42 Design of Structural Elements

This value of stress represents a maximum value of stress in the steel plates given by:

σsteel = n × σ = (25 × 4.74) = 118.5 N/mm2

(b) Transformed section based on steel

Equivalent width of steel to replace the timber beam = (n × 150) mm
where:
E timber 1 1× 250
n = = nB = = 10 mm
Esteel 25 25

The maximum stresses occur in the timber (or equivalent replacement steel) when
y = 150 mm, and in the steel when y = 160 mm.
10 mm

150 × 320 3 140 × 300 3 

Ixx transformed =  − 
10 mm  12 12 
300 mm

x x = 94.6 × 10 mm
6 4

Maximum bending stress in the steel is given by:

My160 70 × 10 6 × 160
σsteel =
10 mm

= = 118.4 N/mm2
I 94.6 × 10 6

150 mm

Figure 1.46

Maximum bending stress in the equivalent steel is given by:

My150 70 × 10 6 × 150
σ = = = 111 N/mm2
I 94.6 × 10 6

This value of stress represents a maximum value of stress in the timber given by:

 1 
σtimber = n × σ =  ×111 = 4.44 N/mm2
 25 

Normally when using this method in the design of ply-web beams the plywood webs are
replaced by softwood timber of equivalent thickness to give the required transformed
section; as indicated in Example 1.9, both transformed sections produce the same result.

1.11 Moment Distribution

The methods of analysis illustrated in the previous sections of this chapter are suitable for
determinate structures such as single-span beams in which the support reactions and the
member forces, e.g. shear forces and bending moments, can be evaluated using stability
considerations and the three equations of static equilibrium, i.e. ΣFy = 0, ΣFx = 0 and
ΣM = 0. In many instances multi-span beams and rigid-jointed frames are used in design,
and consequently it is necessary to consider the effects of continuity on the support
reactions and member forces. Such structures are indeterminate, i.e. there are more
 Structural Analysis Techniques 43
unknown variables than can be solved using only the three equations of equilibrium. A
few examples of such structures are shown in Figure 1.47.

20 kN 40 kN 20 kN 30 kN
10 kN
HA 450 4 Unknown reactions:
A B C 1 horizontal
3 vertical
VA VB VC

15 kN
MA 300
8 kN/m 25 kN
HA 4 Unknown reactions:
1 horizontal
A B C 2 vertical
1 moment
VA VB

12 kN 20 kN 30 kN 50 kN
MA 12 kN/m
5 Unknown reactions:
HA 600
1 horizontal
A B C 3 vertical
1 moment
VA VB VC

15 kN/m
10 kN

B C
5 Unknown reactions:
2 horizontal
HA MA 2 vertical
1 moment
A
VA
HD
D
VD

Figure 1.47

This section deals with continuous beams and propped cantilevers. An American engineer,
Professor Hardy Cross, developed a very simple, elegant and practical method of analysis
for such structures called Moment Distribution. This technique is one of developing
successive approximations and is based on several basic concepts of structural behaviour
which are illustrated in sections 1.11.1 to 1.11.10.
44 Design of Structural Elements
1.11.1 Bending (Rotational) Stiffness
A fundamental relationship which exists in the elastic behaviour of structures and
structural elements is that between an applied force system and the displacements which
are induced by that system, i.e.

Force = Stiffness × Displacement

P = kδ
where:
P is the applied force,
k is the stiffness,
δ is the displacement.

A definition of stiffness can be derived from this equation by rearranging it such that:

k = P/δ

when δ = 1.0 (i.e. unit displacement) the stiffness is: ‘the force necessary to maintain a
UNIT displacement, all other displacements being equal to zero.’

The displacement can be a shear displacement, an axial displacement, a bending

(rotational) displacement or a torsional displacement, each in turn producing the shear,
axial, bending or torsional stiffness.
When considering beam elements in continuous structures using the moment
distribution method of analysis, the bending stiffness is the principal characteristic which
influences behaviour.
Consider the beam element AB shown in Figure 1.48 which is subject to a UNIT
rotation at end A and is fixed at end B as indicated.

