27.

0 ELECTROSTATICS
27.1 Electrostatic Interaction
th
Benjamin Franklin, an American scientist who lived in the 18 century demonstrated a
connection between lightning and static electricity. In his experiment, sparks were
drawn from a key hung on a kite string during an electrical storm. These sparks were
like those produced by static electricity, such as the sparks seen when you swipe your
hand over a dusty plastic table during dry weather or the spark that jumps from your
finger to a metal doorknob after you walk across a wool carpet. Many of the
characteristics of static electricity can be explored by rubbing things together. When
two different materials are rubbed together, some electrons can be rubbed off one and
onto the other. This makes one of the materials positively charged due to fewer
electrons and the other negatively charged due to excess electrons. Combing dry hair
using a plastic comb gives it an ability to be able to attract little pieces of paper. The
attraction of straw to recently polished amber also result from rubbing. In some cases a
repulsion is observed. This effect is referred to as electrostatic interaction and the
property of nature that causes the force of attraction or repulsion is called ‘charge’.
When the materials being considered attract each other, it is said that they have
‘opposite’ charges and when they repel, ‘like’ charges.

27.1.1 Properties of Electrostatic Interaction

Some of the most basic characteristics of static electricity include:

• The effects of static electricity are explained by a physical quantity not previously
introduced, called electric charge.
• There are only two types of charge, one called positive and the other called negative.
• Like charges repel, whereas unlike charges attract.
• The force between charges decreases with distance.

The fundamental quantity of electrostatic force is charge and its assigned unit is the
Coulomb. However, there is one interesting property of charge that mass, length and
time do not have: charge is quantized in multiples of a basic charge and is consequently
quantized. This means that the charge on any particle or object is an integer multiple of
a fundamental charge unit called e. For the three particles that make up all of our stable
matter table 1.0 below lists their charges and masses:

Particle Charge Mass

-27
Proton +1 1.673 x 10
-27
Neutron 0 1.675 x 10
-31
Electron -1 9.11 x 10

-19
In terms of Coulombs, e ≈ 1.6×10 Coulombs. The charge on any material object is
-19
equal to: q = (Np-Ne )1.6×10 Coulombs where Np and Ne are the number of protons and
electrons in the material respectively.

29.2 Conductors and Insulators

Any substance that has free electrons and allows charge to move relatively freely
through it is called a conductor. Salty water and other similar conducting materials like
metals contain free ions that can move through them. An ion is an atom or molecule
having a positive or negative (nonzero) total charge. In other words, the total number of
electrons is not equal to the total number of protons. Other substances, such as glass,
do not allow charges to move through them. These are called insulators. Electrons and
23
ions in insulators are bound in the structure and cannot move easily—as much as 10
times more slowly than in conductors. Pure water and dry table salt are insulators, for
example, whereas molten salt and salty water are conductors. Electrons can be forced
to move across an insulator by applying strong force (called electric field.) Then this
acts like a conductor. Semiconductor is a material which under little stimulation (heat or
Elect. Field) converts from insulator to a conductor. Examples include silicon and
germanium. Superconductor is that material which presents no resistance to the
movement of the charge through it. The resistance is precisely zero. When a conductor
is connected to the Earth by means of a conducting wire or pipe, it is said to be
grounded.

29.3 The electroscope

An electroscope is an early scientific instrument that is used to detect the presence and
magnitude of electric charge on a body. It was the first electrical measuring instrument.

Figure 1 The Electroscope

The pith-ball electroscope and the gold-leaf electroscope are two classical types of
electroscope that are still used in physics education to demonstrate the principles of
electrostatics. An electroscope detects electric charges by charging and discharging
two strips of gold leaf. The two strips of gold leaf are suspended from a metal rod in a
glass jar. The suspended strips and the metal rod are able to conduct electricity. The
metal rod passes through the jar with a stopper that is not capable of conducting
electricity. When a charged object is brought near the metal rod, both strips repel each
other and resemble an inverted V. The strips repel each other because they have
acquired a like charge. When the strips have a like charge and separate, the
electroscope becomes charged. If an object with the opposing charge is brought near
the metal rod, the strips of gold leaf will hang straight down. The strips no longer repel
each other because the charge has been neutralized. After neutralization, the
electroscope becomes discharged. Electroscopes are commonly used in laboratories
and industries for experiments and measuring electric currents. Electroscopes can also
be used to detect various types of radiation from radioactive material.

27.3.1 Charging by Induction

One common demonstration performed physics involves the induction charging of two metal
spheres. The metal spheres are insulated stands such that any charge acquired by the spheres
cannot travel to the ground. The spheres are placed side by side (see diagram i. below) so as to
form a two-sphere system. Being made of metal, electrons are free to move from sphere A to
sphere B and vice versa. If a negatively charged rubber balloon is brought near the spheres,
electrons within the two-sphere system will be induced to move away from the balloon. Being
charged negatively, the electrons are repelled by the negatively charged balloon. And being
present in a conductor, they are free to move about the surface of the conductor. Subsequently,
there is a mass migration of electrons from sphere A to sphere B. This electron migration
causes the two-sphere system to be polarized (see diagram ii. below). Having been pulled
further from the balloon, the negative charge likely redistributes itself uniformly about sphere B
(see diagram iii. below). As the balloon is pulled away, there is a uniform distribution of charge
about the surface of both spheres (see diagram iv. below). This distribution occurs as the
remaining electrons in sphere A move across the surface of the sphere until the excess positive
charge is uniformly distributed.

