Course Name : Fundamentals of Engineering Physics

Week No. : 03 Lecture No:07

Topic Name : Electric field and Electrostatic potential

 Objectives:
 Electric charge and its types
 Electric field and Coulomb’s Law
 Electric dipole
 Electric Flux and Gauss's Theorem
 Electrostatic potential
 Equipotential surfaces and their properties.
 Applications of electrostatics in everyday technology

 Lecture Content:
This lecture will introduce students to the world of electric fields and electrostatic potentials, fundamental
concepts in the study of electromagnetism. Understanding these concepts is crucial for explaining how
charges interact and the energy associated with these interactions. We will explore the nature of electric
charges, the concept of electric fields, how to visualize electric fields using field lines, and the idea of
electrostatic potential and equipotential surfaces. Additionally, we will examine real-world applications of
these principles.

 Introduction:
The study of electric fields and electrostatic potentials is a cornerstone of electromagnetism, a
branch of physics that deals with the study of electric charges at rest and in motion. These concepts are
essential for understanding the forces and energy interactions between charged particles, which form the
basis of many natural phenomena and technological applications.

 Electric charge :

Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter that causes it to experience a force when
placed in an electromagnetic field. It is one of the basic quantities in physics, and understanding it is
essential for studying electricity and magnetism.

 Definition: Electric charge is the intrinsic property of subatomic particles that determines their
electromagnetic interactions. Charges produce electric fields and interact with other charges via these
fields.
Unit: The SI unit of electric charge is the coulomb (C). The charge of a single electron is approximately
−1.6×10−19

Properties of Electric Charge:

1. Quantization of Charge

Electric charge is quantized, meaning it exists in discrete amounts rather than a continuous
spectrum. The smallest unit of charge is the elementary charge, denoted by e, which is approximately
1.602×10−19 coulombs. Any charge present in nature is an integer multiple of this fundamental unit. This
concept can be mathematically expressed as: q =n×e

where q is the total charge, n is an integer, and e is the elementary charge.

2. Conservation of Charge

The total electric charge in an isolated system remains constant over time. This principle, known as
the conservation of charge, states that charge cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred from one
object to another. In any physical process, the net charge before and after the process remains the same.

3. Additivity of Charge

Electric charges add algebraically. If multiple charges are present in a system, the total charge is the
sum of the individual charges. This property follows simple arithmetic rules, where positive and negative
charges are combined to determine the net charge of the system.

4. Interaction of Charges

Electric charges interact with each other through electric forces. The nature of the force depends
on the type of charges involved:

 Like charges repel: Two positive charges or two negative charges repel each other.
 Opposite charges attract: A positive charge and a negative charge attract each other.

This interaction is quantitatively described by Coulomb's law, which states that the force between
two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them:

F = K q1q2/r2

where F is the force, q1and q2are the charges, r is the distance.

5. Charge Independence

The electric charge of a particle is independent of other properties such as mass or velocity. For
instance, an electron has a fixed charge of −eregardless of its speed or loca on.

6. Charge Conduction

Materials can be classified based on their ability to conduct electric charge:

 Conductors: Materials that allow electric charges to flow freely due to the presence of free
electrons. Examples include metals like copper and aluminum.
 Insulators: Materials that do not allow electric charges to move freely because their electrons are
tightly bound to atoms. Examples include rubber, glass, and plastic.
 Semiconductors: Materials that have intermediate conductive properties and can be manipulated
to conduct or insulate under certain conditions. Examples include silicon and germanium.

7. Charge Polarization

When an electric field is applied to an insulator (dielectric), the charges within the material may
shift slightly, causing one side to become slightly positive and the other slightly negative. This phenomenon
is known as polarization and results in the material having an induced dipole moment.

8. Mobility of Charge

The mobility of electric charge refers to how easily charges can move within a material. In
conductors, free electrons can move easily, resulting in high electrical conductivity. In insulators, the
mobility of charges is very low, leading to poor conductivity.

9. Electric Field Generation

An electric charge generates an electric field in the space around it. The electric field is a vector
field that represents the force per unit charge that would be exerted on a small positive test charge placed
in the field.