Unit rotation MB
A B
E, I, L
MA Fixed-End
Figure 1.48 (zero rotation)

The force (MA) necessary to maintain this displacement can be shown (e.g. using
McCaulay’s Method) to be equal to (4EI)/L. From the definition of stiffness given
previously, the bending stiffness of the beam is equal to (Force/1.0), therefore k = (4EI)/L.
This is known as the absolute bending stiffness of the element. Since most elements in
continuous structures are made from the same material, the value of Young’s Modulus (E)
is constant throughout and 4E in the stiffness term is also a constant. This constant is
normally ignored, to give k = I/L which is known as the relative bending stiffness of the
element. It is this value of stiffness which is normally used in the method of Moment
Distribution.
It is evident from Figure 1.48 that when the beam element deforms due to the applied
rotation at end A, an additional moment (MB) is also transferred by the element to the
 Structural Analysis Techniques 45
remote end if it has zero slope (i.e. is fixed) The moment MB is known as the carry-over
moment.

1.11.2 Carry-Over Moment

Using the same analysis as that to determine MA, it can be shown that MB = (2EI)/L,
i.e. (½ × MA). It can therefore be stated that ‘if a moment is applied to one end of a beam
then a moment of the same sense and equal to half of its value will be transferred to the
remote end provided that it is fixed.’
If the remote end is ‘pinned’, then the beam is less stiff and there is no carry-over
moment.

1.11.3 Pinned End

Consider the beam shown in Figure 1.49 in which a unit rotation is imposed at end A as
before but the remote end B is pinned.

Unit rotation zero

A B
E, I, L
MA Pinned End
Figure 1.49

The force (MA) necessary to maintain this displacement can be shown (e.g. using
McCaulay’s Method) to be equal to (3EI)/L, which represents the reduced absolute
stiffness of a pin-ended beam. It can therefore be stated that ‘the stiffness of a pin-ended
beam is equal to ¾ × the stiffness of a fixed-end beam.’ In addition it can be shown that
there is no carry-over moment to the remote end. These two cases are summarised in
Figure 1.50.

Remote End Fixed:

Unit rotation MB MA = 4EI/L
A B k = (I/L )
MA MB = 2EI/L

Remote End Pinned:

Unit rotation MB MA = 3EI/L
A B k = ¾ (I/L)
MA MB = zero

Figure 1.50

1.11.4 Free and Fixed Bending Moments

When a beam is free to rotate at both ends as shown in Figures 1.51(a) and (b) such that no
bending moment can develop at the supports, then the bending moment diagram resulting
from the applied loads on the beam is known as the Free Bending Moment Diagram.
46 Design of Structural Elements

P w kN/m length

Pinned Pinned Roller

Support Support Support
a b L

+ve +ve

Pab wL2
L 8
(a) (b)

Figure 1.51 – Free Bending Moment Diagrams

When a beam is fixed at the ends (encastre) such that it cannot rotate, i.e. zero slope at the
supports, as shown in Figure 1.52, then bending moments are induced at the supports and
are called Fixed-End Moments. The bending moment diagram associated only with the
fixed-end moments is called the Fixed Bending Moment Diagram.

MA
MA P MB −ve
MB
Fixed Fixed
Support Support
zero slope

Figure 1.52 − Fixed Bending Moment Diagram

Using the principle of superposition, this beam can be considered in two parts in order to
evaluate the support reactions and the Final bending moment diagram:

(i) The fixed-reactions (moments and forces) at the supports

MA MB

VA fixed VB fixed Figure 1.53

Deformation inducing
tension on the topside

(ii) The free reactions at the supports and the bending moments throughout the
length due to the applied load, assuming the supports to be pinned

VA free VB free Figure 1.54

Deformation inducing
tension on the underside
 Structural Analysis Techniques 47
Combining (i) + (ii) gives the final bending moment diagram as shown in Figure 1.55:

VA = (VA fixed + VA free); VB = (VB fixed + VB free)

MA = ( MA + 0 ); MB = ( MB + 0 )

MA M
Note: M = [MB + (MA − MB)b/L ]
−ve
MB

MA MB
Fixed bending moment diagram
−ve −ve Pab
+ = +ve L
 Pab 
+ve  −M
Pab  L 
L
Free bending moment diagram Final bending moment diagram

Figure 1.55

The values of MA and MB for the most commonly applied load cases are given in
Appendix 3. These are standard Fixed-End Moments relating to single-span encastre
beams and are used extensively in structural analysis.

1.11.5 Example 1.10: Single-span Encastre Beam

Determine the support reactions and draw the bending moment diagram for the encastre
beam loaded as shown in Figure 1.56.

MA 20 kN MB
A B
VA 2.0 m 4.0 m VB

6.0 m

Figure 1.56
Solution:
Consider the beam in two parts.

(i) Fixed Support Reactions

The values of the fixed-end moments are given in Appendix 3.
Pab 2 20 × 2 × 4 2
MA = − = − = − 17.78 kNm
L2 62
Pa 2 b 20 × 2 2 × 4
MB = + = + = + 8.89 kNm These moments induce tension
L2 62
in the top of the beam
48 Design of Structural Elements

17.78 kNm 8.89 kNm

A B
VA fixed VB fixed

6.0 m

Consider the rotational equilibrium of the beam:

+ve ΣMA = 0
− (17.78) + (8.89) − (6.0 × VB fixed) = 0 Equation (1)
∴ VB fixed = − 1.48 kN

Consider the vertical equilibrium of the beam:

+ve ΣFy = 0
+ VA fixed + VB fixed = 0 ∴ VA fixed = − (− 1.48 kN) = + 1.48 kN Equation (2)

(ii) Free Support Reactions

20 kN

A B
VA free 2.0 m 4.0 m VB free

6.0 m

Consider the rotational equilibrium of the beam:

+ve ΣMA = 0
+ (20 × 2.0) − (6.0 × VB free) = 0 ∴ VB free = + 6.67 kN Equation (1)

Consider the vertical equilibrium of the beam:

+ve ΣFy = 0
+ VA free + VB free − 20 = 0 ∴ VA free = + 13.33 kN Equation (2)

Bending Moment under the point load = (+13.33 × 2.0) = + 26.67 kNm
This induces tension in
the bottom of the beam
The final vertical support reactions are given by (i) + (ii):
VA = VA fixed + VA free = (+ 1.48 + 13.33) = +14.81 kN
VB = VB fixed + VB free = (− 1.48 + 6.67) = + 5.19 kN
Check the vertical equilibrium: Total vertical force = + 14.81 + 5.19 = +20 kN
 Structural Analysis Techniques 49

17.78 kNm
M
8.89 kNm
−ve

M = {8.89 + [(17.78 − 8.89) × (4/6)]} = 14.82 kNm

Fixed bending moment diagram
+

+ve

26.67 kNm
Free bending moment diagram
=
17.78 kNm
8.89 kNm

−ve −ve
26.67 kNm
+ve

(26.67 − 14.82) = 11.87 kNm

Final Bending Moment Diagram

Figure 1.57

Note the similarity between the shape of the bending moment diagram and the final
deflected shape as shown in Figure 1.58.

tension tension Deflected shape indicating

tension zones and the
similarity to the shape of the
point of tension point of bending moment diagram
contraflexure contraflexure

Figure 1.58

1.11.6 Propped Cantilevers

The fixed-end moment for propped cantilevers (i.e. one end fixed and the other end simply
supported) can be derived from the standard values given for encastre beams as follows.
Consider the propped cantilever shown in Figure 1.59, which supports a uniformly
distributed load as indicated.
50 Design of Structural Elements

MA
w kN/m

VA L VB

Figure 1.59

The structure can be considered to be the superposition of an encastre beam with the
addition of an equal and opposite moment to MB applied at B to ensure that the final
moment at this support is equal to zero, as indicated in Figure 1.60.