Figure 2 Charging by induction

27.3.2 Charging by contact

Let us use a negatively charged metal sphere to charge a neutral needle electroscope. A
negatively charged metal sphere has an excess of electrons; those electrons find each other
repulsive and distance themselves from each other as far as possible. Given this understanding
of electron-electron repulsions, it is not difficult to predict what excess electrons on the metal
sphere would be inclined to do if the sphere were touched to the neutral electroscope. Once the
contact of the sphere to the electroscope is made, a countless number of excess electrons
from the sphere move onto the electroscope and spread about the sphere-electroscope system.
The metal sphere is still charged negatively, only it has less excess negative charge than it had
prior to the conduction charging process.

Figure 3 Charging by contact

27.3.3 Conservation of Charge

Charge, like matter, is essentially constant throughout the universe and over time. In
physics, charge conservation is the principle that electric charge can neither be created
nor destroyed. The net quantity of electric charge, the amount of positive charge minus
the amount of negative charge in the universe is always conserved.
Electric charge is carried by sub atomic particles such as electrons and protons, which
can be created and destroyed. But when particles are destroyed, equal number of
positive and negative charges are destroyed, keeping the net amount of charge
unchanged.

27.4 Electrostatic Force

Coulomb (1736-1806) carried out accurate experiments to determine how the
electrostatic force depends on the distance between charged "point" objects as well on
the magnitudes of their charges. He demonstrated that the magnitude of the
2
electrostatic force varies as 1 r where r is the distance between the point objects. If
the net charge on both point objects are q1 and q2, the electrostatic force between
them is mathematically given as

⃗ q1q2
Fe ∝ 2 (1)
r

⃗ |q1||q2|
and Fe = k
2 (2)
r
The absolute values are used since the charges can be positive or negative and the
equation is an expression for the magnitude of the electrostatic force. Equation (2) is
9 2 2
also known as coulomb’s law where k ≈ 9×10 Nm /C and carries the unit of charge.
The constant k is
1
also written in terms of the permittivity of free space ϵo: k= and
4πϵo
-12 2 2
ϵo = 8.854×10 C /Nm .

Example 1: Find the electrostatic force between an electron and proton separated by
10 -19 -19
0.520×10 m with the gravitational force between them. (e = -1.6×10 C, p = +1.6×10
C).
⃗ |q1||q2| 9 (1.6×10-19)(1.6×10-19) -21
Solution: Fe = k 2 = 8.99×10 = 2.704×10 N
r (0.520×10-10)2

27.4.1 Comparison in magnitude of electric force with gravitational force

Similarities:
1. Both these are central forces, i.e. they act along the line joining the centres of
two interacting bodies.
2. Both the forces obey the inverse square law of distance.
3. Both are conservative forces, i.e. the work done by them does not depend upon
the path followed.
4. Both forces can operate even in vacuum.
Differences:
1. While the gravitational forces are always attractive in nature, the electrostatic
forces may be attractive or repulsive.
2. While the gravitational force does not depend upon the medium, the
electrostatic force definitely depends upon the medium.
3. Electrostatic forces are extremely large as compared to gravitational forces.

Exercise
-4 -4
1. A negative charge of 2.0×10 C and a positive charge of 8.0×10 are separated by
0.30 m. What is the force between the two charges?
-6
2. A negative charge of -6.0×10 C exerts an attractive force of 65 N on a second charge
that is 0.050 m away. What is the magnitude of the second charge?
2 5
3. A force of 2.4×10 N exists between a positive charge of 8.0×10 C and a positive
5
charge of 3.0×10 C. What distance separates the charges?
-27 -27
4. An alpha particle has a mass of 6.68×10 kg and a charge of 3.2×10 C. What is the
ratio of the electrostatic force to the gravitational force between two alpha particles?
5. Two charged bodies exert a force of 86 N on each other. If they are moved so that
they are six times farther apart, what is the new force that they will exert on each
other?
28.0 ELECTRIC FIELD
28.1 Electric Fields
Electric field is a vector field and is defined as the electric force per unit charge. The
direction of the field is taken to be the direction of the force it would exert on a positive
test charge. The electric field is radially outward from a positive charge and radially in
⃗
toward a negative point charge. The electric field E is defined mathematically as
⃗ ⃗
E = F (1)
qo
⃗
where F is the electrostatic force acting on a positive test charge qo. The S.I. unit for
the electric field is the newton per coulomb (N/C).

28.1.1 Electric Field Lines

Drawings using lines to represent electric fields provide a nice way to visualize field
strength, direction and pattern. Since the electric field has both magnitude and direction,
it is a vector. Like all vectors, the electric field can be represented by an arrow that has
length proportional to its magnitude and that points in the correct direction.

⃗
Figure 28.1 The electric field vector E at the location of the test charge, and the electric field lines near the
spheres.

