Republic of the Philippines

UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

LAOANG CAMPUS
Laoang, Northern Samar

ALLAN J. VALILA
MODULE 2 2
OVERVIEW:

This module aims to introduce you to a mathematical way of thinking MATHEMATICAL

that can serve you in a wide variety of sutuations. Often when you start
work on a mathematical problem, you may have only a vague sense of LANGUAGE AND
how to proceed. You may begin by looking at the examples, drawing
pictures, playing around with notation, rereading the problem to focus SYMBOLS
on more of its details, and so forth. The closer you get to a solution,
however, the more your thinking has to crystallize. And the more you need to understand, the more you
need to language that expresses mathematical ideas clearly, precisely, and unambiguously.

Hence, this module will introduce you to some of the special language that is a foundation for much
mathematical thought, the language of variables, sets, relations and functions. Further, think of this
module like the exercises you would do before an important sporting event. Its goal is to warm up your
mental muscles so that you can do your best.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

1. Discuss the language, symbols, and conventions of mathematics.

2. Explain the nature of mathematics as a language.

3. Perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly.

4. Acknowlwdge that mathematics is a useful language.

SECTION 2.1 The Language of Mathematics

Imagine the following scenario: you’re in a math class, and the instructor passes a piece of paper to
each student. It is announced that the paper contains Study Strategies for Students of Mathematics,
you are to read it and make comments. Upon reading the content of the paper you observe that it is
written in a foreign language that you do not understand!

Is the instructor being fair? Of course not. Indeed, the instructor is probably trying to make a point.
Although the ideas in the paragraph may be simple, there is no access to the ideas without
knowledge of the language in which the ideas are expressed. This situation has a strong analogy in
mathematics. People frequently have trouble understanding mathematical ideas: not necessarily
because the ideas are difficult, but because they are presented in a foreign language – the
language of mathematics.
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 CHARACTERISTICS OF MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE

The language of mathematics makes it easy to Precise

express the kinds of thoughts that mathematicians Concise
like to express. It is: Powerful

 Precise (able to make very fine distinctions)

 Concise (able to say things briefly)
 Powerful (able to ecpress complex thoughts
with relative ease)

The language of mathematics can be learned, but

requires the efforts needed to learn any foreign
language. Hence, you will get extensive practice with
mathematical language ideas that will enhance your
ability to correctly read, write, speak, and understand mathematics.

EXPRESSIONS VERSUS SENTENCES

The mathematical analogue of a ‘noun’ will be called an expression. Thus, an expression is a

name given to a mathematical object of interest. Whereas in English we need to talk about people,
places, and things, we’ll see that mathematics has much different ‘objects of interest’.

The mathematical analogue of a ‘sentence’ will also be called a sentence. A mathematical

sentence, just as an English sentence, must state a complete thought. The table below summarizes
the analogy. (Don’t worry for the moment about the truth of sentences; this will be addressed later.)

ENGLISH MATHEMATICS

name given to an object of NOUN (person,place, thing) EXPRESSION

interest Examples: Allan. Laoang, pen 1
Example: 5, 2 + 3, 2

A complete thought SENTENCE SENTENCE

Examples: Examples:
The capital of Philippines is Manila. 3+5=8
I am a future teacher. 3+5=0
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Since people frequently need to work with numbers, these are the most common type of
mathematical expression. And, numbers have lots of different names and representations. For
example, the expressions below all look different, but are all just different names for the same
number.
(𝟔 − 𝟐) + 𝟏

𝟐+𝟑 𝟓 𝟏𝟎 ÷ 𝟐

𝟏+𝟏+𝟏+𝟏+𝟏
This simple idea – that numbers have lots of different names – is extremely important in
mathematics! English has the same concept: synonyms are words that have the same (or
nearly the same) meaning. However, this “same object, different name’ idea plays a much
more fundamental role in mathematics than in English, as you will observe in every math
book.

Exercise Set 2.1.a

1. Give several synonyms for the English word ‘similarity’. (A Roget’s Thesaurus may be helpful.)

2. The number ‘three’ has lots of different names. Give names satisfying the following properties.
There may be more than one correct answer.

a. the ‘standard’ name.

b. a name using a plus sign, +

c. a name using a minus sign, -

d. a name using a division sign, ÷

Languages have conventions. In English, for example, it is conventional to capitalize proper names (like
Carol and Idaho). This coventions make it easy for a reader to distinguish between a common noun
(like carol, a Christmas song) and a proper noun (like Carol). Mathematics also has its conventions,
which help readers distinguish between different types of mathematical expressions.