MA MB

(MA + MB /2) w kN/m

+ =
MB /2 VA L VB

MB
carry-over
Figure 1.60

1.11.7 Example 1.11: Propped Cantilever

Determine the support reactions and draw the bending moment diagram for the propped
cantilever shown in Figure 1.61.
MA 10 kN/m
A B

VA 8.0 m VB

Figure 1.61
Solution
Fixed-End Moment for Propped Cantilever:
Consider the beam fixed at both supports.

The values of the fixed-end moments for encastre beams are given in Appendix 3.
wL2 10 × 8 2
MA = − = − = − 53.33 kNm
12 12
wL2 10 × 8 2
MB = + = + = + 53.33 kNm
12 12
The moment MB must be cancelled out by applying an equal and opposite moment at B
which in turn produces a carry-over moment equal to (½ × MB ) at support A.
 Structural Analysis Techniques 51
53.33 kNm 53.33 kNm

80 kNm 10 kN/m

+ =
26.67 kNm VA 8.0 m VB

53.33 kNm
carry-over

(i) Fixed Support Reactions 80 kNm

VA fixed 8.0 m VB fixed

Consider the rotational equilibrium of the beam:

+ve ΣMA = 0
− (80) − (8.0 × VB fixed) = 0 Equation (1)
∴ VB fixed = − 10.0 kN

Consider the vertical equilibrium of the beam:

+ve ΣFy = 0
+ VA fixed + VB fixed = 0 ∴ VA fixed = − (− 10.0 kN) = + 10.0 kN Equation (2)

(ii) Free Support Reactions

10 kN/m

VA free 8.0 m VB free

Consider the rotational equilibrium of the beam:

+ve ΣMA = 0
+ (10 × 8.0 × 4.0) − (8.0 × VB free) = 0 ∴ VB free = + 40.0 kN Equation (1)

Consider the vertical equilibrium of the beam:

+ve ΣFy = 0
+ VA free + VB free − (10 × 8.0) =0 ∴ VA free = + 40.0 kN Equation (2)

The final vertical support reactions are given by (i) + (ii):

VA = VA fixed + VA free = (+ 10.0 + 40.0) = + 50.0 kN
VB = VB fixed + VB free = (− 10.0 + 40.0) = + 30.0 kN
Check the vertical equilibrium: Total vertical force = + 50.0 + 30.0 = + 80 kN
52 Design of Structural Elements

80.0 kNm

−ve

Fixed bending moment diagram

+
+ve

wL2 Free bending moment diagram

8

80 kNm
=

10 × 8 2
= 80 kNm
8 maximum bending moment Final bending moment diagram

Figure 1.62

Note the similarity between the shape of the bending moment diagram and the final
deflected shape as shown in Figure 1.63
tension Deflected shape indicating
tension zones and the
similarity to the shape of the
point of contraflexure bending moment diagram
tension

Figure 1.63

The position of the maximum bending moment can be determined by finding the point of
zero shear force.

80 kNm 10 kN/m
The position of zero shear:
50 kN 8.0 m 30 kN 30
x= = 3.0 m
10
50 kN
Maximum bending moment:
M = [+ (30 × 3.0) − (10 × 3.0 × 1.5)]
shear force diagram x 30 kN = + 45 kNm
 Structural Analysis Techniques 53
1.11.8 Distribution Factors
Consider a uniform two-span continuous beam, as shown in Figure 1.64.
B
A C
Figure 1.64
I1, L1 I2, L2

If an external moment M is applied to this structure at support B it will produce a rotation

of the beam at the support; part of this moment is absorbed by each of the two spans BA
and BC, as indicated in Figure 1.65.
B B M2
A C A C

Mapplied M1

Applied moment Rotation of beam at support

(Mapplied = M1 + M2)
Figure 1.65

The proportion of each moment induced in each span is directly proportional to the
relative stiffnesses, e.g.