At any point, the direction of a straight field line or the direction of the tangent to a
⃗
curved field line gives the direction of E at that point. The field lines are drawn so that
the number of lines per unit area, measured in a plane that is perpendicular to the lines
⃗
is proportional to the magnitude of E . Note that electric field lines extend away from
positive charge (where they originate) and toward negative charge where they terminate.

28.1.2 Properties of Electric Field Lines

We use electric field lines to visualize and analyze electric fields (the lines are a pictorial
tool, not a physical entity in themselves). The properties of electric field lines for any
charge distribution can be summarized as follows:
1. Field lines must begin on positive charges and terminate on negative charges, or at
infinity in the hypothetical case of isolated charges.
2. The number of field lines leaving a positive charge or entering a negative charge is
proportional to the magnitude of the charge.
3. The strength of the field is proportional to the closeness of the field lines—more
precisely, it is proportional to the number of lines per unit area perpendicular to the
lines.
4. The direction of the electric field is tangent to the field line at any point in space.
5. Field lines can never cross. This means that the field is unique at any point. The field
line represents the direction of the field; so if they crossed, the field would have two
directions at that location (an impossibility if the field is unique).

28.2 Electric Field due to a Point Charge

The electrostatic force acting on a positive test charge qo due to a point charge q at a
distance r from qo is given as

⃗ 1 qqo
F = (2)
4πϵo r2
The electric field is
⃗ ⃗
1 q
E = F = (3)
qo 4πϵo r2

⃗
The direction of E is the same as that of the force on the positive test charge: directly
away from the point charge if q is positive, and toward it if q is negative. The net or
resultant electric field due to more than one point charge. If a positive test charge qo is
⃗
placed near n point charges q1,q2,…..qn, then the net force Fo from the n point charges
acting on the test charge is

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Fo = Fo1 +Fo2 + …………. + Fon (4)

The net electric field at the position of the test charge is

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
E = E1 + E2 + ……………. + En (5)

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Fo Fo1 Fo2 Fon
= = + + ……… + (6)
qo qo qo qo
Figure 28.2
(a)Field lines for two equal negative point charges. The (b) Field lines for a positive point charge and a
nearby
charges repel each other. In the case of positive charges negative point charge that are equal in
magnitude.
the arrow direction points away from the charges.

Example 1: Calculate the strength and direction of the electric field E due to a point
charge of 3 nC at a distance of 5 mm from the charge.
⃗ ⃗ -9
q 9 3×10
Solution: E = F = k 2 = 8.99×10
6
= 1.08×10 N/C
qo r (5×10-3)2
28.3 Conductors and Electric Fields in Static Equilibrium
Conductors contain free charges that move easily. When excess charge is placed on a
conductor or the conductor is put into a static electric field, charges in the conductor
quickly respond to reach a steady state called electrostatic equilibrium. A conductor
placed in an electric field will be polarized. The field becomes stronger near the
conductor but entirely disappears inside it.

Figure 28.3 A spherical conductor in electrostatic equilibrium with an originally uniform electric
field.

Free charges move within the conductor, polarizing it, until the electric field lines are
perpendicular to the surface. The field lines end on excess negative charge on one
section of the surface and begin again on excess positive charge on the opposite side.
No electric field exists inside the conductor, since free charges in the conductor would
continue moving in response to any field until it was neutralized.

28.3.1 Properties of a Conductor in Electrostatic Equilibrium

1. The electric field is zero inside a conductor.
2. Just outside a conductor, the electric field lines are perpendicular to its surface,
 ending or beginning on charges on the surface.
3. Any excess charge resides entirely on the surface or surfaces of a conductor.
4. On an irregularly shaped conductor, the surface charge density is greatest at
locations
where the radius of curvature of the surface is smallest.

28.4 Applications of Electrostatics

1. Van de Graff generators which are used to demonstrate high voltage due to
static electricity for use in physics research.
2. Xerography which most copy machines use is an electrostatic process.
3. Laser printers use the xerographic process to make high-quality images on paper,
employing a laser to produce an image on the photo-conducting drum.
4. The ink jet printer, commonly used to print computer-generated text and
graphics, also employs electrostatics. A nozzle makes a fine spray of tiny ink
droplets, which are then given an electrostatic charge.
5. Large electrostatic precipitators are used industrially to remove over 99% of the
particles from stack gas emissions associated with the burning of coal and oil.
Home precipitators, often in conjunction with the home heating and air
conditioning system, are very effective in removing polluting particles, irritants,
and allergens.

Exercise

-6
1. A positive test charge of 5.0×10 C is in an electric field that exerts a force of
-4
2.0×10 N on it. What is the magnitude of the electric field at the location of the test
charge?
-6
2. How far from a point charge of -2.4×10 C must a test charge be placed to measure a
field of 360 N/C?
-3 4
3. A pith ball weighing 2.1×10 N is placed in a downward electric field of 6.5×10 N/C.
What charge (magnitude and sign) must be placed on the pith ball so that the electric
force acting on it will suspend it against the force of gravity?
4. What is the magnitude of the electric field strength at a position that is 1.2 m from a
-6
point charge of 4.2×10 C?
5. What is the magnitude of the electric field strength at a distance twice as far from the
point charge in problem 4?

