THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Table of Contents

Asexual Reproduction | Sexual Reproduction | Human Reproduction and Development

Sexual Responses | Sexually Transmitted Diseases | Reproduction: New and Improved?

Fertilization and Cleavage | Gastrulation | Pattern Formation and Induction | Human

Development

Birth | Landmarks | Links

The ability to reproduce is one of the unifying characteristics of all living things.
Sexual reproduction produces offspring that are genetically different from their
parents. Asexual reproduction produces offspring genetically identical to their parent.

Asexual Reproduction | Back to Top

Fission, budding, fragmentation, and the formation of rhizomes and stolons are some
of the mechanisms that allow organisms to reproduce asexually. The hydra produces
buds; starfish can regenerate an entire body from a fragment of the original body.
Asexual reproduction allows an organism to rapidly produce many offspring without
the time and resources committed to courtship, finding a mate, and mating. The lack
of genetic variability in asexually reproducing populations can be detrimental when
environmental conditions (for which all the clones are so well adapted) change
quickly.

Sexual Reproduction | Back to Top

In sexual reproduction new individuals are produced by the fusion of haploid gametes
to form a diploid zygote. Sperm are male gametes, ova (ovum singular) are female
gametes. Meiosis produces cells that are genetically distinct from each other;
fertilization is the fusion of two such distinctive cells that produces a unique new
combination of alleles, thus increasing variation on which natural selection can
operate.

Rotifers will reproduce asexually when conditions are favorable by having females
produce eggs by mitosis. When conditions deteriorate, rotifers will reproduce sexually
and encase their zygotes inside a resistant shell. Once conditions improve, these eggs
hatch into diploid individuals. Rotifers thus use sexual reproduction as way to survive
a deteriorating environment.
Sexual reproduction offers the benefit of generating genetic variation among
offspring, which enhances the chances of the population's survival. Costs of this
process include the need for two individuals to mate, courtship rituals, as well as a
number of basic mechanisms described later.

Human Reproduction and Development | Back to Top

Human reproduction employs internal fertilization, and depends on the integrated

action of hormones, the nervous system, and the reproductive system. Gonads are sex
organs that produce gametes. Male gonads are the testes, which produce sperm and
male sex hormones. Female gonads are the ovaries, which produce eggs (ova) and
female sex hormones.

The Male Reproductive System

Testes are suspended outside the abdominal cavity by the scrotum, a pouch of skin
that keeps the testes close or far from the body at an optimal temperature for sperm
development. Seminiferous tubules are inside each testis, and are where sperm are
produced by meiosis. About 250 meters (850 feet) of tubules are packed into each
testis. Spermatocytes inside the tubules divide by meiosis to produce spermatids that
in turn develop into mature sperm.
The male reproductive system. Images from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates ([Link]) and WH Freeman ([Link]),
used with permission.

Spermatogenesis

Sperm production begins at puberty at continues throughout life, with several hundred
million sperm being produced each day. Once sperm form they move into the
epididymis, where they mature and are stored.
Human Sperm (SEM x5,785). This image is copyright Dennis Kunkel at
[Link], used with permission.

Male Sex Hormones

The anterior pituitary produces follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing

hormone (LH). Action of LH is controlled by the gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH). LH stimulates cells in the seminiferous tubules to secrete testosterone, which
has a role in sperm production and developing male secondary sex characteristics.
FSH acts on cells to help in sperm maturation. Negative feedback by testosterone
controls the actions of GnRH.

Sexual Structures

Sperm pass through the vas deferens and connect to a short ejaculatory duct that
connects to the urethra. The urethra passes through the penis and opens to the outside.
Secretions from the seminal vesicles add fructose and prostaglandins to sperm as they
pass. The prostate gland secretes a milky alkaline fluid. The bulbourethral gland
secretes a mucus-like fluid that provides lubrication for intercourse. Sperm and
secretions make up semen.

The Female Reproductive System

The female gonads, ovaries, are located within the lower abdominal cavity.
The female reporoductive system. Images from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology,
4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates ([Link]) and WH Freeman
([Link]), used with permission.