Stiffness of span BA = kBA = (I1/L1)

Stiffness of span BC = kBC = (I2/L2)

Total stiffness of the beam at the support = ktotal = ( kBA + kBC ) = [(I1/L1) + (I2/L2)]
k 
The moment absorbed by beam BA M1 = M applied ×  BA 
 k total 
k 
The moment absorbed by beam BC M2 = M applied ×  BC 
 k total 
 k 
The ratio   is known as the Distribution Factor for the member at the joint where
 k total 
the moment is applied.

As indicated in Section 1.11.2, when a moment (M) is applied to one end of a beam in
which the other end is fixed, a carry-over moment equal to 50% of M is induced at the
remote fixed-end and consequently moments equal to ½ M1 and ½ M2 will develop at
supports A and C respectively, as shown in Figure 1.66.

M1/2 M2

M2/2
M1
Figure 1.66
54 Design of Structural Elements
1.11.9 Application of the Method
All of the concepts outlined in Sections 1.11.1 to 1.11.8 are used when analysing
indeterminate structures using the method of moment distribution. Consider the two
separate beam spans indicated in Figure 1.67.
w kN/m P
B
A C
(E,I, L)AB (E,L, I)BC

Figure 1.67

Since the beams are not connected at the support B they behave independently as simply
supported beams with separate reactions and bending moment diagrams, as shown in
Figure 1.68.
w kN/m P
B Deformed shape:
A C note the different
L a b slopes at point B
AB

Shape of bending
moment diagram
wL2AB Pab
8 LBC
Figure 1.68

When the beams are continuous over support B as shown in Figure 1.69(a), a continuity
moment develops for the continuous structure as shown in Figures 1.69(b) and (c). Note
the similarity of the bending moment diagram for member AB to the propped cantilever in
Figure 1.62. Both members AB and BC are similar to propped cantilevers in this structure.

w kN/m P
B
A C
(a)
(E,I,L)AB (E,I,L)BC

B
Deformed shape: (b)
note the same slope
at support B
point of contraflexure
Shape of bending
moment diagram (c)

continuity moment
Figure 1.69
 Structural Analysis Techniques 55
Moment distribution enables the evaluation of the continuity moments. The method is
ideally suited to tabular representation and is illustrated in Example 1.12.

1.11.10 Example 1.12: Three-span Continuous Beam

A non-uniform, three span beam ABCD is fixed at support A and pinned at support D, as
illustrated in Figure 1.70. Determine the support reactions and sketch the bending moment
diagram for the applied loading indicated.

10 kN 10 kN/m 25 kN 15 kN/m
B C
A D
E, I E, 2I E, 1.5I
2.0 m 4.0 m 8.0 m 2.5 m 2.5 m

Figure 1.70
Solution:
Step 1
The first step is to assume that all supports are fixed against rotation and evaluate the
‘fixed-end moments’.

10 kN 10 kN/m 25 kN 15 kN/m
B C
A D
MAB MBA MBC MCB MCD MDC
2.0 m 4.0 m 8.0 m 2.5 m 2.5 m
The values of the fixed-end moments for encastre beams are given in Appendix 3.
Span AB
Pab 2 10 × 2 × 4 2
MAB = − = − = − 8.89 kNm
L2 6.0 2
Pa 2 b 10 × 2 2 × 4
MBC = + = + = + 4.44 kNm
L2 6.0 2
Span BC
wL2 10 × 8 2
MBC = − = − = − 53.33 kNm
12 12
wL2 10 × 8 2
MCB = + = + = + 53.33 kNm
12 12
Span CD*
wL2 PL 15 × 5 2 25 × 5
MCD = − − = − − = − 46.89 kNm
12 8 12 8
wL2 PL 15 × 5 2 25 × 5
MDC = + + = + + = + 46.89 kNm
12 8 12 8
* Since support D is pinned, the fixed-end moments are (MCD + MDC/2) at C and zero at D
(see Figure 1.60): (MCD + MDC/2) = [46.89 + (0.5 × 46.89) ] = 70.34 kNm.
56 Design of Structural Elements
Step 2
The second step is to evaluate the member and total stiffness at each internal joint/support
and determine the distribution factors at each support. Note that the applied force system
is not required to do this.
B C
A D
E, I E, 2I E, 1.5I
6.0 m 8.0 m 5.0 m

