunction.
Uploaded course material: Vocational Rehabilitation (VR Process); Industrial Rehabilitation Services (FCE, Work
Hardening, Work Conditioning, Ergonomics Consultation).