 Types of Electric Charge

Electric charges are classified into two types based on their interaction with other charges:
1. Positive Charge:

a) Nature: Positive charge is associated with protons. When an object has more protons than
electrons, it is positively charged.
b) Interaction: Positively charged objects repel other positively charged objects and attract negatively
charged objects.
Example: A glass rod becomes positively charged when rubbed with silk because electrons are transferred
from the glass to the silk, leaving an excess of protons.

2. Negative Charge:

a) Nature: Negative charge is associated with electrons. When an object has more electrons than
protons, it is negatively charged.
b) Interaction: Negatively charged objects repel other negatively charged objects and attract
positively charged objects.

Example: A rubber rod becomes negatively charged when rubbed

 Electric Field:

The electric field (E) is a vector field that describes the force per unit charge exerted on a test
charge at any point in space due to other electric charges. The electric field produced by a charge Q at a
point in space provides a way to visualize the influence that Q has on other charges around it.

The electric field at a point is defined as:

E=F/q

where:

 E is the electric field.

 F is the force experienced by a small test charge qqq.
 q is the test charge.

 Coulomb's Law

Coulomb's Law states that the magnitude of the electrostatic force F between two point charges is directly
proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance rrr between them. Mathematically, it is expressed as:

𝑞 𝑞
𝐹=𝑘
𝑟
where k = is constant of proportionalityɛ is permittivity of medium between the charges. If ε is

permittivity of free space and K the dielectric constant of medium, then ɛ = Kε

F=

For free space K=1, Therefore

F=

Dielectric constant K: The dielectric constant of a medium is defined as the ratio of permittivity of medium

to the permittivity of free space, i.e. K = ε/ε

Definition of coulomb: 1 coulomb charge is the charge which when placed at a distance of 1 metre from an

equal and similar charge in vacuum (or air) will repel it with a force of 9x10 9 N.

 Coulomb's Law in Vector Form

A r21 B
………
q1 r12 q2
r

Consider two like charges q1 and q2 located at points A and B in vacuum. The separation between the

charges is r. As charges are like, they repel each other. Let 𝐹⃗ 21 be the force exerted on charge q2 by charge

q1 and 𝐹⃗ 21, that exerted on charge q1 by charge q2. If 𝑟̂ 21, is the position vector of q2 relative to q1 and 𝑟̂ 21 is

unit vector along A to B. then the force 𝐹⃗ 21 is along A to B and

SO 𝐹⃗ 21 = 𝑟̂ 21 (1)

⃗ ,
But 𝑟̂ 21 =
⃗ ,
𝐹⃗ 21 = . = 𝑟⃗

Similarly if 𝑟⃗ is position vector of q1 relative to q2 is unit vector from B to A, then

𝑟⃗ = . 𝑟⃗ = 𝑟⃗ (2)

Obviously 𝑟⃗ = -𝑟⃗ , therefore equation (2) becomes:

𝑟⃗ = 𝑟⃗ (3)

Comparing (1) and (3), we get

 𝑟⃗ = -𝑟⃗ ,

The electric field strength at any point is defined as a vector quantity whose magnitude is measured
by the number of electric lines of force passing normally through per unit small area around that point and
whose direction is along the tangent on line of force drawn on that point.
Accordingly nearer the electric lines of force, stronger is the electric field,
A
and farther the electric lines of force, weaker is the electric field. In figure,
the electric field strength at A is greater than that at B.
 Properties of Electric Lines of Force
(i). The electric lines of force appear to start from positive charge and to terminate at negative charge.
(ii). The tangent drawn at any point on the line of force gives the direction of electric field strength at
that point and the direction of force acting on a positive charge at that point.
(iii). No two electric lines of force can intersect each other because if they do so, then two tangents can
be drawn at the point of intersection; which would mean two directions of electric field strength
at one point and that is impossible.
(iv). The electric lines of force have a tendency to
contract lengthwise like a stretched elastic
string and separate from each other laterally,
the reason is that opposite charges attract and (a) Uniform electric field (b) Non-uniform electric
field
similar charges repel.
(v). The electric lines of force do not form any closed loops.
(vi). The equidistant electric lines of force represent uniform electric field while electric lines of forces at
different separations represent non-uniform electric field (Figure).
 Electric Dipole
A system containing two equal and opposite charges separated by a finite distance is called an
electric dipole. Dipole moment of electric dipole
2l
having charges + q and -q at separation 2l is
-q 𝑝⃗ +q

𝑝⃗ = 𝑞. 2𝑙⃗

It is a vector quantity, directed from -q to +q.