29.0 ELECTERIC FLUX AND GAUSS’ LAW

29.1 Electric Flux
Considering an electric field that is uniform in both magnitude and direction (see fig. 1),
the field lines penetrate a rectangular surface of area A, which is perpendicular to the
field. The number of lines per unit area is proportional to the magnitude of the electric
field. Therefore, the total number of lines penetrating the surface is proportional to the
product of the magnitude of the electric field E and surface area A perpendicular to the
field. This product is called the electric flux ΦE.

⃗ ⃗
ΦE = E A (1)
In integral form,

⃗ ⃗
Φ = ∮ E .d A (2)

The SI units of E and A, we see that ΦE has units of newton–meters squared per
2
coulomb (N.m /C). Electric flux is proportional to the number of electric field lines
penetrating some surface.

Figure 29.1 Field lines representing a uniform electric field penetrating a

plane of area A perpendicular to the field.

If the surface under consideration is not perpendicular to the field, the flux is given as

ΦE = EAcos θ (3)
where θ is the is the angle between the field and the normal to the surface area.

Example 1: What is the electric flux through a sphere that has a radius of 1 m and
carries a charge of +1 μC at its center?
2 2 2
Solution: surface area4πr = 4×3.142×1 = 12.6m
⃗ q 9 1×10
-6
3
E =k
2 = 8.99×10 2 = 8.99×10 N/C
r 1
3 5 2
and ΦE = EA = 8.99×10 ×12.6 = 1.13×10 N.m /C
o
The field is perpendicular to the surface of the sphere. So θ = 0

29.2 Gauss’ Theorem

Coulomb’s law is used to calculate the electric field generated by a given charge
distribution. We now describe Gauss’s law, a consequence of Coulomb’s law. Gauss’s
law relates the net flux Φ of an electric field through a closed surface to the net charge
⃗
qnet that is enclosed by that surface. Instead of considering the fields d E of charge
elements in a given charge distribution, Gauss’ law a hypothetical (imaginary) closed
surface enclosing the charge distribution. This kind of surface is called a Gaussian
surface. Gauss’ law states that

εoΦ = qnet (4)

It can also be written as

⃗ ⃗
εo∮ E .d A = qnet (5)

We can derive coulomb’s law from Gauss’ law by writing equation (4) law in the form

εo∮[Link] = qnet (6)

Since E is a constant in the integration, and taking qnet = q in this case, we can have

εoE∮dA = q (7)
The integral is a sum of all the differential areas dA and that is equal to the total surface
r
area (4π 2) and so we have
εoE(4πr ) = q
2

1 q
or E= (8)
4πεo r2

The net electric flux through a closed surface that surrounds no charge is zero.

29.2.1 Field around a Charged Isolated Conductor

If an excess charge is placed on an isolated conductor, the amount of charge will move
entirely to the surface of the conductor. None of the excess charge will be found within
the body of the conductor. From Gauss’ law,

εoEA = qnet (9)

qnet
but σ= (10)
A

where σ is the charge per unit area

and qnet = σA (11)

Equation (9) becomes εoEA = σA (12)

σ
E= (13)
εo
Equation (13) is the magnitude of the electric field just outside a conductor.
29.2.2 Applying Gauss Law to Cylindrical Symmetry
⃗
To find an expression for the magnitude of the electric field E at a distance r from the
axis of the a cylindrical charged rod as shown in fig.2, a uniform positive linear charge
density λ is assigned to it. The Gaussian surface that matches the symmetry of the
problem is a cylindrical one with radius r and length l. The two end caps of the cylinder
is counted as a part of the Gaussian surface.

Figure 29.2 A cylindrical Gaussian surface surrounding a section of a

very long, uniformly charged, cylindrical plastic rod.

The area A of the cylindrical surface is 2πrl. The flux E through the surface is

Φ = EAcos θ = E(2πrl)cos 0 = E(2πrl) (14)

⃗
There is no flux through the end caps because E , being radially directed, is
perpendicular to the area vector at any point on the caps. The charge enclosed by the
surface is λl. Gauss’ law (εoΦ = qnet) then becomes
εoE(2πrl) = λl (15)

λ
and E= (16)
2πεor
This is the electric field due to an infinitely long, straight line of charge at any point that
is a radial distance r from the line.

29.2.3 Applying Gauss’ law to Two Conducting Plates

For two parallel conducting plates with opposite charges, arranged to be close to each
other, the excess charge on one plate attracts the excess charge on the other plate, and
all the excess charges move to the inner surfaces of the plates. The electric field at any
point between the plates ahs magnitude

2σ1
E= (17)
εo
where σ1 is the surface charge density on each inner face of the plates.
Figure 3 (a) a thin, very long conducting plate with positive charge (b) an identical plate with excess negative charge
(c) the two plates arranged so they are parallel and close

Exercise
4
1. A vertical electric field of magnitude 2.00 ×10 N/C exists above the Earth’s surface
on a day when a thunderstorm is brewing. A car with a rectangular size of
approximately 6.00 m by 3.00 m is traveling along a roadway sloping downward at
10.0°. Determine the electric flux through the bottom of the car.
2. A 40.0 cm diameter loop is rotated in a uniform electric field until the position of
5
maximum electric flux is found. The flux in this position is measured to be 5.20×10
2
N_m /C. What is the magnitude of the electric field?
3. A pyramid with a 6.00 m-square base and height of 4.00 m is placed in a vertical
electric field of 52.0 N/C. Calculate the total electric flux through the pyramid’s four
slanted surfaces.
4. A charge of 170 µC is at the center of a cube of side 80.0 cm. (a) Find the total flux
through each face of the cube. (b) Find the flux through the whole surface of the cube.