Here are some examples, to help explore the difference betweem sentences and expressions, in each
sentence (English or mathematical) the verb is highlighted. The following examples are classified as

 an English noun or a mathematical expression

 an English sentence or a mathematical sentence.
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 HOW TO READ SOLUTION
1) cat English noun
2) x ‘ex’ Mathematical expression. The
letter x (‘ex’) is commonly used
in mathematics to represent a
number.
3) The word ‘cat’ begins English sentence.
with the letter ‘k’.

4) 1 ∙ 𝑥 = 𝑥 ‘one times ex equals ex, or Mathematical sentence. The

‘one times ex is equal to ex’ centered dot ‘∙’ denotes
multiplication. You may be used
to using the symbol × for
multiplication; however, in
algebra, the × can get confused
with the letter 𝑥. (Doesn’t
1× 𝑥 look confusing?)
Therefore, do NOT use the
symbol × for multiplication
when there are variables.
5) Hat sat bat. This is not an expression, and
not a sentence. Although it has
some of the syntax of an
English sentence (capital letter
at beginning, period at end, a
verb), the words have not been
used in a proper context to
express any meaning. It is
nonsensical. It is common for
beginning students of
mathematics to write
‘nonsesical’ things analogous to
this.
Note that sentences state a complete thought, but nouns and expressions do not. For example, read
aloud: ‘2’. What about 2? Now read aloud: ‘5 – 3 = 2’. This states a complete thought about the number
‘2’.

Consider the table below, let’s explore the truth of sentences. Which are True? False? Are there
possibilities other than true and false?

1. The word ‘cat’ begins with the letter ‘k’. FALSE

2. 1 + 2 = 4 FALSE
3. 5 − 3 = 2 TRUE
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 4. The cat is black. The truth of the sentence cannot be determined
out of context. If the cat being referred to is indeed
black, then the sentence is true. Otherwise, it is
false.
5. 𝑥 = 1 The letter 𝑥 represents a number. The trust of this
sentence depends upon the number that is
chosen for 𝑥 . If 𝑥 is replaced by ‘1’, then the
sentence becomes the true sentence ‘1 = 1′. If x
is replaced by ‘2’, then the sentence becomes the
false sentence ′2 = 1′. Thus the sentence ′ 𝑥 = 1′
is SOMETIMES TRUE/SOMETIMES FALSE,
depending upon the number that is chosen for 𝑥.
In sentences such as these, people are often
interested in finding the choice(s) that make the
sentence true.

Exercise Set 2.1.b

I. Classify the entries in the list below as:

 an English noun, or a mathematical expression
 an English sentence, or a mathematical sentence
In each sentence (English or mathematical), circle the verb.
II. Given the same entries below, classify these sentences as:
 always true
 always false
 sometimes true/sometimes false
1. 𝑥 − 1 = 0
2. 𝑡 + 3 = 3 + 𝑡
3. This sentence is false.
4. 𝑥 + 0 = 𝑥
5. 5 − 3

With several examples behind us, it is now time to make things more precise. In order to communicate
effectively, people must agree on the meanings of certain words and phrases. When there is ambiguity,
confusion can result. Consider the following conversation in a car at a noisy intersection:

Angel: “Turn Left1”

Bob: “ I didn’t hear you. Left?”
Angel: “Right!”

Question: Which way will Bob turn? It depends on how Bob interprets the word ‘right’. If he interprets
‘right’ as the opposite of ‘left’, then he will turn right. If he interprets ‘right’ as ‘correct’, then he will turn
left.

Although there are certainly instances in mathematics where context is used to determine the correct
meaning, there is much less ambiguity allowed in mathematics than in English. The primary way that
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ambiguity is avoided is bu the use of definitions. By defining words and phrases, it is assured that
everyone agrees on their meaning.

Expression
An expression is the mathematical analogue of an English noun; it is a correct
arrangement of mathematical symbols used to represent a mathematical object of interest. An
expression does NOT state a complete thought; in particular, it does not make sense to ask if an
expression is true or false.

CAUTION!
In most mathematics books, the word ‘expression’ is never defined, but is used as a
convention catch-all to talk about anything (including sentences) to which the other author wants
to draw attention. In this subject, however, expressions and sentences are totally different
entities. They don’t overlap. If something is an expression, then it’s not a sentence. If something
is a sentence, then it’s not an expression. Be careful about this.