The ovary contains many follicles composed of a developing egg surrounded by an

outer layer of follicle cells. Each egg begins oogenesis as a primary oocyte. At birth
each female carries a lifetime supply of developing oocytes, each of which is in
Prophase I. A developing egg (secondary oocyte) is released each month from puberty
until menopause, a total of 400-500 eggs.
Oogenesis. The above image is from
[Link]

Ovarian Cycles

After puberty the ovary cycles between a follicular phase (maturing follicles) and a
luteal phase (presence of the corpus luteum). These cyclic phases are interrupted only
by pregnancy and continue until menopause, when reproductive capability ends. The
ovarian cycle lasts usually 28 days. During the first phase, the oocyte matures within a
follicle. At midpoint of the cycle, the oocyte is released from the ovary in a process
known as ovulation. Following ovulation the follicle forms a corpus luteum which
synthesizes and prepares hormones to prepare the uterus for pregnancy.

The secondary oocyte passes into the oviduct (fallopian tube or uterine tube). The
oviduct is connected to the uterus.

The uterus has an inner layer, the endometrium, in which a fertilized egg implants. At
the lower end of the uterus the cervix connects the uterus to the vagina. The vagina
receives the penis during intercourse and serves as the birth canal.

External Genitals

The female external genitals are collectively known as the vulva. The labia minora is
a thin membrane of folded skin just outside the vaginal opening. The labia majora
cover and protect the genital area. A clitoris, important in arousal, is a short shaft with
a sensitive tip covered by a fold of skin.
Hormones and Female Cycles

The ovarian cycle is hormonally regulated in two phases. The follicle secretes
estrogen before ovulation; the corpus luteum secretes both estrogen and progesterone
after ovulation. Hormones from the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary control the
ovarian cycle. The ovarian cycle covers events in the ovary; the menstrual cycle
occurs in the uterus.

Hormonal controls and the functioning of the female reproductive system. Image from
Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates
([Link]) and WH Freeman ([Link]), used with permission.

Menstrual cycles vary from between 15 and 31 days. The first day of the cycle is the
first day of blood flow (day 0) known as menstruation. During menstruation the
uterine lining is broken down and shed as menstrual flow. FSH and LH are secreted
on day 0, beginning both the menstrual cycle and the ovarian cycle. Both FSH and LH
stimulate the maturation of a single follicle in one of the ovaries and the secretion of
estrogen. Rising levels of estrogen in the blood trigger secretion of LH, which
stimulates follicle maturation and ovulation (day 14, or midcycle). LH stimulates the
remaining follicle cells to form the corpus luteum, which produces both estrogen and
progesterone. Click here to view a "movie" of the hormone sequences.

Estrogen and progesterone stimulate the development of the endometrium and

preparation of the uterine inner lining for implantation of a zygote. If pregnancy does
not occur, the drop in FSH and LH cause the corpus luteum to disintegrate. The drop
in hormones also causes the sloughing off of the inner lining of the uterus by a series
of muscle contractions of the uterus.
Hormonal changes and the female reproductive cycles. The above image is from
[Link]

Sexual Responses | Back to Top

Humans do not have a mating season , females are sexually receptive to the male at all
times of the year. There are four stages in mating: arousal, plateau, orgasm, and
resolution.

During male arousal, blood flows into the three shafts of spongy erectile tissue inside
the penis, causing it to become elongated and erect. The female arousal has the
swelling of the areas around the vagina, erection of the clitoris and nipples, and
secretion of lubricating fluids in the vagina.

After insertion of the penis into the vagina, pelvic thrusts by both partners stimulate
sensory receptors in the penis, vaginal walls, and clitoris. The sperm leave the
epididymis and secretions of glands form the semen. Orgasm involves contractions of
muscles of the penis (male) or vagina (female) and waves of pleasurable sensations.

Resolution reverses the previous phases: muscles relax, breathing slows, the penis
returns to its normal size.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases | Back to Top

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) cause over $7 billion to be expended for
treatment. STDs can affect the sex partners, fetus, and newborn infants. STDs are
grouped into three categories.

Category One

STDs that produce inflammation of the urethra, epididymis, cervix, or oviducts.