30.0 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

30.1 Potential Energy and Electric Potential
Potential energy can be defined as the capacity for doing work which arises from
position or configuration. In the electrical case, if a positive charge Q is fixed at some
point in space, any other positive test charge which is brought close to it will experience
a repulsive force and will therefore have potential energy. The amount of force involved
in doing the work is dependent upon the amount of charge being moved (according to
Coulomb's law of electric force). The greater the charge on the test charge, the greater
the repulsive force and the more work that would have to be done on it to move it the
same distance. This work would change the potential energy by an amount that is equal
to the amount of work done. Since the electrical potential energy can change depending
on the amount of charge you are moving, it is helpful to describe the electrical potential
energy per unit of charge. This is known as electric potential. While electric potential
energy has a dependency upon the charge of the object experiencing the electric field,
electric potential is purely location dependent. Electric potential V is given as
 U
V= (1)
q
where U is the electric potential energy and q is charge. Electric potential is a scalar
quantity. We can define the electric potential difference between any two points in an
electric field to be

W
ΔV = Vf - Vi = - (2)
q
where W is the work done by the electric field on a particle as that particle moves from
an initial point i to a final point f in the field.
The energy per unit of charge is often called voltage so it is symbolized with the capital
letter V (S.I. unit). Work or energy can be measured in Joules and charge is measured in
Coulombs so the electrical potential can be measured in Joules per Coulomb which has
been defined as a volt. Thus,

1 volt = 1 joule per coulomb (3)

There is a new energy unit that is convenient to be used for energy measurements on
the atomic and sub atomic scale. An electron volt (eV) is the amount of energy it takes
to move an electron (with elementary charge e) through a potential difference of 1volt.

-19
1eV = 1.6× 10 J (4)
The potential difference between any two points i and f in an electric field can be
⃗
calculated from the electric field vector E along any line joining the two points using the
relation

⃗ ⃗
Vf - Vi = -∫fi E .d s (5)

30.2 Equipotential Surfaces

An equipotential surface is a real or imaginary surface on which all points have the
same electric potential. All points on a sphere around a point charge have the same
distance r and so they all have the same potential

q
V=k (6)
r

All points on a plane parallel to two parallel charged plates have the same potential.
(a) Equipotential points on a sphere around a point charge (b) Equipotential points on the plane
parallel to two
parallel charged plates
It may be noted that an equipotential surface may be the surface of a material body or a
surface drawn in an electric field. Some important properties of equipotential surfaces
1. Work done in moving a charge over an equipotential surface is zero.
2. The electric field is always perpendicular to an equipotential surface.
3. The spacing between equipotential surfaces enables us to identify regions of strong
and weak fields.
4. Two equipotential surfaces can never intersect. If two equipotential surfaces could
intersect, then at the point of intersection there would be two values of electric
potential which is not possible.

30.3 Potential due to a Point Charge

The general expression for the electric potential as a result of a point charge Q can be
obtained by referencing to a zero of potential at infinity. The expression for the potential
difference is

[ ]
1 1
Va - Vb = kQ - (7)
ra rb
kQ Q
as rb→∞, V= = (8)
r 4πεor

30.4 Potential due to Several Point Charges

We obtain the electric potential resulting from two or more point charges by applying
the superposition principle. That is, the total electric potential at some point P due to
several point charges is the sum of the potentials due to the individual charges. For a
group of point charges, we can write the total electric potential at P in the form

qi
V = k∑ni=1 (for n point charges) (9)
ri

30.5 Potential of a Charged Isolated Conductor

When a solid conductor in equilibrium carries a net charge, the charge resides on the
outer surface of the conductor. Furthermore, the electric field just outside the conductor
is perpendicular to the surface and the field inside is zero. It can be shown that every
point on the surface of a charged conductor in equilibrium is at the same electric
potential. Hence, such a surface is an equipotential surface and the potential difference
between any two points A and B is necessarily zero.
 ⃗ ⃗
VA - VB = -∫AB E .d s = 0 (10)

When a net charge is placed on a spherical conductor, the surface charge density is
uniform, However, if the conductor is non spherical, the surface charge is not distributed
uniformly over the surface of the conductor. The electric field is large near convex
points having small radii of curvature and reaches very high values at sharp points. Also,
for an arbitrary conductor with a cavity within, the electric field in the cavity is zero
regardless of the charge on the conductor. Points within the conductor also come to the
same potential.

