Solar PV System Installation and

Maintenance
Short Term Training Manual

LG -01
Unit of Competence Apply Principles of Photovoltaic
system Operation
Module Title Applying Principles of Photovoltaic
system Operation
LG Code EIS PIM2 M01 LO1 LG-1
TTLM Code EIS STT TTLM 0120v1

LO 1: Identify Renewable Energy Sources

 Instruction Sheet-1 Learning Guide:-01

This learning guide is developed to provide you the necessary information

regarding the following content coverage and topics
• Basic electricity and electronics
• Identifying and describing types of renewable energy
• Basic working principles of renewable energy
• Applications of renewable energy
• Advantage and disadvantages of renewable energy sources
This guide will also assist you to attain the learning outcome stated in the
cover page. Specifically, upon completion of this Learning Guide, you will
be able to:-
• Identify Basic electricity and electronics
• Identify and describe types of renewable energy
• Identify basic working principles of renewable energy
• Identify the applications of renewable energy sources
• Identify advantage and disadvantages of renewable energy sources
Learning Instructions:
1. Read the specific objectives of this Learning Guide.
2. Follow the instructions described below 3 to 6.
3. Read the information written in the information Sheet 1, Sheet 2, Sheet
3, Sheet 4, Sheet 5 and in pages 2, 24, 29, 31 and 34 respectively.
4. Accomplish the Self-check 1, Self-check 2, Self-check 3, Self-check 4
Self-check 5 in pages 21, 28, 30, 33, and 35 respectively
5. If you earned a satisfactory evaluation from the “Self-check” proceed
to Operation Sheet 1in page 36.
6. Do the “LAP test” in page 37

1
Information Sheet-1 Basic Electricity and Electronics

1. Basic Electricity and Electronics

1.1. Introduction
Electricity is an apparent force in nature that exists whenever there is a
net electrical charge between any two objects and is put to use in
industrial applications such as: electronics and electric power.
 Electricity:
 Dynamic electricity is the flow of an electric charge through a
conduction point. Dynamic electricity is often referred to as
electric current. The biggest difference between dynamic
electricity and static electricity is the movement of charges or
currents.
 Atom the smallest particle of a chemical element that can exist.
 It is made up of three parts known as:
 Protons–positively charged particles
 Neutrons–particles with no charge
 Electrons–negatively charged particles

Figure 1: Atom floating in an electric field

 Conductors
 Allow the flow of electricity
 Contain atoms with free electrons one to three electrons in the outer orbit
 Free electrons are not locked in orbit around the nucleus
 electrons can be forced to move from one atom to another
 Copper, gold, and silver are good conductors
 Insulators
 Resist the flow of electricity
 Contain atoms with bound electrons five to eight electrons in
the outer orbit
 Bound electrons will not leave their orbit around the nucleus
 Plastic, rubber, and ceramics are good insulators

1.2. Three terms are used in the study of electricity:

2
3
 1.2.1. Current (I)
Current is a measure of the rate of electron flow through a material.
Electrical current is measured in units of amperes or "Amps” or “A" for
short. This flow of electrical current develops when electrons are forced
from one atom to another. One amp is defined as 6.28 x 1018 electrons
per second. When current flows in a conductor, heat is produced.

1.2.2. Voltage
Voltage is the electrical force that causes free electrons to move from one
atom to another. Just as water needs some pressure to force it through a
pipe, electrical current needs some force to make it flows. "Volts" is the
measure of "electrical pressure" that causes current flow. Voltage is
sometimes referred to as the measure of a potential difference between
two points along a conductor. Sometimes the symbol E is used for EMF
(Electro motive force).

