Formation of the Solar System

How was the solar system formed?

Scientists believe a cloud of gas and dust in space
was disturbed by a supernova.

When did this occur?

- 4.6 billion years ago

The Nebular Hypothesis

- The explosion made waves in space
- This caused the formation of a solar nebulla
 Formation of the Planets
The centre of the solar nebula grew hotter resulting
in the formation of the Sun.
- The outer edges cooled causing clumps of particles
to stick together and form planets
 Components of Outer Space
Galaxy
- A cluster of billions of stars. Our solar system
makes up a tiny portion of the Milky Way Galaxy.

Star
- A hot glowing ball of gas that generates energy bu
converting hydrogen into helium
 The Milky Way Galaxy

Figure 2.1
The Sun is located approximately 30 quintillion km
from the centre of the Milky Way galaxy.
- It takes light nearly 100,000 years to travel from
one side of the galaxy to the other
 The Sun
In the core of the Sun, the temperature is
15,000,000°C.

The outermost part of the Sun is called the

photosphere, and it is 6000°C.
- Energy from the Sun controls the Earth’s climate
system
- The Sun is so large relative to
Earth that Earth only receives
2-billionths of the Sun’s total
energy
 The Solar System

The solar system is composed of 8 planets, 214

moons, and millions of bolides.

Order of the planets: Mercury, Mars, Earth, Mars,

Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
 Life Cycle of Stars
The Sun is the closest star to Earth; it has a life
expectancy of approximately 10 billion years.
- At the end of the life cycle of a star, massive
amounts of energy are released in an explosion
(supernova)
Measuring Distance in Outer Space
In astronomy, distances are measured in light-years
rather than in kilometres.

A light-year is the distance that light travels in

one year.

Speed of light: 300,000 km/s

1 light year (ly) = 95 trillion km
 Solar Energy
Energy is the capacity of a physical system to do
work. The unit of energy is a Joule (J).

Solar energy is in the form of radiation (invisible

waves) from the Sun.

Solar energy is generated by the nuclear fusion

reaction process within the Sun:

The Sun’s hydrogen atoms are forced together

under pressure; pairs of hydrogen nuclei fuse to
form helium
 Solar Wind
During solar flares, the Sun emits electrically
charged particles that surge outward from its
surface – this is known as the solar wind.
- This energetic material takes approximately 3
days to reach Earth

The Earth’s magnetic field deflects the solar wind

toward both of Earth’s poles and only a small
portion of it enters the atmosphere – this produces
auroras.
 Auroras
The Aurora Borealis
can often be seen
around the North
Pole whereas the
Aurora Australis can
often be seen around
the South Pole.

Figure 2.4
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Solar radiation occupies a portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum of radiant energy.

The total spectrum of this radiant energy is made

up of different wavelengths.

Figure 2.5
 Solar and Terrestrial Radiation
There are three categories of solar radiation:\
1. Gamma rays, X-rays, UV rays (8%)
2. Visible light (47%)
3. Infrared (45%)

- Solar radiation (emitted by the Sun) is a.k.a.

- Shortwave radiation

- Terrestrial radiation (emitted by the Earth) is

a.k.a.
- Longwave radiation
 Earth’s Energy Budget

Figure 2.7
Solar radiation that reaches Earth is called
insolation, or incoming solar radiation.
 Incoming Solar Radiation (Insolation)
The tropics receive more concentrated insolation
due to Earth’s curvature.

The subsolar point is the location where insolation is

perpendicular to the surface (this varies depending
on the time of year).

Figure 2.8 Figure 2.9

 Energy at the Tropics
Depending on the time of year, the Sun is directly
overhead of a latitude somewhere between 23.5°N
(the Tropic of Cancer) and 23.5°S (the Tropic of
Capricorn).

What is the result of this?

- The Sun is at a high solar angle in the tropics,
therefore more energy impacts the Earth’s surface
there
 Solar Angle of Incidence

Sunlight that strikes the surface at an angle is spread

over a larger area than sunlight that strikes the
surface directly.
Sun rays at an angle deliver less energy to a given
area than direct rays do
 Hours of Daylight
At the Equator, day and night are always 12 hours
long each.
Toward the poles, daylight grows longer in Summer
and shorter in Winter
 Reasons for Seasons

The seasons are caused by the Earth’s axis being

tilted at a 23.5° angle.
 Hours of Daylight
Which locations will experience at least one day each
year of 24 hours of daylight and at least one day
each year of 24 hours of darkness?
Anywhere north of the Arctic Circle or south of the
Antarctic Circle
 Variations in Hours of Daylight
During an equinox, all locations on Earth experience
approximately 12 hours of day and 12 hours of night.

Daylight is longest on the Summer solstice and

daylight is shortest on the Winter solstice.

Hours of Daylight
City June 21 Dec 21
(Summer solstice) (Winter solstice)
London 15 hours 9 hours
Winnipeg 18 hours 8 hours
Yellowknife 20 hours 5 hours
 The Atmosphere
The atmosphere has many benefits:

- provides protection from the Sun’s harmful UV

radiation
- Transports heart from the tropics to the poles
- Moderate temperature to support life
 Composition of the Atmosphere

Important trace gases include:

Nitrogen (N): 78%
Oxygen (O): 21%
Trace gases: 1%
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Water Vapour (H2O)
Methane (CH4)
Ozone (O3)
 Gases of the Atmosphere
Nitrogen
- added to the atmosphere by decaying plant matter
and removed by soil bacteria
- An important gas for supporting plant and ocean
life

Oxygen
- Produced by plants through photosynthesis
 Gases of the Atmosphere
Carbon Dioxide

- the gas most responsible for climate change

- removed from the atmosphere by plants through

photosynthesis

- Enters the atmosphere mainly from the burning

of fossil fuels (coal, oil, etc.)