There are many types of expressions in mathematics, because there are many types of mathematical
objects to be discussed. Some of the objects are listed below. Don’t worry about the words you don’t
recognize. Our primary concern is to show the expressions used in mathematics.

𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒔

𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒂𝒊𝒓𝒔 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒔

Three of the most common types of expressions listed above are numbers, sets,and functions. (These
are like the people, places and things in English). As mentioned earlier, a key idea in mathematics is
that expressions have lots of different names. Even more importantly, the name we use depend in what
we are doing with the expression. For example, the number 1 goes by all the following names:

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟓 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ 𝟐−𝟏 + + + + 𝟏 •𝟏 𝒙𝟎
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟒 𝟒 𝟓 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
The name 𝟐 + 𝟐 is appropriate, for example, if we have to divide a candy bar evenly between two
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
people. The name + + is appropriate if we need to measure one cup of flour, but only have a
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
one-third cup measure.

NOTE!
To simplify an expression means to get a different name for the expression, that is some
way is simpler. It is actually the most common type of problem involving expression.
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The notion of ‘simpler’, however, can have different meanings:

 FEWER SYMBOLS. Often, ‘simpler’ means using fewer symbols. For example, ′3 + 1 + 5′ and
‘9’ are both names for the same number, but ‘9’ uses fewer symbols.
 FEWER OPERATIONS. Sometimes, ‘simpler’ means using fewer operations (an ‘operation’ is
something like addition or multiplication). For example, ′3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3′ and ′5 • 3′ are both
names for the same number, but the latter uses fewer operations. (Recall that centered dot
denotes multiplication.)
 BETTER SUITED FOR CURRENT USE. In some cases, ‘simpler’ means better suited for the
1 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡
current use. For example, is a great name for the number ‘1’ if we need to covert units
12 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
of inches to units of feet. This is applicable in coversion.
 PREFERRED STYLE/FORMAT. Finally, ‘simpler’ means in a preferred style or format. For
2 1
example, 4 (two-fourths) and 2 (one-half) are both names for the same number, but people
1
usually prefer the number 2; it is said to be in ‘reduced form’ or ‘simplest form’.

MATHEMATICAL SENTENCE
A mathematical sentence is the analogue of an English sentence; it is a correct
arrangement of mathematical symbols that states a complete thought. It makes sense to ask
about the TRUTH of the sentence: Is it true? Is it false? Is it sometimes true/ sometimes false?

The sentence ′1 + 2 = 3′ is read as ‘one plus two equals three’ or ‘one plus two is equal to three’. A
complete thought is being stated, which in this case is true. The sentence is diagrammed below:
𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
⏟1⏞+ 2 =
⏞ ⏞
3
𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
There are two primary ways to decide whether something is a sentence or not:
 Read it aloud, and ask yourself a question: does it state a complete thought? If the answer is
‘yes’, then it’s a sentence.
Notice that expressions do not state a complete thought. Consider for example, the number
‘1 + 2 ′. Say it aloud ‘one plus two’. Have you stated a complete thought? NO! But, if you say
′1 + 2 = 4′, then you have stated a complete (false) thought.
 Alternately, you can ask yourself the question: Does it make sense to ask about the TRUTH of
the object? Consider again the number ‘1 + 2 ′. Is ‘1 + 2 ′ true? Is ‘1 + 2 ′ false? These
questions don’t make sense, because it doesn’t make sense to ask about the truth of an
expression!

Exercise Set 2.1.c

1. Use the English noun ‘Julia’ in three sentences: one that is true, one that is false, and one
whose truth cannot be determined without additional information.

2. Use the mathematical expression ′𝑥′ in three sentences: : one that is true, one that is false, and
one whose truth cannot be determined without additional information.