Figure 2: Similarity of water pressure and Voltage

1.2.3. Resistance
Resistance is the opposition to current flow. The electrical resistance of a
material is measured in units called "ohms"(Ω). The lower the resistance of
a material, the better the material acts as a conductor. For example,
copper has a lower electrical resistance than aluminum, copper is a better

conductor.
Figure 3: Types of wires/Cable

The scientific symbol for electrical resistance, which is measured in ohms, is

the Greek letter Omega (Ω).Electricians and practical wiring books typically
use an "R" to represent resistance.
4
  Factors Affecting the Resistance of a conductor
 Kind of the material-the greatest the number of free electrons
present in a substances, the lower the resistance. For example,
copper has a lower electrical resistance than aluminium, copper is
a better conductor
 Length of the material-Directly proportional with resistance
 Cross sectional area ( thickness) -inversely proportional with resistance
 Temperature-Metals generally offer higher resistance at high
temperature. Non- metallic substance such as carbon offer lower
resistance at high temperature

1.3. Ohm’s law

The relationship of Ohm’s law is the behavior of electric currents I, relating
them to voltage V and resistance R.
V=R xI
This is a linear relation. If you double the voltage (V) then for the same
value of R you get twice the current. If you want to keep the current the
same value after doubling V, you would have to double the resistance (R).

Figure 4: Relation between Voltage, Current and Resistance

Figure 5: Ohms law formulas

5
 1.4. Electrical Circuits
An electrical circuit is a path or line through which an electrical current
flows. The path may be closed (joined at both ends), making it a loop. A
closed circuit makes electrical current flow possible. It may also be an
open circuit where the electron flow is cut short because the path is

broken. An open circuit does not allow electrical current to flow

Figure 6: Simple circuit, Source: /[Link]

Alternating Current (AC) & Direct Current (DC)

The supply of current for electrical devices may come from a direct current
(DC) source or an alternating current (AC) source. In a direct current
circuit, electrons flow continuously in one direction from the source of
power through a conductor to a load and back to the source of power.
By contrast, an AC generator makes electrons flow first in one direction
then in another. In fact, an AC generator reverses its terminal polarities
many times a second, causing current to change direction with each
reversal.
1.5. Types of Electrical Circuits
Based on the connection of loads, electrical circuits are classified in to three:

1.5.1. Series circuit

In series circuit, loads are connected end to end.
 The current is the same at any point in the circuit
 I1=I2=I3=...In
 The total resistance is the sum of the individual resistors
 RT=R1+R2+R3….+RN
 The applied voltage is equal to the sum of the voltage drops
6
across all the resistors
 VT=V1+V2+V3….+VN

7
  Advantage:- Economical, less wire/cable is needed
 Disadvantage:- if one of the lamps is broken the whole circuit will
be out of operation

1.5.2. Parallel circuit

In a parallel circuit the loads are arranged to allow all the positive
terminals to be joined to a single conductor and all the negative one to
another conductor so in effect the current travels through different parallel
paths. The total resistance of a parallel circuit is the reciprocal of the sum
of the reciprocals of each resistor.
In parallel circuits, loads are connected side by side or across the line.
 Total current is the sum of all branch currents
 IT=I1+I2+I3….+IN
 equal voltage drops across each load

 VT=V1=V2=V3.............VN
 Total resistance( RT ) is computed as
 Product over sum method

 reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of each resistor

 For equal resistors connected in parallel:

 The value of one resistor is divided by number of
branches/ resistors

 Advantages of parallel connections: if one of the lamps is

broken the other circuit part independently operate
 Disadvantage of parallel connections:-less-economical because more
cables/wire are needed.

8
 1.5.3. Series-parallel circuit
Loads are connected partly in series and partly in paralle

Figure 7: Series & Parallel Connection

 Most important formulas

 Voltage( V) = I × R = P / I = √(P × R) in Volts V

 Current (I) = V / R = P / V = √(P / R) in Amperes
 Resistance (R) = V / I = P / I2 = V2 / P in ohms Ω
 Power (P) = V × I = R × I2 = V2 / R in Watts W

EXAMPLE 1: calculate total current (IT) in the following series connection

Given: VT=12V, R1=6 Ω, R2=6 Ω Find I?

SOLUTION: RT= R1+R2=6+6=12 Ω
IT =VT/RT=12V/12 Ω =1A

EXAMPLE2: calculate total current in the following parallel connection

In a parallel circuit the loads are arranged to allow all the positive
terminals to be joined to a single conductor and all the negative one to
another conductor so in effect the current travels through different parallel
paths. The total resistance of a parallel circuit is the reciprocal of the sum
of the reciprocals of each resistor.

