Cyber Security Notes — Modules 2
CYBER SECURITY NOTES
Study Notes — Modules 2
Beginner Phase
Module 2 — Computer & Network Fundamentals
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Cyber Security Notes — Modules 2
MODULE 2 — Computer & Network Fundamentals
Sessions 11–25 | Duration: 22.5 hours | Phase: Beginner
2.1 How Computers Work: OS, Files, Permissions
The Operating System (OS) is the software layer that manages hardware and provides services to applications.
Understanding it is the foundation for understanding how attacks and defences actually operate on a machine.
Core OS Responsibilities
• Process management — running and scheduling programs.
• Memory management — allocating RAM to running programs.
• File system management — organising data into files and folders/directories.
• Permissions & access control — deciding who/what can read, write, or execute a file.
File Permissions — Example (Linux)
Linux represents permissions as a 10-character string, e.g.:
-rwxr-xr-- 1 user group 4096 Jul 23 10:00 [Link]
• Position 1: file type ( - = file, d = directory)
• Positions 2–4: Owner permissions (r = read, w = write, x = execute)
• Positions 5–7: Group permissions
• Positions 8–10: 'Others' (everyone else) permissions
Changing permissions:
chmod 750 [Link] # owner: rwx, group: r-x, others: ---
chmod u+x [Link] # add execute permission for the owner only
Why this matters for security:
Misconfigured permissions (e.g., a sensitive file that is world-writable) are one of the most common root
causes of privilege-escalation attacks.
2.2 Basics of Networking: IP Address, DNS, Routers, Wi-Fi
IP Address
An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique numerical label assigned to each device on a network, used to
identify and locate it.
Type Example Notes
IPv4 [Link] 32-bit, four decimal octets (0–255
each); ~4.3 billion addresses
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Type Example Notes
IPv6 2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334 128-bit, hexadecimal; created
because IPv4 addresses ran out
Private IP [Link]/8, [Link]/12, [Link]/16 Used inside local/home networks,
not routable on the public internet
Public IP Assigned by your ISP Identifies your network on the
internet
DNS (Domain Name System)
DNS translates human-friendly domain names (e.g., [Link]) into machine-friendly IP addresses — it
functions like the internet's phonebook.
User types: [Link]
DNS resolves to: [Link]
Browser then connects directly to that IP address
Routers & Wi-Fi
• A router directs data packets between your local network (home/school) and the internet.
• Wi-Fi is a wireless technology that lets devices connect to the router/network without cables, using radio
signals (typically the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands).
• Modern Wi-Fi security relies on WPA3 (or WPA2 as the older but still common standard) for encrypting
wireless traffic.
2.3 The OSI Model (7 Layers)
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework that standardises how data moves
through a network, split into 7 layers. Understanding it helps pinpoint exactly where a network problem or an
attack occurs.
Layer Name Function Example / Protocol
7 Application Interface for end-user software HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, DNS
6 Presentation Data formatting, encryption, compression SSL/TLS, JPEG, ASCII
5 Session Establishes/manages/ends communication NetBIOS, RPC
sessions
4 Transport Reliable end-to-end delivery, error TCP, UDP
checking
3 Network Logical addressing and routing between IP, ICMP, routers
networks
2 Data Link Physical addressing (MAC), frames within Ethernet, Wi-Fi (802.11),
one network switches
1 Physical Raw bit transmission over physical medium Cables, radio signals, hubs
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Cyber Security Notes — Modules 2
Memory aid (bottom-to-top): 'Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away' — Physical, Data Link, Network,
Transport, Session, Presentation, Application.
Layers 1–4 (Session 13):
Handle how data physically travels and reaches the right device/program (cabling, MAC addressing, IP
routing, TCP/UDP delivery).
Layers 5–7 (Session 14):
Handle how applications establish sessions, format/encrypt data, and present it to the end user.
2.4 How the Internet Works: The Client-Server Model
Most internet interactions follow a client-server model: a client (e.g., your browser) requests a resource, and a
server (a remote computer) responds with that resource.
6. You type a URL into your browser (the client).
7. The client sends a DNS query to resolve the domain name to an IP address.
8. The client opens a connection to the server at that IP (typically via TCP).
9. The client sends an HTTP/HTTPS request for the specific page/resource.
10. The server processes the request and sends back a response (HTML, images, data).
11. The browser renders the response for the user.
2.5 HTTP / HTTPS Explained
Aspect HTTP HTTPS
Meaning HyperText Transfer Protocol HTTP Secure (HTTP + TLS/SSL encryption)
Default Port 80 443
Encryption None — data sent in plain text Encrypted using TLS; data unreadable if
intercepted
Browser Indicator 'Not Secure' warning Padlock icon in the address bar
Risk Vulnerable to eavesdropping, tampering, Verifies server identity and protects data
and man-in-the-middle attacks in transit
Practical rule:
Never enter passwords, card details, or personal information on a site that only uses HTTP or shows a
broken/absent padlock icon.