3. Given this mathematical sentence ′1 + 2 = 3′, if ′ = ′ is verb, then what is the ′ + ′? Explain
comprehensively.
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SECTION 2.2 The Language of Sets
Use of the word set as a formal mathematical term was introduced in 1879 by Georg Cantor (1845-1918).
For most mathematical purposes we can think of a set intuitively, as Cantor did, simply as a collection of
elements. For instance, if 𝐶 is the set of all countries that are currently in the United Nations, then the
Philippines is an element of 𝐶, and if 𝐼 is the set of all integers from 1 to 100, then the number 57 is an
element of 𝐼.
NOTATION
If S is a set, the notation 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆 means that 𝑥 is an element of S. The notation 𝑥 ∉ 𝑆
means that 𝑥 is not an element of S. A set may be specified using the set-roster notation by
writing all of its elements between braces. For example, {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑} denotes the sets whose
elements are 1, 2, and 3. A variation of the notation is sometimes used to describe a very large
set, as when we write {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, … , 𝟏𝟎𝟎} to refer to the set of all integers from 1 to 100. A similar
notation can also describe an infinite set, as when we write {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, … } to refer to the set of all
positive integers. (the symbol ′ …’ is called an ellipses and is read “and so forth”)

The axiom of extension says that a set is completely determined by what its elements are – not the
order in which they might be listed or the fact that some elements might be listed more than once.

Certain sets of numbers are so frequently referred to that they are given special symbolic names.
These are summarized in the table below.
TAKE NOTE
Symbol Set The 𝒛 is the first letter of the
ℝ set of all real numbers German word for the integers,
Zahlen. It stands for the set of all
𝑧 set of all integers
integers and should not be used as
ℚ set of all rational numbers, or quotient of integers a shorthand for the word integer.

Addition of a superscript + or – or the letters 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑔 indicates that only the positive or the negatice or
nonnegative elements of the set, respectively, are to be included. Thus ℝ+ denotes the set of positive
real numbers, and 𝑧 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑔 refers to the set of nonnegative integers: 0,1,2,3,4,… Some authors refer to
the set of nonnegative integers as the set of natural numbers and denote it as ℕ. Other authors call
only the positive integers natural numbers.

Another way to specify a set uses what is called the set-builder notation.

SET-BUILDER NOTATION
Let S is a set and let 𝑃(𝑥) be a property that elements of S may or may not satisfy. We
may define a new set to be the set of all elements 𝒙 in S such that 𝑷(𝒙) is true. We denote
this as follows:
{𝑥 𝜖 𝑆| 𝑃(𝑥)}

Occasionally, we will write {𝑥 | 𝑃(𝑥)}without being specific about where the element 𝑥 comes from. It
turns out that unrestricted use of this notation can lead to genuine contradictions in set theory.
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Subsets

A basic relation between sets is that of subset. To define,

SUBSET
If A and B are sets, then A is called a subset of B, written 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵, if, and only if, every
element of A is also an element of B.
Symbolically,
𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 means that For all elements 𝑥, if 𝑥 𝜖 𝐴 then 𝑥 𝜖 𝐵.
The phrases A is contained in B and B contains A are alternative ways of saying that A is
a subset of B

It follows from the definition of subset that for a set A not to be a subset of a set B means that there is
at least one element of A that is not an element of B. Symbolically:

𝐴 ⊈ 𝐵 means that there is at least one element 𝑥 such that 𝑥 𝜖 𝐴 then 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵

PROPER SUBSET
Let A and B be sets. A is a proper subset of B if, and only if, every element of B is in B
but there is at least one element of B that is not in A.

Example:
Let 𝐴 = 𝑍 + , 𝐵 = {𝑛 𝜖 𝑍 | 0 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 100}, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = {100, 200, 300, 400,500}. Evaluate the truth and falsity of
each of the following statements.
1. C is a proper subset of A
2. 𝐶 ⊆ 𝐵

Solution:
a. True. Each element in C is a positive integer and, hence, is in A, but there are elements in A
that are not in C. For instance, 1 is in A but not in C.
b. False. For example, 200 is in C but not in B.

ORDERED PAIR
Given elements a and b, the symbol (a, b) denotes the ordered pair consisting of a and
b together with the specification that a is the first element of the pair and b is the second
element. Two ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d) are equal, if, and only if, 𝑎 = 𝑐 and 𝑏 = 𝑑.
Symbolically,
(𝑎, 𝑏) = (𝑐, 𝑑) means that 𝑎 = 𝑐 and 𝑏 = 𝑑.
Example:
a. Is (1, 2) = (2, 1)?
5 1
b. Is(3, ) = (√9, 2)?
10
c. What is the first element of (1, 1)?