30.6 The Relationship between V and E for Two Parallel Conducting Plates

Figure 30.1 V and E for two parallel conducting plates

The work done by the electric field to move a positive charge q from A, the positive plate,
higher potential, to B, the negative plate, lower potential, is

W = -ΔU = -qΔV (11)

Where U is the electric potential energy

The potential difference between points A and B is

-ΔV = -(VB-VA) = VA - VB = VAB (12)
Entering this into (11) gives
W = qVAB (13)

W = Fd cos θ ; here cos θ = 1, since the path is parallel to the field, and so W = Fd .
Since F = qE, we see that
W = qEd (14)

Substituting this expression for work into (13), we have

qEd = qVAB (15)

VAB = Ed (16)
V
E = AB (17)
d

where d is the distance between the plates. Equation (17) is valid for uniform Electric
field only.
The unit of E here is V/m. 1 V/m is equivalent to 1 N/C.

Example 1: A battery produces a specified potential difference between conductors

attached to the battery terminals. A 12 V battery is connected between two parallel
plates. The separation between the plates is d = 0.30 cm, assuming the electric field
between the plates to be uniform.
ΔV 12 3
Solution: E = = -2 = 4×10 V/m
d 0.3×10
Example 2: A proton is released from rest in a uniform electric field that has a
4
magnitude of 8.0 × 10 V/m and is directed along the positive x axis. The proton
undergoes a displacement of 0.50 m in the direction of E. (a) Find the change in electric
potential between points it has moved (b) Find the change in potential energy of the
proton for this displacement.
Solution: ΔV = -Ed = -(8.0 × 10 ×0.5) = -4×10 V
4 4

-19 4 -15
ΔU = qΔV = 1.6×10 ×-4×10 = -6.4×10 J

30.7 Electrostatic Shielding

Electrostatic shielding is the process of isolating a certain region of space from
external field. It is based on the fact that electric field inside a conductor is zero. This
may involve placing of a grounded metal screen, sheet, or enclosure around a device or
between two devices to prevent electric fields from interacting. Static electricity causes
problems for experimenters and electronics manufacturers, because a strong charge
can damage delicate electronic components such as MOSFETs, CMOS ICs, Computer
cards, TTL chips, even LEDs when they come in contact with charged objects. During a
thunder accompanied by lightning, it is safer to sit inside a bus than in open ground or
under a tree. The metal body of the bus provides electrostatic shielding, where the
electric field is zero. During lightning the electric discharge passes through the body of
the bus. The same way, the aluminum body of an airplane serves as a shield when
struck by lightning. When a totally electrostatic free environment is needed for certain
equipment to work very efficiently, an enclosure that prevents the interaction of external
electric field called FARADAY'S CAGE is used. Humidifying the air in the lab also helps
cut down static electricity as electrons build up more easily in dry areas. Some
manufacturing workers are required to abide by strict clothing regulations, avoiding
sweaters and hats that might encourage static electricity to build up. Technicians might
wear wrist straps that are attached to the floor with a metal wire, sending extra
electrons out of the room and into the ground.

30.8 Electrical Breakdown of Dielectric

Electrical breakdown or dielectric breakdown is a reduction in the resistance of an

electrical insulator when very high voltage is applied across it. This results in the
insulator behaving like a conductor. Electrical breakdown may be a momentary event
(as in an electrostatic discharge), or may lead to a discontinuous arc charge if
protective devices fail to interrupt the current in a low power circuit. Breakdown may be
intentional and controlled or it may be accidental. Electrical breakdown can occur in
solids, liquids and gases. Lightning is the most familiar example of breakdown.

Exercise

1. The electric field intensity between two large, charged, parallel metal plates is 6000
N/C. The plates are 0.05 m apart. What is the electric potential difference between
them?
2. A voltmeter reads 400 V across two charged, parallel plates that are 0.020 m apart.
What is the electric field between them?
3. What electric potential difference is applied to two metal plates that are 0.200 m
3
apart if the electric field between them is 2.50×10 N/C?
4. When a potential difference of 125 V is applied to two parallel plates, the field
3
between them is 4.25×10 N/C. How far apart are the plates?
5. A potential difference of 275 V is applied to two parallel plates that are 0.35 cm apart.
What is the electric field between the plates?

31.0 CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRICS

31.1 Capacitors
An arrangement of two conductors carrying charges of equal magnitude but of opposite
sign and separated by an insulator (a dielectric) is called a capacitor. The conductors
are also referred to as plates. The capacitor is a component which has the ability or
“capacity” to store energy in the form of electrical charge producing a potential
difference ΔV across its plates, much like a small rechargeable battery. The dielectric
material can be air or some kind of a good insulating material such as waxed paper,
mica, ceramic, plastic or some form of a liquid gel as used in electrolytic capacitors.
Due to this insulating layer, DC current cannot flow through the capacitor as it blocks it
allowing instead a voltage to be present across the plates in the form of an electrical
charge.

Figure 31.1 A simple parallel plate capacitor construction and symbols for capacitor. The
symbol with the curved line shows that the capacitor is polarized.

31.2 The Capacitance of a Capacitor

Capacitance is the electrical property of a capacitor and is the measure of a capacitors

ability to store an electrical charge onto its two plates with the unit of capacitance being
the Farad (abbreviated to F) named after the British physicist Michael Faraday. It is the
ratio of the magnitude of the charge on either conductor to the magnitude of the
potential difference between them. The quantity of charge Q on a capacitor is linearly
proportional to the potential difference ΔV between the conductors. Mathematically,

Q ∝ ΔV (1)
Q = CΔV (2)
The constant of proportionality C is called the capacitance of the capacitor and it
depends on the geometry of the plates and not on their charge or potential difference.
Q
C= (3)
ΔV
The S.I. unit of capacitance is coulombs per volt to which the special name farad (F)
has been assigned.