Gonorrhea and chlamydia are the most common STDs in this category. Both diseases
can be treated and cured with antibiotics, once diagnosed.

Category Two

STDs that produce sores on the external genitals. Genital herpes is the most common
disease in this class, affecting more than 25 million individuals in the US. Symptoms
of herpes can be treated by antiviral drugs, but the infection cannot be cured. Syphilis
is a bacterially caused infection, and can, if left untreated, cause serious symptoms
and death. However, the disease is curable with antibiotics.

Category Three

This class of STDs includes viral diseases that affect organ systems other than those
of the reproductive system. AIDS and hepatitis B are in this category. Both can be
spread by sexual contact or blood. Infectious individuals may appear symptom-free
for years after infection.

Reproduction: New and Improved? | Back to Top

New techniques have been developed to enhance or reduce the chances of conception.
Social conventions and governing laws have developed far slower than this new
technology, leading to controversy about moral, ethical, and legal grounds for the uses
of such technologies.

The separation of intercourse from pregnancy uses methods blocking one of the three
stages of reproduction"

 release and transport of gametes

 fertilization
 implantation

Effectiveness
Various contraceptive methods have been developed; none of which is 100%
successful at preventing pregnancy or the transmission of STDs. Abstinence is the
only completely effective method.

Methods

Physical prevention (most effective) include vasectomy and tubal ligation.

Vasectomy: the vas deferens connecting the testes with the urethra is cut and sealed to
prevent the transport of sperm. Tubal ligation: the oviduct is cut and ends tied off to
prevent eggs from reaching the uterus.

Major events in a vasectomy. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates ([Link]) and WH Freeman ([Link]),
used with permission.

Oral contraceptives (birth control pills) usually contain a combination of hormones

that prevent release of FSH and LH, inhibiting development of the follicle so that no
oocytes are released. Time-release capsules (Norplant) can be implanted under the
skin and offer long-term suppression of ovulation. RU-486, the so-called morning
after pill, interferes with implantation of the blastula into the uterine wall. Its use as a
contraceptive is very controversial.

Barrier methods employ physical (condom, diaphragm) or chemical (spermacides)

means to separate the sperm from the egg. Male condoms are fitted over the erect
penis; female condoms are placed inside the vagina. Only latex condoms prevent the
spread of STDs. Diaphragms cap the cervix and block passage of the sperm into the
uterus. Spermicidal jellies or foams kill sperm on contact and must be placed in the
vagina prior to intercourse.
Reproductive Technologies Can Enhance Fertility

About 1 in 6 couples is infertile due to physical or physiological conditions preventing

gamete production, implantation, or fertilization. Blocked oviducts (often from
untreated STDs) are the leading cause of infertility in females. Low sperm count, low
motility, or blocked ducts are common causes of male infertility.

Hormone therapy can cause increased egg production. Surgery can open blocked
ducts. About 40 of the cases are due to male problems, 40 due to female problems and
the remaining 20% are caused by some unknown agent(s). In vitro fertilization (test-
tube babies) is a widely used technique to aid infertile couples.

Fertilization and Cleavage | Back to Top

Fertilization has three functions:

1. transmission of genes from both parents to offspring

2. restoration of the diploid number of chromosomes reduced during meiosis
3. initiation of development in offspring
The egg and sperm. Sperm are color enhanced (green) while the egg is color enhanced
to gold. The above image is modified from [Link]
db=images.fp3&key=32931&-img.

Sperm on the surface of a human egg. This image is from

[Link]

Steps in Fertilization

 Contact between sperm and egg

 Entry of sperm into the egg
 Fusion of egg and sperm nuclei
 Activation of development

Cleavage

Cleavage is the first step in development of ALL multicelled organisms. Cleavage

converts a single-celled zygote into a multicelled embryo by mitosis. Usually, the
zygotic cytoplasm is divided among the newly formed cells. Frog embryos divide to
produce 37,000 cells in a little over 40 hours.
The blastula is produced by mitosis of the zygote, and is a ball of cells surrounding a
fluid-filled cavity (the blastocoel). The decreasing size of cells increases their surface
to volume ratio, allowing for more efficient oxygen exchange between cells and their
environment. RNA and information carrying molecules are distributed to various parts
of the blastula, and this molecular differentiation sets the stage for the layering of the
body in the next phases of development.