Solution:
a. No. By definition of equality of ordered pairs, (1, 2) = (2, 1) if, and only if, 1=2 and 2=1.
But 1 ≠ 2, and so the ordered pairs are not equal.
5 1 5 1
b. Yes. By definition of equality of ordered pairs, (3, ) = (√9, 2) if, and only if, 3 = √9 and 10 = 2
10
Because these equations are both true, the ordered pairs are equal.
c. In the ordered pair (1, 1), the first and the second elements are both 1.
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 CARTESIAN PRODUCT
Given sets A and B, the Cartesian product of A and B, denoted 𝐴 × 𝐵 and read “A
cross B”, is the set of all ordered pairs (𝑎, 𝑏), where 𝑎 is in A and 𝑏 is in B.
Symbolically:
𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏) | 𝑎 𝜖 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝜖 𝐵

Example:

Let 𝐴 = { 1, 2, 3}𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = {𝑢, 𝑣}.

a. Find 𝐴 × 𝐵
b. Find 𝐵 × 𝐴
c. Find 𝐵 × 𝐵
Solution:

a. 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(1, 𝑢), (2, 𝑢), (3, 𝑢), (1, 𝑣), (2, 𝑣), (3, 𝑣)}
b. B × 𝐴 = {(𝑢, 1), (𝑢, 2), ( 𝑢, 3), ( 𝑣, 1), (𝑣, 2), ( 𝑣, 3)}
c. B × 𝐵 = {(𝑢, 𝑢), (𝑢, 𝑣), ( 𝑣, 𝑢), (𝑣, 𝑣)}

Exercise Set 2.2

1. Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3}, 𝐵 = {3, 1, 2}, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = {1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3}. What are the elements of 𝐴, 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶? How are
𝐴, 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 related?

2. Is {0} = 0? Explain comprehensively (in a maximum of three sentences).

3. How many elements are in the set {1, {1}}?

4. For each nonnegative integer 𝑛, let 𝑈𝑛 = {𝑛, −𝑛}. Find 𝑈1 , 𝑈2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑈0 .

5. Let 𝐴 = 𝑍 + , 𝐵 = {𝑛 𝜖 𝑍 | 0 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 100}, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = {100, 200, 300, 400,500}. Evaluate the truth and falsity
of each of the following statements.
a. 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴
b. 𝐶 ⊆ 𝐶
3. 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 have at least one element in common.

6. Let 𝑌 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑍 = {1, 2}

a. Find 𝑌 × 𝑍.

b. Find 𝑍 × 𝑌.

c. Find 𝑌 × 𝑌

d. How many elements are in 𝑌 × 𝑍, 𝑍 × 𝑌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑌 × 𝑌?

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Mathematics in the Modern World

SECTION 2.3 The Language of Relations and Functions
In natural language relations are a kind of links existing between objects. Examples: ‘mother of’,
‘neighbor of’, ‘part of’, ‘is older than’, ‘is an ancestor of’, ‘is a subset of’, etc. These are binary relations.
Formally, we will define relation between elements of sets. As mentioned earlier, there are many kinds
of relationships in the world. For instance, we say that two people are related by blood if they share a
common ancestor and that they are related by marriage if one shares a common ancestor with the spouse
of the other. We also speak of the relationship between student and teacher, between people who work
for the same employer, and between people who share a mutual feeling.

Similarly, the objects of mathematics may be related in various ways. A set A may be said to be related
to a set B if A is a subset of B, or if A is not a subset of B, or if A and B have at least one element in
common. A number 𝑥 may b said to be related to a number 𝑦 if 𝑥 < 𝑦, or if 𝑥 is a factor of 𝑦, or if
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 1 .
RELATION
Let A and B be sets. A relation R from A to B is a subset of 𝐴 × 𝐵. Given an ordered
pair (𝑥, 𝑦) in 𝐴 × 𝐵, x is related to y by R, written 𝑥 𝑅 𝑦, if and only if, (𝑥, 𝑦) is in R. The set A is
called the domain of R and the set B is called its co-domain.
The notation for a relation R may be written symbolically as follows:
𝑥 𝑅 𝑦 means that (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜖 𝑅

In Section 2.2 we showed that ordered pairs can be defined in terms of sets and we define Cartesian
products in terms of ordered pairs. In this section we introduced relations as subsets of Cartesian
products. Thus we can now define functions in a way that depends only on the concept of set. Although
this definition is not obviously related to the way we usually work with functions in mathematics, it is
satisfying from a theoretical point of view and computer scientists like it because it is particularly well
suited for operating with functions on a computer.
FUNCTION
A function F from a set A to a set B is a relation with domain A and co-domain B that
satisfies the following two properties:
1. For every element 𝑥 in A, there is an element 𝑦 in B such that (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜖 𝐹.
2. For all elements 𝑥 in A and 𝑦 and 𝑧 in B,
if (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜖 𝐹 and (𝑥, 𝑧) 𝜖 𝐹, then 𝑦 = 𝑧.