Standard Units of Capacitance

 Microfarad (μF) 1μF = 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10-6 F

 Nanofarad (nF) 1nF = 1/1,000,000,000 = 0.000000001 = 10-9 F
 Picofarad (pF) 1pF = 1/1,000,000,000,000 = 0.000000000001 = 10-12 F

31.3 Charging a Capacitor

When a DC voltage is placed across a capacitor in a circuit, the positive (+ve) charge
quickly accumulates on one plate while a corresponding negative (-ve) charge
accumulates on the other plate. For every particle of positive charge that arrives at one
plate a charge of the same sign will depart from the negative plate. At some point the
capacitor plates will be so full of charges that they just can’t accept any more. There are
enough negative charges on one plate that they can repel any others that try to join. The
flow of electrons onto the plates is known as the capacitor’s Charging Current which
continues to flow until the voltage across both plates (and hence the capacitor) is equal
to the applied voltage Vc. At this point the capacitor is said to be “fully charged” with
electrons. The strength or rate of this charging current is at its maximum value when
the plates are fully discharged (initial condition) and slowly reduces in value to zero as
the plates charge up to a potential difference across the capacitors plates equal to the
source voltage. If a path in the circuit is created, which allows the charges to find
another path to each other, they’ll leave the capacitor, and it will discharge. For example,
in the circuit below, a battery can be used to induce an electric potential across the
capacitor. This will cause equal but opposite charges to build up on each of the plates,
until they’re so full they repel any more current from flowing. A load placed in series with
the capacitor could provide a path for the current, and the energy stored in the capacitor
would be used up.

Figure 31.2 A circuit showing charge and discharge process of a capacitor

31.4 A Parallel Plate Capacitor

Two parallel metallic plates of equal area A are separated by a distance d, as shown in
Figure 3. One plate carries a charge +Q and the other carries a charge -Q. The surface
charge density on either plate is

Q
σ= (4)
A

The value of the electric field between the plates is

σ Q
E= = (5)
εo εoA
 Figure 31.3 A parallel plate capacitor consists of two plates separated by a distance d.

The field between the plates is uniform and the magnitude of the potential difference
between the plates equals
Qd
ΔV = Ed = (6)
εoA
Substituting (6) into (3), we have

Q Q
C= = (7)
ΔV Qd εoA

εoA
C= (parallel plate capacitor) (8)
d

It is seen that for a parallel plate capacitor there are only two factors (A and d) that
affect its capacitance C. A is the area of one plate in square meters, d is the distance
2
-12 C
between the plates in meters and εo = 8.85×10 2 . The Capacitance C increases as
N.m
we increase A or decrease d.

Table 31.1 Capacitors and Geometry

Geometry Capacitance
Isolated charged sphere of C = 4πεoR
radius R (second charges
conductor assumed at
infinity)
Parallel-plate capacitor of εoA
plate Area A and plate C=
d
separation d
Cylindrical capacitor of l
C=
( ba )
length l and inner and outer
radii a and b respectively 2kln
 Spherical capacitor with ab
C=
inner and outer radii a and k(b-a)
b respectively

-4 2
Example: A parallel-plate capacitor has an area 2×10 m and a plate separation d = 1
mm. Find its capacitance.
-4
εoA -12 2×10 -12
Solution: C = = 8.85×10 × -3 = 1.77×10 F = 1.77 pF
d 1×10

31.5 Combination of Capacitors

Much like resistors, multiple capacitors can be combined in series or parallel to create a
combined equivalent capacitance. Capacitors, however, add together in a way that’s
completely the opposite of resistors.

31.5.1 Capacitors in Parallel

When capacitors are placed in parallel with one another the total capacitance is simply
the sum of all capacitances. This is analogous to the way resistors add when in series.

Figure 31.4 Parallel combination of capacitors

The individual potential differences across capacitors connected in parallel are all the
same and are equal to the potential difference applied across the combination i.e

ΔV = ΔV1 = ΔV2 = ΔV3 (9)

The equivalent capacitance Ceqof the circuit is

Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 (10)

The total charge Q stored by the two capacitors is

Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 (11)

i.e the total charge on capacitors connected in parallel is the sum of the charges on the
individual capacitors.

Q1 = C1ΔV, Q2 = C2ΔV, Q3 = C3ΔV (12)

Qtotal = CeqΔV (13)

For three or more capacitors connected in parallel,

Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + ……………… (14)

Thus, the equivalent capacitance of a parallel combination of capacitors is greater than

any of the individual capacitances.
Example: Find the total capacitance for three capacitors connected in series, given their
individual capacitances are 1, 5, and 7 μF
Solution: Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 = 1 + 5 + 7 = 13 μF

31.5.2 Capacitors in Series

Figure 31.5 Capacitors in series

In figure 31.5 above, we see a series arrangement of capacitors. The charges on

capacitors connected in series are the same. The voltage ΔV across the battery
terminals is split between the two capacitors
ΔV = ΔV1 + ΔV2 (15)

where ΔV1 and ΔV2 are the potential differences across capacitors C1 and C2 ,
respectively. The total potential difference across any number of capacitors connected
in series is the sum of the potential differences across the individual capacitors.
The equivalent capacitance Ceq of the series combination of capacitors can be shown to
be