Early development compared in a sea urchin and frog. Image from Purves et al., Life: The
Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates ([Link]) and WH Freeman
([Link]), used with permission.

Gastrulation | Back to Top

Gastrulation involves a series of cell migrations to positions where they will form the
three primary cell layers.

 Ectoderm forms the outer layer.

 Endoderm forms the inner layer.
 Mesoderm forms the middle layer.

Ectoderm

Ectoderm forms tissues associated with outer layers: skin, hair, sweat glands,
epithelium. The brain and nervous system also develop from the ectoderm.

Mesoderm
The mesoderm forms structures associated with movement and support: body
muscles, cartilage, bone, blood, and all other connective tissues. Reproductive system
organs and kidneys form from mesoderm.

Endoderm

The endoderm forms tissues and organs associated with the digestive and respiratory
systems. Many endocrine structures, such as the thyroid and parathyroid glands, are
formed by the endoderm. The liver, pancreas, and gall bladder arise from endoderm.

Invagination

Immediately after gastrulation, the body axis of the embryo begins to appear.
Chordates have the cells that will form the nervous system fold into a neural tube
(which will eventually form the spinal cord). The mesoderm forms the notochord
(which will eventually form the vertebrae). The mesoderm at this time forms somites,
which form segmented body parts, such as the muscles of the body wall.
Gastrulation. Images from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer
Associates ([Link]) and WH Freeman ([Link]), used with permission.

Pattern Formation and Induction | Back to Top

Blastulation and gastrulation establish the main body axis. Organ formation occurs in
the next stage of the development of the embryo. During organ formation, cell
division is accomplished by migration and aggregation.

Pattern formation is the result of cells "sensing" their position in the embryo relative
to other cells and to form structures appropriate to that position. Gradients of
informational molecules within the embryo have been suggested to provide the
positional information to cells. Homeobox genes are pattern genes; they coordinate
with gradients of information molecules to establish the body plan and development
of organs.

Induction is the process in which one cell or tissue type affects the developmental fate
of another cell or tissue. As a cell begins to form certain structures, certain genes are
turned on, others are turned off. Induction affects patterns of gene expression through
physical contact or chemical signals. Formation of the vertebrate eye is a well known
example.
Human Development | Back to Top

Fertilization, the fusion of the sperm and egg, usually occurs in the upper third of the
oviduct. Thirty minutes after ejaculation, sperm are present in the oviduct, having
traveled from the vagina through the uterus and into the oviduct. Sperm traverse this
distance by the beating of their flagellum. Of the several hundred million sperm
released in the ejaculation, only a few thousand reach the egg.

Only one sperm will fertilize the egg. One sperm fuses with receptors on the surface
of the secondary oocyte, triggering a series of chemical changes in the outer oocyte
membrane that prevent any other sperm from entering the oocyte. The entry of the
sperm initiates Meiosis II in the oocyte. Fusion of the egg and sperm nuclei forms the
diploid zygote.

Travels of a Young Zygote

Cleavage of the zygote begins while it is still in the oviduct, producing a solid ball of
cells (morula). The morula enters the uterus, continuing to divide and becomes a
blastocyst.

Implantation

The uterine lining becomes enlarged and prepared for implantation of the embryo in
the trophoblast layer. Twelve days after fertilization, the trophoblast has formed a
two-layered chorion. Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is secreted by the chorion,
and prolongs the life of the corpus luteum until the placenta begins to secrete estrogen
and progesterone. Home pregnancy tests work by detecting elevated hCG levels in the
woman's urine.

Your Placenta or Mine?

Maternal and embryonic structures interlock to form the placenta, the nourishing
boundary between the mother's and embryo's systems. The umbilical cord extends
from the placenta to the embryo, and transports food to and wastes from the embryo.

Stages

The period of time from fertilization to birth (usually 9 months) is divided into
trimesters, each about three months long. During pregnancy the zygote undergoes 40
to 44 rounds of mitosis, producing an infant containing trillions of specialized cells
organized into tissues and organs.