Properties (1) and (2) can be stated less formally as follows: A relation F from A to B is a function if,
and only if:
1. Every element of A is the first element of an ordered pair of F.
2. No two distinct ordered pairs in F have the same first element.

Exercise Set 2.3

1. Let 𝐴 = {2, 4, 6}𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = {1, 3, 5}. Which of the relation 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆 defined below are functions from
𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐵?
a. 𝑅 = {(2,5), (4, 1), (4,3), (6,5)}
b. For all (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜖 𝐴 × 𝐵, (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜖 𝑆 means that 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1.
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SECTION 2.4 Elementary Logic_________________

Logical Connective

In logic, a logical connective (also called a logical operator) is a symbol or word used to connect
two or more sentences (of either a formal or a natural language) in a grammatically valid way, such that
the sense of the compound sentence produced depends only on the original sentences. The most
common logical connectives are binary connectives (also called dyadic connectives) which join two
sentences ehich can be thought of as the function’s operands. Also commonly, negation is considered
to be a unary connective.

In the grammar of natural languages two sentences may be joined by a grammatical conjuction to form
a grammatically compound sentence. Some but not all such grammatical conjunctions are truth
functions. For example, consider the following sentences:

1. Jack went up the hill.

2. Jill went up the hill.
3. Jack went up the hill and Jill went up the hill.
4. Jack went up the hill so Jill went up the hill.

The words and and so are grammatical conjunctions joining the sentences (1) and (2) to form the
compound sentences (3) and (4). The and in (3) is a logical connective, since the truth of (3) is
completely determined by (1) and (2): it would make no sense to affirm (1) and (2) but deny (3).
However so in (4) is NOT a logical connective, since it would be quite reasonable to affirm (1) and (2)
but deny (4): perhaps, after all, Jill went up the hill to fetch a pail of water, not because Jack had gone
up the hill at all.

The table below shows the logical connectives and the English language counterparts.

Logic Math English

Conjuction ∧ and
Disjunction ˅ or (inclusive)
Negation ~ not
Conditional → If... then..
Biconditional ↔ If and only if

Quantifiers

Quantifier expressions are marks of generality. They come in a variety of syntactic

categories in english, but determiners like “all”, “each “, “some “, “many”, “most”, “few” provide
some of the most common examples of quantification. In English, they combine with singular or
plural nouns, sometimes qualified by adjectives or relative clauses, to form explicity restricted
quantifier phrases such as “some apples” “every material object”, or “most planets”.

The phrase "𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑥" (sometimes "𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥" is called a universal quantifier and is denoted by ∀𝑥.
The phrase "𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡" is called an existential quantifier and is denoted by ∃𝑥.
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Variables

In algebra, a variable is a symbol (usually a letter) standing in for an unknown numerical value in an
equation. ([Link])

A variable is sometimes thought of as a mathematical “John Doe” because you can use it as a
placeholder when you want to talk about something but either (1) you imagine that it has one or more
values but you don’t know what they are, or (2) you want whatever you say about it to be equally true
for all elements in a given set, and so you don’t want to be restricted to considering only a particular,
concrete value for it. The advantage of using a variable is that it allows you to give a temporary name to
name whatever you are seeking so that you can perform concrete computations with help to discover
its possible values.

Exercise Set 2.4

Use variables to rewrite the following sentences more formally.

1. Are there numbers with the property that the sum of their squares equals the square of their sum?

2. Given any real number, its square is nonnegative.

Feedback

How did you go on so far with this module? Is mathematics easy or difficult? How did you start working
on each question written in this module? Well my dear students, always remember that Mathematics is
a language in itself. Hence, it is useful in communicating important ideas. Also, Mathematics as a
language is clear and objective, and language conventions are necessary in mathematics for it to be
understood by all. Further, here are some ideas to debunk (1) Mathematics is not a language but a
useless set of formal rules and alien symbols, (2) Mathematics confuses the communication of
concepts and ideas, (3) Mathematics is full of unnecessary symbols, rules, and conventions. I hope that
eagerness to learn will manefest in you as we proceed to our next lessons.
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Summary

The following table summarizes essential concepts in this module. The references given in the right hand
column list Examples and Exercises that can be used to test your understanding of a concept.