Support B
Stiffness of BA = kBA = (I / 6.0) = 0.167I
k total = (0.167 + 0.25)I = 0.417I
Stiffness of BC = kBC = (2I / 8.0) = 0.25I
k BA 0.167 I
Distribution factor (DF) for BA = = = 0.4
k total 0.417 I
ΣDF’s = 1.0
k BC 0.25 I
Distribution factor (DF) for BC = = = 0.6
k total 0.417 I

Support C
Stiffness of CB = kCB = kBC = 0.25I Note: the remote end D is
Stiffness of CD = kCD = ¾ × (1.5I / 5.0) = 0.225I pinned and k = ¾ (I/L)
k total = (0.25 + 0.225)I = 0.475I
k CB 0.25 I
Distribution factor (DF) for CB = = = 0.53
k total 0.475I
ΣDF’s = 1.0
k BC 0.141I
Distribution factor (DF) for CD = = = 0.47
k total 0.475I
The structure and the distribution factors can be represented in tabular form, as shown in
Figure 1.71.

Joints/Support
A B C D
Member AB BA BC CB CD DC

Distribution 0 0.4 0.6 0.53 0.47 1.0

Factors

Figure 1.71

The distribution factor for fixed supports is equal to zero since any moment is resisted by
an equal and opposite moment within the support and no balancing is required. In the case
of pinned supports the distribution factor is equal to 1.0 since 100% of any applied
 Structural Analysis Techniques 57

moment, e.g. by a cantilever overhang, must be balanced and a carry-over of ½ × the

balancing moment transferred to the remote end at the internal support.

Step 3
The fixed-end moments are now entered into the table at the appropriate locations, taking
care to ensure that the signs are correct.

Joints/Support
A B C D
Member AB BA BC CB CD DC

Distribution 0 0.4 0.6 0.53 0.47 1.0

Factors
Fixed-End − + − + −
Moments 8.89 4.44 53.33 53.33 70.34 zero

Step 4
When the structure is restrained against rotation there is normally a resultant moment at a
typical internal support. For example, consider the moments B:
MBA = + 4.44 kNm and MBC = − 53.33 kNm

The ‘out-of-balance’ moment is equal to the algebraic difference between the two:
The out-of-balance moment = (+ 4.44 − 53.33) = − 48.89 kNm

If the imposed fixity at one support (all others remaining fixed), e.g. support B, is released,
the beam will rotate sufficiently to induce a balancing moment such that equilibrium is
achieved and the moments MBA and MBC are equal and opposite. The application of the
balancing moment is distributed between BA and BC in proportion to the distribution
factors as calculated previously.

Moment applied to BA = + (48.89 × 0.4) = +19.56 kNm

Moment applied to BC = + (48.89 × 0.6) = + 29.33 kNm

Joints/Support
A B C D
Member AB BA BC CB CD DC

Distribution 0 0.4 0.6 0.53 0.47 1.0

Factors
Fixed-End − + − + −
Moments 8.89 4.44 53.33 53.33 70.34 zero
Balance + +
Moment 19.56 29.33
58 Design of Structural Elements
As indicated in Section 1.11.2, when a moment is applied to one end of a beam whilst the
remote end is fixed, a carry-over moment equal to (½ × applied moment) and of the same
sign is induced at the remote end. This is entered into the table as shown.

Joints/Support
A B C D
Member AB BA BC CB CD DC

Distribution 0 0.4 0.6 0.53 0.47 1.0

Factors
Fixed-End − + − + −
Moments 8.89 4.44 53.33 53.33 70.34 zero
Balance + +
Moment 19.56 29.33
Carry-over to + +
Remote Ends 9.78 14.67

Step 5
The procedure outline above is then carried out for each restrained support in turn. The
reader should confirm the values given in the table for support C.