The First Trimester

The three embryonic tissue layers form. Cellular differentiation begins to form organs
during the third week. After one month the embryo is 5 mm long and composed
mostly of paired somite segments. During the second month most of the major organ
systems form, limb buds develop. The embryo becomes a fetus by the seventh week.
Beginning the eighth week, the sexually neutral fetus activates gene pathways for sex
determination, forming testes in XY fetuses and ovaries in XX fetuses. External
genitalia develop.

The Second Trimester

The fetus increases in size during this trimester, and bony parts of the skeleton begin
to form. Fetal movements can be felt by the mother.

The Last Trimester

During this trimester the fetus increases in size. Circulatory and respiratory systems
mature in preparation for air breathing. Fetal growth during this time uses large parts
of its mother's protein and calcium intake. Maternal antibodies pass to the fetus during
the last month, conferring temporary immunity.

Birth | Back to Top

Birth is a positive feedback hormonal mechanism. During birth the cervix dilates to
allow passage of the fetus. Uterine contractions propel the fetus through the birth
canal, usually head first. Hormonal control of the birth process involves the release of
oxytocin and prostaglandins, which are stimulated by uterine contractions, which
stimulate more hormones that cause more contractions....etc.

First Stage

The first stage of birth lasts from beginning of contractions to the full (10 cm) dilation
of the cervix. Membranes of the amniotic fluid rupture, lubricating the vagina.

Second Stage
Strong uterine contractions of a minute in duration separated by two to three minute
intervals propel the fetus down the birth canal. Abdominal muscles relax in synchrony
with the uterine contractions.

Third Stage

After delivery of the baby, the umbilical cord is clipped and cut. The placenta (or
afterbirth) in expelled through the vagina.

Milk Production

Nursing mothers have their hormone levels and uterine size return to normal much
faster than non-nursing mothers. Breasts develop the capability for milk secretion
about the mid point of pregnancy. Secretion of milk does not occur until delivery, and
the action of prolactin. Suckling by the infant causes production of oxytocin to
promote release of milk into the ducts emptying into the nipple.

Landmarks | Back to Top

The stages of life are noted by the acquisition of social, physical, and mental skills.
Other signs of maturation include tattoos, body piercing, motorcycles, and backward-
turned baseball caps.

Infancy and Childhood

Infancy lasts from birth until age two. Infant reflexes concern finding the nipple:
suckling can occur minutes after birth, and the rooting reflex is a tactile clue for the
infant to turn its head toward a touch. During the first year the infant passes through a
series of developmental stages.

Childhood begins at two and lasts until puberty. Physical growth is accompanied by
increasing development of motor and language skills. Play, make-believe, and
increases in memory and attention span also occur.

Adolescence and Adulthood

Growth accelerates during puberty. Boys increase in height by 3-5 inches per year,
girls 2-4 inches. The heart doubles in size, and hormones stimulate sexual maturity.
Growth ends during the end of adolescence, and aging starts during the late twenties.
Life expectancy (47 and 50 years for males and females in 1900; 74 and 81 in 1996)
has increased.
Links | Back to Top
 Zygote A Developmental Biology Site
 The Visible Embryo
 Embryo Development Overview University of Pennsylvania Medical School.
 Animated Embryogenesis Yale University, animated GIF images of Drosophila.
 The Male Reproductive System Penn State...note: most of the graphics do not display.
 The Male Reproductive System (Berkeley) A single page with a graphic and links to
other topics.
 Another Male Reproductive System Some text and tasty "home grown" graphics.
 The Female Reproductive System (Berkeley) A single page with two nice graphics and
links to other topics.
 Human Reproduction Problem Set The Biology Project, University of Arizona.
 Women's Health Hotline
 Protecting Against Unintended Pregnancy: A Guide to Contraceptive Choices This U.S.
Food and Drug Administration web site offers information about the myriad methods of
contraception.
 [Link] A series of resources devoted to pregnancy and related issues.
 STD Homepage A resource for sexually transmitted disease information.

All text contents ©1992, 1994, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2007, by M.J. Farabee, all rights
reserved. Use for educational purposes is encouraged.

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Tuesday May 18 2010

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