[Remark: Net charge on an electric dipole is zero]
 P’
 Electric Field Due to a Short Dipole

(i). A point P on axis, E =

-q +q +q
(ii). At a point P on equatorial line E = r

 Electric Force and Torque on an Electric Dipole in a Uniform Electric Field

In a uniform electric field of strength E, the
+q
netelectric force is zero; but a torque equal B
F1 = qE

to pE sin 𝜃 acts on the dipole (where 𝜃 is the

2l
………………….…………2l …….……..
𝜃 …………….…
sin
angle between directions of dipole moment o
𝜃 E

p and electric field𝐸⃗ ). A

F2 = -qE ……………………….…………………
This torque tends to align the dipole -q N

along the direction of electric field. Torque

in vector form ⃗ᵼ = 𝑝⃗ × 𝐸⃗
 Electric Flux
The total number of electric lines of force diverging normally from a surface is called the electric
flux through that surface. ∆ Scosθ

Electric flux through surface element θ

E
∆S
∆𝑆⃗ is ∆ɸ = 𝐸⃗ . ∆𝑆⃗ = ∑𝑞

S.I. unit of electric flux is volt metre.

 Gauss's Theorem

It states that the net electric flux diverging normally from a closed surface is equal to times the net
.
charge enclosed by the surface i.e., ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ∆𝑆⃗ = ∑𝑞

Formulae for Electric Field Strength Calculated from Gauss's Theorem

a) Electric field due to infinitely long straight wire of charge per unit length λ at a distance r from the

wire is E=

b) Electric field strength due to an infinite plane sheet of charge per unit area σ is

E= independent of distance of point from the sheet.

c) Electric field strength due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell or conducting sphere of radius
R having total charge q, at a distance r from centre is
 (i). at external point Eext 1 = (r > R)

(ii). at surface point Es =

(iii). at internal point, Eint = 0

(d) Electric field strength due to a uniformly charged non-conducting solid sphere of radius R at a
distance r from centre

(i). at external point Eext 1 = (r > R)

(ii). at surface point Es =

(iii). at internal point, Eint = (r < R)

 Electric Potential
The electric potential is that physical quantity which determines the direction of charge flow
between two conducting bodies when brought in contact.
Definition: The electric potential at any point in an electric field is defined as the work done in bringing a
unit positive charge from infinity to that point; assuming zero potential at infinity.
If W is the work done in bringing infinitesimal positive test charge q0 from infinity to given point, then
electric potential

V=

Electric potential at any point is also defined as the negative line integral of electric field from infinity to
given point (independent of path followed).

i.e.. ɸ = - ∫ E⃗. dI⃗

The unit of electric potential is volt and its dimensional formula is [ML 2T-3A-1].

 Potential Differences
The potential difference between two points in an electric field is defined as the work done in bringing unit
positive charge from one point to another.
Formulae for Electric Potential
a) due to a point charge q at a point distant r is

V=

b) due to a short electric dipole at a distance r from its centre

(i). at its axis is

V=
(ii). at its equatorial position is zero
(iii). at a general point having polar coordinates (r, 0) with respect to centre of dipole is