Joints/Support
A B C D
Member AB BA BC CB CD DC

Distribution 0 0.4 0.6 0.53 0.47 1.0

Factors
Fixed-End − + − + −
Moments 8.89 4.44 53.33 53.33 70.34 zero
Balance + +
Moment 19.56 29.33
Carry-over to + +
Remote Ends 9.78 14.67
Balance + + Note:
Moment 1.27 1.12 No carry-over
Carry-over to + to the pinned
Remote Ends 0.64 end

If the total moments at each internal support are now calculated they are:
MBA = (+ 4.44 + 19.56) = + 24.0 kNm The difference = 0.64 kNm i.e.
MBC = (− 53.33 + 29.33 + 0.64) = − 23.36 kNm the value of the carry-over moment
MCB = (+ 53.33 + 14.67 + 1.27) = + 69.27 kNm
The difference = 0
MCD = (− 70.34 + 1.12) = − 69.27 kNm
 Structural Analysis Techniques 59
It is evident that after one iteration of each support moment the true values are nearer to
23.8 kNm and 69.0 kNm for B and C respectively. The existing out-of-balance moments
which still exist, 0.64 kNm, can be distributed in the same manner as during the first
iteration. This process is carried out until the desired level of accuracy has been achieved,
normally after three or four iterations.
A slight modification to carrying out the distribution process which still results in the
same answers is to carry out the balancing operation for all supports simultaneously and
the carry-over operation likewise. This is quicker and requires less work. The reader
should complete a further three/four iterations to the solution given above and compare the
results with those shown in Figure 1.72.

Joints/Support
A B C D
Member AB BA BC CB CD DC

Distribution 0 0.4 0.6 0.53 0.47 1.0

Factors
Fixed-End − + − + −
Moments 8.89 4.44 53.33 53.33 70.34 zero
Balance + + + +
Moment 19.56 29.33 9.01 7.99
Carry-over to + + +
Remote Ends 9.78 4.50 14.67
Balance − − − −
Moment 1.80 2.70 7.78 6.89
Carry-over to −0.91 − −
Remote Ends 3.89 1.35
Balance + carry- + + + +
Moment 0.78 over* 1.56 2.33 0.72 0.63
+ + − + −
Total 0.76 23.76 23.76 68.60 68.61 zero
* The final carry-over, to the fixed support only, means that this value is one iteration more accurate than the
internal joints.
Figure 1.72

The continuity moments are shown in Figure 1.73.

25 kN
10 kN 23.76 kNm 10 kN/m 68.61 kNm 15 kN/m
B C
A D
0.76 kNm
2.0 m 4.0 m 8.0 m 2.5 m 2.5 m
VA VB VC VD
Figure 1.73
60 Design of Structural Elements
The support reactions and the bending moment diagrams for each span can be calculated
using superposition as before by considering each span separately.

(i) Fixed Support Reactions

A
D
B C

6.0 m 8.0 m 2.5 m 2.5 m

VAB fixed VBA fixed VBC fixed VCB fixed VCD fixed VDC fixed
68.61 kNm

23.76 kNm

0.76 kNm
A B B C C D
Consider span AB:
+ve ΣMA = 0
+ 0.76 + 23.76 − (6.0 × VBA fixed) = 0 Equation (1)
∴ VBA fixed = + 4.09 kN
Consider the vertical equilibrium of the beam:
+ve ΣFy = 0
+ VAB fixed + VBA fixed = 0 ∴ VAB fixed = − 4.09 kN Equation (2)

Consider span BC:

+ve ΣMB = 0
−23.76 + 68.61 − (8.0 × VCB fixed) = 0 Equation (1)
∴ VCB fixed = + 5.61 kN
Consider the vertical equilibrium of the beam:
+ve ΣFy = 0
+ VBC fixed + VCB fixed = 0 ∴ VBC fixed = − 5.61 kN Equation (2)