2.1 The Language of Mathematics

Expression. An expression is the See Examples on pages 3, 6 – 7 and then try
mathematical analogue of an English noun; it is Exercise Set 2.1.a on page 3, Exercise Set 2.1.b
a correct arrangement of mathematical symbols on page 5 and Exercise Set 2.1.c on page 7
used to represent a mathematical object of
interest. An expression does NOT state a
complete thought; in particular, it does not
make sense to ask if an expression is true or
false.
MATHEMATICAL SENTENCE. A
mathematical sentence is the analogue of an
English sentence; it is a correct arrangement of
mathematical symbols that states a complete
thought. It makes sense to ask about the
TRUTH of the sentence: Is it true? Is it false? Is
it sometimes true/ sometimes false?
2.2 The Language of Sets
SET-BUILDER NOTATION. Let S is a set and See Examples on page 9 and 10 and then try
let 𝑃(𝑥) be a property that elements of S may Exercise Set 2.2 on page 10
or may not satisfy. We may define a new set to
be the set of all elements 𝑥 in S such that 𝑃(𝑥)
is true. We denote this as follows:
{𝑥 𝜖 𝑆| 𝑃(𝑥)}
SET-ROSTER NOTATION. A set may be
specified using the set-roster notation by writing
all of its elements between braces.
SUBSET. If A and B are sets, then A is called a
subset of B, written 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵, if, and only if, every
element of A is also an element of B.
Symbolically, 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 means that For all
elements 𝑥, if 𝑥 𝜖 𝐴 then 𝑥 𝜖 𝐵.
The phrases A is contained in B and B contains
A are alternative ways of saying that A is a
subset of B
ORDERED PAIR. Given elements a and b, the
symbol (a, b) denotes the ordered pair
consisting of a and b together with the
specification that a is the first element of the
pair and b is the second element. Two ordered
pairs (a, b) and (c, d) are equal, if, and only if,
𝑎 = 𝑐 and 𝑏 = 𝑑. Symbolically,(𝑎, 𝑏) = (𝑐, 𝑑)
means that 𝑎 = 𝑐 and 𝑏 = 𝑑.
CARTESIAN PRODUCT. Given sets A and B,
the Cartesian product of A and B, denoted 𝐴 ×
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 𝐵 and read “A cross B”, is the set of all ordered
pairs (𝑎, 𝑏), where 𝑎 is in A and 𝑏 is in B.
Symbolically:
𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏) | 𝑎 𝜖 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝜖 𝐵
2.3 The Language of Relations and Functions
RELATION. Let A and B be sets. A relation R Try Exercise Set 2.3 on page 11
from A to B is a subset of 𝐴 × 𝐵. Given an
ordered pair (𝑥, 𝑦) in 𝐴 × 𝐵, x is related to y by
R, written 𝑥 𝑅 𝑦, if and only if, (𝑥, 𝑦) is in R. The
set A is called the domain of R and the set B is
called its co-domain.
The notation for a relation R may be written
symbolically as follows:
𝑥 𝑅 𝑦 means that (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜖 𝑅
FUNCTION. A function F from a set A to a set
B is a relation with domain A and co-domain B
that satisfies the following two properties:
1. For every element 𝑥 in A, there is an element
𝑦 in B such that (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜖 𝐹.
2. For all elements 𝑥 in A and 𝑦 and 𝑧 in B,
if (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜖 𝐹 and (𝑥, 𝑧) 𝜖 𝐹, then 𝑦 = 𝑧.
2.4 Elementary Logic
Variables. In algebra, a variable is a symbol Try Exercise Set 2.4 on page 13
(usually a letter) standing in for an unknown
numerical value in an equation.
([Link])
Logical Connectives
 Conjunction
 Disjunction
 Negation
 Conditional
 Biconditional

Suggested Readings/Videos

These are some links which were not included in the main reference for the module but are good materials
to read or to watch on the internet to give you more understanding about the topics.

1. Jamison, R. E. (2000). Learning the language of mathematics. Language and Learning across the
Disciplines, 4(1), 45 - 54.
2. The Language of mathematics (from One Mathematical Cat, Please! By Carol Burns Fisher
3. The language and Grammar of Mathematuics
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