V=

(c) due to a system of charges is

V = V1+V2 + ......+VN = ∑ = + + ⋯.+

EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES
Any surface which has same electrostatic potential at every point, on it is called an equipotential

surface. For a single charge q, the potential is given by V = . This indicates that V is a constant, if r is

constant. Thus, the equipotential surface for single point charge are spherical surfaces centred at the
charge. The equipotential surfaces can be drawn through any region in which there is electric field. If all
the points at same potential in the electric field are joined, then an equipotential surface is obtained.
The shape of equipotential surface due to a
(i) line charge is cylindrical (ii) point charge is spherical.
Different properties of equipotential surfaces are given as below:
(i). Equipotential surfaces do not intersect each other as it gives two directions of electric field at
intersecting point which is not possible.
(ii). Equipotential surfaces are closely spaced in the region of strong electric field and widely spaced in the
region of weak electric field.
(iii). For any charge configuration, equipotential surface through a point is normal to the electric field at
that point and directed from one equipotential surface at higher potential to the other equipotential
surface at lower potential.
(iv). No work is required to move a test charge on an equipotential surface.
(v). For a uniform electric field E, let along X-axis, the equipotential surfaces are normal to the X-axis, i.c.
planes parallel to the YZ-plane.
  Capacitance

A capacitor is a device that stores electric charge and energy in the electric field between a pair of
conductors. The capacitance C of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of the charge Q on one conductor to
the potential difference V between the conductors:

C = Q/V

 Applications of Electrostatics in Everyday Technology

Electrostatics, the study of stationary electric charges, has a wide range of applications in everyday
technology. These applications leverage the principles of electric charges, electric fields, and electric
potential to perform various functions. Here are some notable examples:

1. Photocopiers and Laser Printers

 Working Principle: Photocopiers and laser printers use the principle of electrostatics to transfer
toner (a powder) onto paper and then fuse it to create text and images.
 Photocopiers: A photocopier uses electrostatic charges to transfer toner (a powder) onto paper to
form an image. The process involves several steps:
 Charging: A photoconductive drum is uniformly charged using a corona wire.
 Exposure: The drum is exposed to an image of the document. The exposed areas lose their charge,
creating a latent image on the drum.
 Developing: Toner particles, which are negatively charged, are attracted to the positively charged
areas on the drum.
 Transfer: The toner image is transferred to a sheet of paper, which is positively charged to attract
the toner.
 Fusing: The paper passes through heated rollers, which fuse the toner to the paper, creating a
permanent image.
 Laser Printers: Laser printers operate similarly but use a laser beam to create the latent image on
the drum. The laser discharges specific areas, forming the image. Toner adheres to these areas, and
the process of transferring and fusing the toner onto paper is similar to that in photocopiers.
 Applications: Widely used in offices, schools, and homes for producing copies of documents and
high-quality printed materials.
2. Electrostatic Precipitators:
 Charging: A photoconductive drum is uniformly charged using a corona wire or a charge roller.
 Exposure: The drum is exposed to an image of the document being copied. Light from the image
discharges the drum in the exposed areas, creating a latent electrostatic image.
 Developing: Toner particles, which are oppositely charged, are attracted to the areas of the drum
that still hold a charge.
  Transfer: The toner image is transferred to a piece of paper by another corona wire that gives the
paper an opposite charge.
 Fusing: Heat and pressure are applied to the paper to fuse the toner particles, creating a
permanent image.
3. Capacitors in Electronic Circuits
 Working Principle: Capacitors store and release electrical energy in a circuit. They consist of two
conductive plates separated by an insulating material (dielectric).
 Charging: When a voltage is applied across the plates, an electric field develops, and charges
accumulate on the plates.
 Energy Storage: The energy is stored in the electric field.
 Discharging: When the capacitor is connected to a circuit, the stored energy is released.
 Applications:
 Power Supply Smoothing: Capacitors smooth out fluctuations in power supply voltages.
 Timing Circuits: Used in timing applications in various electronic devices.
 Signal Filtering: Capacitors block DC signals and allow AC signals to pass, making them essential in
filtering applications.
4. Touch Screens
 Working Principle: Capacitive touch screens use the electrostatic field created by the conductive
layer on the screen. When a finger (which is also conductive) touches the screen, it changes the
electrostatic field, which is detected and processed to determine the touch location.
 Applications:
 Smartphones and Tablets: Widely used in modern touch-sensitive devices.
 ATMs and Kiosks: Used in public terminals for interaction.
References
1. NCERT text book
2. Pradeep’s Physics Reference Book
3. Wikipedia
4. Concepts of Physics by H.C. Verma
5. Google Images
6. Physics VK Enterprises by Rahul Jain