Consider span CD:

+ve ΣMC = 0
− 68.61 − (5.0 × VDC fixed) = 0 Equation (1)
∴ VDC fixed = − 13.72 kN
Consider the vertical equilibrium of the beam:
+ve ΣFy = 0
+ VCD fixed + VDC fixed = 0 ∴ VCD fixed = + 13.72 kN Equation (2)
 Structural Analysis Techniques 61
Fixed vertical reactions
The total vertical reaction at each support due to the continuity moments is equal to the
algebraic sum of the contributions from each beam at the support.

VA fixed = VAB fixed = − 4.09 kN

VB fixed = VBA fixed + VBC fixed = (+ 4.09 − 5.61) = − 1.52 kN
VC fixed = VCB fixed + VCD fixed = (+ 5.61 + 13.72) = + 19.33 kN
VD fixed = VDC fixed = − 13.72 kN

(ii) Free Support Reactions

10 kN 10 kN/m 15 kN/m 25 kN D
A
B C

2.0 m 4.0 m 8.0 m 2.5 m 2.5 m

VAB free VBA free VBC free VCB free VCD free VDC free

A B B C C D

Pab
L wL2 wL2 PL
+
8 8 4

Free bending moments

Pab 10 × 2 × 4
Span AB = = 13.3 kNm
L 6
wL2 10 × 8 2
Span BC = = 80.0 kNm
8 8
 wL2 PL  15 × 5 2 25 × 5 
Span CD  + =  +  = 78.13 kNm
 8 4   8 4 

Consider span AB:

+ve ΣMA = 0
+ (10 × 2.0) − (6.0 × VBA free) = 0 ∴ VBA free = + 3.33 kN Equation (1)

Consider the vertical equilibrium of the beam:

+ve ΣFy = 0
+ VBA free + VBA free − 10.0 =0 ∴ VAB free = + 6.67 kN Equation (2)
62 Design of Structural Elements
Consider span BC:
+ve ΣMB = 0
+ (10 × 8.0 × 4.0) − (8.0 × VCB free) = 0 ∴ VCB free = + 40.0 kN Equation (1)

Consider the vertical equilibrium of the beam:

+ve ΣFy = 0
+ VBC free + VCB free − (10 × 8.0) =0 ∴ VBC free = + 40.0 kN Equation (2)

Consider span CD:

+ve ΣMC = 0
+ (25 × 2.5) + (15 × 5.0 × 2.5) − (5.0 × VDC free) = 0
∴ VDC free = + 50.0 kN Equation (1)
Consider the vertical equilibrium of the beam:
+ve ΣFy = 0
+ VCD free + VDC free − 25.0 − (15 × 5.0) = 0 ∴ VCD free = + 50.0 kN Equation (2)

Free vertical reactions:

VA free = VAB free = + 6.67 kN
VB free = VBA free + VBC free = (+ 3.33 + 40.0) = + 43.33 kN
VC free = VCB free + VCD free = (+ 40.0 + 50.0) = + 90.0 kN
VD free = VDC free = + 50.0 kN

The final vertical support reactions are given by (i) + (ii):

VA = VA fixed + VA free = (− 4.09 + 6.67) = + 2.58 kN
VB = VB fixed + VB free = (− 1.58 + 43.33) = + 41.81 kN
VC = VC fixed + VC free = (+ 19.33 + 90.0) = + 109.33 kN
VD = VD fixed + VD free = (− 13.72 + 50.0) = + 36.28 kN
Check the vertical equilibrium: Total vertical force = + 2.58 + 41.81 + 109.33 + 36.28
= + 190 kN (= total applied load)
The final bending moment diagram is shown in Figure 1.74.
68.61 kNm

23.76 kNm

0.76 kNm
13.3 kNm
80 kNm
78.13 kNm
Bending moment diagram
maximum +ve value at
point of zero shear
Figure 1.74 equals 43.84 kNm