9
1.6. Components of Basic Electronic Devices
Electronic devices are simplified as components in which electrical
conduction takes place by motions of electrons through them.
Components of electronics are divided in to three as shown in the chart

below
Figure 8: Components of electronics

1.6.1. P a s s i v e Component
Is an electronic component which can only receive energy, which it can
dissipate, observe or store an electric field or magnetic field. Common
10
examples of passive components are resistors, capacitors, inductors
,transformers passive transducers,

11
thermistors, thermostats, crystals, oscillators, resonators, fuses, batteries
connectors, mechanical relays, switches, wire, and cable.

 Resistor
It resists or opposes the flow of electric current through a conductor,
causing a voltage drop. Resistance is measured in Ohms and can be
measured with an ohmmeter or a multimeter. Resistors are manufactured
in various sizes, values and tolerances to meet a wide range of
requirements for electronic circuits.

Figure 9: Resistor Symbol and a Resistor

 Resistor Colour Code: -An electronic colour code is used to
indicate the values or ratings of electronic components, usually
for resistors, but also for capacitors, inductors, diodes and
others.

Figure 10: Colour Codes for Resistor

 Capacitor
Capacitors temporarily store electricity. How much electricity can be
stored is measured in microfarads or uF. Capacitors are also manufactured
as different types.

12
 Figure 11: Electrolytic Capacitor and its Symbol

 Inductor
An inductor is a coil with or without a ferrous metal core. The inductor is
also an electric current storage device, but it functions much differently
than a capacitor and operates by storing energy in magnetic fields.
Current passing through the coil creates a magnetic field within the coil,
which in turn induces an opposing voltage to the current that created it in
the first place.

Figure 12: Inductor Symbol and an Inductor

 Transformer
transformers are most commonly used for increasing low AC voltages at high
current (a step-up transformer) or decreasing high AC voltages at low
current (a step-down transformer) in electric power applications, and for
coupling the stages of signal processing circuits.
Transformers operate only on alternating current and are used to change
voltage from one value to another. Transformers are made from two
inductors. The primary coil accepts the input voltage and induces a voltage
in the secondary coil. The voltage level induced in the second coil is
directly related to the number of turns of wire in both coils. Transformers
find common use anywhere voltage changes are required such as battery
chargers, power supplies, household electronics and power distribution
grids.

13
Figure 13: Transformer Symbol and a Transformer

14
 1.6.2. Active Components
Active components require a separate power supply to turn the device on
and function. Transistors, operational amplifiers and integrated circuits are
examples of active components that require a power supply in order to
work.
In general, active components require a bias voltage to break the internal
barrier and turn them "on." Common examples are diodes, LEDs,
transistors and integrated circuits, or chips. These components are
sometimes referred to as "digital" components. In most circuits, passive
components are combined with active to provide efficient and safe circuit
operation.

1.7.7 Semiconductor
Substances capable of acting as both a conductor and an insulator are
called semiconductors. This enables semiconductor devices to control
current without mechanical points.
• Semiconductor devices include
• diodes
• transistors
• integrated circuits

Table 1: : Describe Electronic Symbols

No. Semicondu Description Symbol

ctor
1. Diode An “electronic check valve”
that allows current to flow in
only one direction.
• when a diode is forward
biased, it acts as a conductor
• when a diode is reverse
biased, it acts as an
insulator

2. Zener Passes current in reverse

diode direction to provide a
constant voltage A

15
reference. Zener diode K
was designed for limiting
the voltage across its
terminals in
reverse

16
No. Semicondu Description Symbol
ctor
bias. This diode is
intended to operate at
that
voltage, and so finds its
greatest application as a
voltage regulator or voltage
reference, utilizing it’s so
called “reverse breakdown
voltage rating.” Recall the
discussion of diode. Diode
operates in forward bias but
Zener diode, the normal
operation is in reverse bias.
3. Light- A diode that emits light.
emittin
g
diode
(LED)

4. Photodiode Are intended to sense light

(photo detector) & Passes
current in proportion to
incident light. A photodiode
can be used in solar cells, in
photometry, or in optical
communications.
5. Transistor Allows the control of a
high current circuit with a low
current circuit and performs the
same basic function as a relay.
Acts as a remote switch or
current amplifier. Operates more
quickly than a mechanical
device can
Has no moving part to
wear or deteriorate.

