Access Control: A variety of techniques used for enforcing access permissions to the system

resources.
Data Integrity: A variety of mechanisms used to assure the integrity of a data unit or stream
of data units.
Authentication Exchange: A mechanism intended to ensure the identity of an entity by
means of information exchange.
Traffic Padding: The insertion of bits into gaps in a data stream to frustrate traffic analysis
attempts.
Routing Control: Enables selection of particular physically secure routes for certain data
and allows routing changes once a breach of security is suspected.
Notarization: The use of a trusted third party to assure cert in properties of a data exchange
Pervasive Security Mechanisms
These are not specific to any particular OSI security service or protocol layer.
Trusted Functionality: That which is perceived to b correct with respect to some criteria
Security Level: The marking bound to a resource (which may be a data unit) that names or
designates the security attributes of that resource.
Event Detection: It is the process of detecting all the events related to network security.
Security Audit Trail: Data collected and potentially used to facilitate a security audit, which
is an independent review and examination of system records and activities. Security
Recovery: It deals with requests from mechanisms, such as event handling and management
functions, and takes recovery actions.

9
Model For Network Security

Data is transmitted over network between two communicating parties, who must
cooperate for the exchange to take place. A logical information channel is established by
defining a route through the internet from source to destination by use of communication
protocols by the two parties. Whenever an opponent presents a threat to confidentiality,
authenticity of information, security aspects come into play. Two components are present in
almost all the security providing techniques.
A security-related transformation on the information to be sent making it unreadable

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by the opponent, and the addition of a code based on the contents of the message, used to
verify the identity of sender.
Some secret information shared by the two principals and, it is hoped, unknown to the
opponent. An example is an encryption key used in conjunction with the transformation to
scramble the message before transmission and unscramble it on reception
A trusted third party may be needed to achieve secure transmission. It is responsible
for distributing the secret information to the two parties, while keeping it away from any
opponent. It also may be needed to settle disputes between the two parties regarding
authenticity of a message transmission. The general model shows that there are four basic
tasks in designing a particular security service:
1. Design an algorithm for performing the security-related transformation. Thealgorithm
should be such that an opponent cannot defeat its purpose
2. Generate the secret information to be used with the algorithm
3. Develop methods for the distribution and sharing of the secret information
4. Specify a protocol to be used by the two principals that makes use of the security
algorithm and the secret information to achieve a particular security service various other
threats to information system like unwanted access still exist.
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Information accessn threats intercept or modify data on behalf of users who should not have
access to that data Service threats exploit service flaws in computers to inhibit use by
legitimate users Viruses and worms are two examples of software attacks inserted into the
system by means of a disk or also across the network. The security mechanisms needed to
cope with unwanted access fall into two broad categories.
Some basic terminologies used
1. CIPHER TEXT - the coded message
2. CIPHER - algorithm for transforming plaintext to cipher text
3. KEY - info used in cipher known only to sender/receiver
4. ENCIPHER (ENCRYPT) - converting plaintext to cipher text
5. ECIPHER (DECRYPT) - recovering cipher text from plaintext
6. CRYPTOGRAPHY - study of encryption principles/methods
7. CRYPTANALYSIS (CODEBREAKING) - the study of principles/
methodsof
deciphering cipher text without knowing key
8. CRYPTOLOGY - the field of both cryptography and cryptanalysis

Cryptography
Cryptographic systems are generally classified along 3 independent dimensions:
Type of operations used for transforming plain text to cipher text:
All the encryption algorithms are a based on two general principles: substitution, in
which each element in the plaintext is mapped into another element, and transposition, in
which elements in the plaintext are rearranged.

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The number of keys used:

If the sender and receiver uses same key then it is s to be symmetric key (or) single
key (or) conventional encryption. If the sender and receiver use different keys then it is said
to be public key encryption.
The way in which the plain text is processed:
A block cipher processes the input and block of elements at a time, producing output
block for each input block. A Stream cipher processes the input elements continuously,
producing output element one at a time, as it goes along.

Cryptanalysis
The process of attempting to discover X or K or both is known as cryptanalysis. The
strategy used by the cryptanalysis depends on the nature of the encryption scheme and the
information available to the cryptanalyst. There are various types of cryptanalytic attacks
based on the amount of information known to the cryptanalyst.
Cipher text only – A copy of cipher text alone is known to the cryptanalyst.

Known plaintext – The cryptanalyst has a copy of the cipher text and the corresponding
plaintext.

Chosen plaintext – The cryptanalysts gains temporary access to the encryption machine.
They cannot open it to find the key, however; they can encrypt a large number of suitably
chosen plaintexts and try to use the resulting cipher texts to deduce the key.
Chosen cipher text – The cryptanalyst obtains temporary access to the decryption machine,
uses it to decrypt several string of symbols, and tries to use the results to deduce the key.

Classical Encryption Techniques

Substitution Techniques
In which each element in the plaintext is mapped into another element.
1. Caesar Cipher
2. Monoalphabetic cipher
3. Playfair Cipher
4. Hill Cipher
5. Polyalphabetic Cipher
6. One Time Pad

Caesar Cipher

It is a mono-alphabetic cipher wherein each letter of the plaintext is substituted by another

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