2.6 Introduction to the Command Line
The command line (or terminal/shell) lets you interact with the operating system by typing text commands
instead of clicking a graphical interface. It is essential for cyber security work because most diagnostic and
security tools are command-driven.
Windows Command Prompt / PowerShell — Basics
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dir :: list files and folders in the current directory
cd Documents :: change into the 'Documents' folder
cd .. :: move up one folder level
cls :: clear the terminal screen
mkdir NewFolder :: create a new folder
del [Link] :: delete a file
whoami :: show the currently logged-in user
Linux / macOS Terminal — Basics
ls -la # list all files (including hidden) with details
cd Documents # change into the 'Documents' folder
cd .. # move up one folder level
clear # clear the terminal screen
mkdir new_folder # create a new folder
rm [Link] # delete a file
pwd # print current working directory
whoami # show the currently logged-in user
man ls # show the manual/help page for a command
2.7 Essential Networking Commands (Lab Reference)
ping — Testing Connectivity
ping sends small ICMP 'echo request' packets to a target and measures whether/how quickly it replies. It is the
first tool used to check if a host is reachable.
ping [Link] # Windows & Linux/macOS
ping -c 4 [Link] # Linux/macOS: send exactly 4 packets then stop
ping -n 4 [Link] # Windows: send exactly 4 packets then stop
Sample output (trimmed):
Pinging [Link] [[Link]] with 32 bytes of data:
Reply from [Link]: bytes=32 time=14ms TTL=115
Reply from [Link]: bytes=32 time=13ms TTL=115
Ping statistics: Packets: Sent = 4, Received = 4, Lost = 0 (0% loss)
• time = round-trip latency in milliseconds — lower is better.
• TTL (Time To Live) = number of hops remaining before the packet would be discarded; helps estimate
distance/OS.
• Packet loss indicates network congestion, a firewall block, or an unreachable host.
tracert / traceroute — Tracing a Network Path
This command reveals every router ('hop') a packet passes through on its way to the destination — useful for
locating where a connection slows down or fails.
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tracert [Link] :: Windows
traceroute [Link] # Linux/macOS
Sample output (trimmed):
1 1 ms <1 ms <1 ms [Link] (home router)
2 9 ms 8 ms 9 ms [Link] (ISP gateway)
3 14 ms 13 ms 14 ms [Link]
4 15 ms 14 ms 14 ms [Link] ([Link])
• Each numbered line is one 'hop' (router) along the path.
• A hop showing '* * *' (request timed out) may indicate a firewall silently dropping the probe, not
necessarily a broken path.
ipconfig / ifconfig / ip a — Viewing Network Configuration
ipconfig /all :: Windows — full network adapter configuration
ifconfig # Linux/macOS (legacy)
ip a # Linux (modern replacement for ifconfig)
Sample output (trimmed, Linux 'ip a'):
2: eth0: <BROADCAST,MULTICAST,UP,LOWER_UP> mtu 1500
inet [Link]/24 brd [Link] scope global eth0
ether 3c:97:0e:6a:11:9d
• inet = the device's current IPv4 address and subnet mask.
• ether = the device's MAC (hardware) address.
nslookup — Manual DNS Lookup (supporting command)
nslookup [Link]
Returns the IP address that a domain name currently resolves to — useful for verifying DNS behaviour discussed
in Section 2.2.
2.8 Hands-On Labs & Activities — Module 2
🧪 Hands-On Lab Activities
• Use ping to test connectivity to several websites and interpret latency/packet-loss results.
• Use tracert/traceroute to trace the path a packet takes to reach a chosen destination and identify the
number of hops.
• Use ipconfig/ifconfig to record your own device's IP address, subnet mask, and MAC address.
• Safely explore a home router's admin/settings panel (read-only exploration — no configuration
changes) to identify connected devices and Wi-Fi security settings.
• Practise command-line file navigation: create folders, move between directories, and list contents using
only the terminal.
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Cyber Security Notes — Modules 2
• Map your own home/school network topology on paper, showing the router, connected devices, and
internet connection.
Module 2 — Key Takeaways
• The OS enforces permissions that decide who can read, write, or execute files — misconfigured
permissions are a major attack surface.
• DNS translates domain names to IP addresses; routers and Wi-Fi connect local devices to the wider
internet.
• The OSI model's 7 layers describe exactly where in the communication stack a fault or attack occurs.
• HTTPS encrypts data in transit; HTTP does not — always check for the padlock before entering sensitive
data.
• ping, tracert/traceroute, and ipconfig/ifconfig are the three foundational diagnostic commands every
security practitioner uses daily.
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