- Global CO2 levels have steadily risen over the

past century as global air temperatures
 Gases of the Atmosphere
Water Vapour
- highly variable in concentration
(highest in humid areas such as rainforests)
- Water vapour in the atmosphere forms clouds by
condensation, and may eventually form
precipitation

Ozone
- mostly found in the stratosphere
- Protects the Earth’s surface from the Sun’s UV rays
 Air Pressure
Definition:
The amount of force exerted by the air on the surface
below.

How is it measured?
With a barometer
*Air pressure always decreases with increasing height

It is commonly measured in hectopascals (hPa) or

millibars (mb)
Average air pressure: 1013 hPa = 101.3 kPa
Low pressure: below 1005 hPa
Conversions: High pressure: above 1020 hPa
1 hectopascal = 1 millibar
10 hectopascal = 10 kilopascal
 Air Density
Both air pressure and air density decrease with height.
 Layers of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere can be divided into layers based on:
- Temperature
- Composition
- Function
Layers of the
Atmosphere
Defined by
Temperature

The temperature
profile varies through
the atmosphere.

Figure 3.3
 Layers Defined by Temperature
Troposphere
- the bottom most layer; it is where all weather occurs
- the thinnest layer (about 11 km thick)
- It is primarily heated by Earth’s surface
- Its upper boundary is called the tropopause

Stratosphere
- the layer warms with height mainly due to ozone
absorbing solar radiation
- Most of the ozone in the atmosphere is in this layer
 Layers Defined by Temperature
Mesosphere
- the layer above the stratosphere; it cools with
height
- A human would not survive at this height due to
the low amount of oxygen

Thermosphere
- the uppermost layer of the atmosphere
- Very low amount of gases
Air Temperature in the Atmosphere
Temperature normally decreases with increasing
height in the troposphere at an average of:
6.5°C per 1000m
This is called the environment lapse rate
 Layers Defined by Composition
Heterosphere: the outer atmosphere
- From 80km upward
- Layers of gases are well sorted by gravity
- Extends from the Earth’s surface to 80km

Homosphere: the inner atmosphere

- Gases are evenly mixed
- Absorbs cosmic rays, gamma rays, x-rays, some UV rays
- Ozone absorbs UV radiation where it is converted to heat energy
 Layers Defined by Function
Ionosphere
- encompasses the thermosphere and
mesosphere
- It forms naturally in the stratosphere

Ozonosphere
- an area within the stratosphere
- It forms in the troposphere by chemical
reactions with other gases
Atmospheric Layers

Figure 3.1
 Ozone
It is a gas composed of
oxygen with an odour
similar to chlorine.
- The ozone layer protects
us from UV rays
- UV rays can cause great
damage to unprotected
skin
 Ozone in the Stratosphere
Ozone in the stratosphere is important because some
of the Sun’s radiation is ultraviolet.
 Destruction of the Ozone Layer
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are the major reason for
the depletion of the ozone layer during the 1900s.

CFCs were found in inefficient appliances, spray cans,

and industrial processes.

Non-essential uses of CFCs were banned in North

America in the 1970s

Montreal Protocol (1987)

- A high successful worldwide agreement among
countries to reduce CFC concentrations
 Destruction of the Ozone Layer
Ultraviolet radiation breaks up CFC molecules
causing the release of chlorine.

Chlorine rapidly destroys ozone

- A CFC molecule can remain in the atmosphere for
many decades
 Destruction of the Ozone Layer
Though CFCs have declined since 1970, there is
little decline recognized in the atmosphere.

Why?
Because of the residence time of CFCs

Decreased amounts of stratospheric ozone have

resulted in increased cases of skin cancer.
Skin cancer rates have doubled since 1950
 Air Pollutant
Definition:
An airborne substance that threatens the health of
people, animals, or vegetation.
(fixed or mobile)
Human Sources
- Industries, vehicles, airplanes

Natural Sources
- Dust, sand, volcanic eruptions, forest fires
 Natural
Pollutants
 Classifying Air Pollutants
Primary Air Pollutants
- pollutants that enter the atmosphere directly

Ex: Exhaust from vehicles

Secondary Air Pollutants

- pollutants that form because of a chemical
reaction in the air

Ex: Acidic pollutants can form when gases react

with water vapour
Factors Affecting
Air Pollution
Wind Speed
- High wind speeds encourage pollution dispersal
- Hills and mountains prevent pollution in lakes,
and erodes materials

Inversions
- this is a layer where temperatures increase with
height

Topography
 Inversions
Inversions trap pollutants because air cannot rise
through an inversion.

Figure 3.7
 Acid Precipitation
Definition:
Precipitation that combines with pollutants that turn
the precipitation acidic.

Effects of Acid Precipitation: It slows tree growth,

reduces fish population in lakes, and erodes
materials

Currently, 14,000 lakes in Canada are acidified.

 Acid Precipitation
The pH scale is a measure of acidity.

Scale Range: 0 to 14;

7 is neutral and below 7 is acidic
Precipitation is naturally acidic (~5.5)
Effects of Acid Precipitation
 Acid Precipitation
Figure 3.2.2

1990 2010

Acid precipitation is most common in eastern North

America.
Nitrogen oxide and sulfur oxides combine with
water molecules to form nitric and sulfuric acid

Aquatic life cannot survive when pH < 4.8.