1 1
Ceq = + (16)
C1 C2
and for three or more resistors connected in series,

1 1 1 1
= + + + ………….. (17)
Ceq C1 C2 C3
Thus, the equivalent capacitance of a series combination of capacitors is smaller than
any of the individual capacitances.
Example: Find the total capacitance for three capacitors connected in series, given their
individual capacitances are 1, 5, and 7 μF
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Solution: = + + = + + = 1.34
Ceq C1 C2 C2 1 5 7
1
So, Ceq = = 0.74 μF
1.34
31.6 Energy Stored in a Capacitor
Capacitors can store energy. The average voltage on the capacitor during the charging
V V
process is , and so the average voltage experienced by the full charge Q is . From
2 2
the expression ΔPE = QΔV, the energy stored in the capacitor is therefore
QV
E= (18)
2
Equation (18) can be written in some other forms like

2 2
QV CV Q
E= = = (19)
2 2 2C
where Q is the charge and V the voltage on a capacitor with capacitance C. The energy
is in joules for a charge in coulombs, voltage in volts, and capacitance in farads.

The energy per unit volume uE also called the energy density in any electric field is given
as

1 2
uE = εE (20)
2 o
where E is the electric field at a given point.
3
Example: A heart defibrillator delivers 4.00×10 J of energy by discharging a capacitor
initially at 10,000 V. What is its capacitance?
2 3
CV 2E 2×4×10 -5
Solution: From E = ,C= 2 = 2 = 8×10 F = 80 μF
2 V 10000

31.7 Action of a Dielectric

A dielectric is a non-conducting material, such as rubber, waxed paper or glass.
Inserting a dielectric between the plates of a capacitor, increases the capacitance. If the
dielectric completely fills the space between the plates, the capacitance increases by a
factor κ, which is called the dielectric constant. The dielectric constant is a property of a
material and varies from one material to another. The capacitance becomes

C = κCo (21)

where Co is the capacitance in the absence of the dielectric. For example, a parallel plate
capacitor (equation 8) with a dielectric between its plates has a capacitance given by

εoA
C=κ (22)
d
If the magnitude of the electric field in the dielectric goes beyond the ‘dielectric
strength’, the insulating properties break down and the dielectric begins to conduct. For
any given separation d, the maximum voltage that can be applied to a capacitor without
causing a discharge depends on the dielectric strength (maximum electric field) of the
dielectric.

Some advantages provided by dielectrics include

1. Increase in capacitance
2. Increase in maximum operating voltage
3. Mechanical support between the plates. It allows the plates to be very near each
other without making contact, thereby decreasing d and increasing C.

31.8 Types of Capacitors and Their Uses

Capacitors are primarily made of ceramic, glass, or plastic, depending upon purpose
and size. Practical capacitors are of different types.
Commercial capacitors are often made from metallic foil interlaced with thin sheets of
either paraffin-impregnated paper or Mylar as the dielectric material. These alternate
layers of metallic foil and dielectric are rolled into a cylinder to form a small package.
Electrolytic capacitor is used to store large amounts of charge at relatively low voltages.
It consists of a metallic foil in contact with an electrolyte. When a voltage is applied
between the foil and the electrolyte, a thin layer of metal oxide (an insulator) is formed
on the foil, and this layer serves as the dielectric. They have a polarity, which is indicated
by positive and negative signs marked on the device.
High-voltage capacitors commonly consist of a number of interwoven metallic plates
immersed in silicone oil.
Variable capacitors (typically 10 to 500 pF) usually consist of two interwoven sets of
metallic plates, one fixed and the other movable, and contain air as the dielectric.
One device in which capacitors have an important role is the defibrillator. Up to 360 J is
stored in the electric field of a large capacitor in a defibrillator when it is fully charged.
The defibrillator can deliver all this energy to a patient in about 2 ms. The sudden
electric shock stops the fibrillation (random contractions) of the heart that often
accompanies heart attacks and helps to restore the correct rhythm.

A camera’s flash unit also uses a capacitor, although the total amount of energy stored
is much less than that stored in a defibrillator. After the flash unit’s capacitor is charged,
tripping the camera’s shutter causes the stored energy to be sent through a special light
bulb that briefly illuminates the subject being photographed.

Exercise
1. How much charge is stored on a 0.47 μF capacitor when a potential difference of 12
V is applied to it?
2. A 27 μF capacitor has an electric potential difference of 45 V across it. What is the
charge on the capacitor?
3. Both a 3.3 μF and a 6.8 μF capacitor are connected across a 24 V electric potential
difference. Which capacitor has a greater charge? What is it?
4. (a) A 3 μF capacitor is connected to a 12.0 V battery. How much energy is stored in
 the capacitor? (b) If the capacitor had been connected to a 6.00 V battery, how much
energy would have been stored?
5. Find the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor that uses Bakelite as a dielectric, if
2
each of the plates has an area of 5.00 cm and the plate separation is 2.00 mm.(κ for
bakelite is 4.9)