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No. Semicondu Description Symbol
ctor
6. Bipolar A semiconductor device
Junction constructed with three
Transist doped semiconductor
or (BJT) regions collector,
base and emitter separate by
tow p-n junctions

7. Field- Electronic device which uses

Effect
electric field to control the
Transistor
(FET) flow of current. FET has
three terminals
G = GATE,
D =DRAIN
S=
SOURCE

The following videos show basic electricity and electronics components.

• [Link]
• [Link]

18
 1.7. Measuring Instruments
Electrical measurements are the methods, devices and calculations used to
measure electrical quantities. Measurement of electrical quantities may be
done to measure electrical parameters of a system.

Table 2:-Electronic Measurement

Test Equipment
Multimeter (the
measurement of voltage and
amperage as well as
resistance)

DC Clamp meter for

current measurements
non-invasive

PV Analyser to measure open

circuit voltages, short circuit
currents, IV curves, insulation
resistances etc.

Hydrometer to measure Lead

Acid battery acid levels.
Testing for the specific gravity
of electrolyte in the battery is
an accurate way to measure
and compare the state of
charge of each individual cell.

Thermal imager to find bad

connections and problems
on PV modules

14
T able 3: Standard basic electrical Units
Electrical Measuring
No Symbol Description
Parameter Unit
1 Electrical Potential
Voltage Volt V or E
V=I×R
2 Electrical Current
Current Ampere I
I=V÷R
3 DC Resistance
Resistance Ohm(Ω) R
R=V÷I
4 Siemens
Reciprocal of
Conductance (S) or G Resistance
seldomly G=1÷R
Mho (℧)
5 Capacitance
Capacitance Farad(F) C
C=Q÷V
6 Electrical Charge
Charge Coulomb(C) Q
Q=C×V
7 Inductance
Inductance Henry(H) L
VL = -L(di/dt)
8 Power
Power Watts(W) p
P = V × I or I2 × R
9 AC Resistance
Impedance Ohm(Ω) Z
Z 2 = R 2 + X2
10 Frequency
Frequency Hertz(Hz) f
ƒ=1÷T

15
1.8. Necessary tools and equipment
The following tools and equipment are required to perform the tasks mentioned

Table 4:-Hand Tools

Hand Tools
Measuring tape

cutter knife

Set of open-end wrenches (spanner)

As a minimum, the sizes required
for the mounting system(s) used will
be required.

Permanent marker

Chalk Line

Brick laying cord or Fish Line

hexagon socket screw keys (Socket

set and ratchet spanner
As a minimum, the sizes required
for the mounting system(s) used
will be required.
Crimping tool MC4

Crimping Tool (Lobster)

16
Set of screwdrivers (flat and cross-
headed)

Set of socket wrench

As a minimum, the sizes required
for the mounting system(s) used
will be required.

Torx bit set

As a minimum, the sizes required
for the mounting system(s) used
will be required.

Nutsetter (8 and 10mm)

Gripper/pincer (set)

Side cutting pliers

Set of pliers

Set Square

Spirit Level

Hand Files
Required if rails will be cut

17
 Hack Saw
Required if rails will be cut

Table 5: Electrical tools

Electrical tools
Cordless screwdriver with bits
Optional – the cordless drilling machine
can also perform this functionality

Drilling machine cordless (with spare

battery)

Drilling machine

set of drilling bits wood, steel, stone

Hole saw set (or 20mm hole saw

minimum)

Flex (metal/stone plate) Saw or angle

grinder

18
1.9. OHS hazards and suitable PPE
Occupational health and safety:- is a cross-disciplinary area concerned with
protecting the safety, health and welfare of people engaged in work or
employment. The goal of all occupational health and safety programs is to
foster a safe work environment. As a secondary effect, it may also protect
co-workers, family members, employers, customers, suppliers, nearby
communities, and other members of the public who are impacted by the
workplace environment

1.9.1. Personal Protective Equipment

(PPE) Table 6:-Safety Equipment
No. equipment Description Picture
1 Hard Hat used in workplace
environments such as
industrial or construction sites
to protect the head from injury
due to falling objects

2 Safety Shoe Protective, safety footwear is

essential to ensure safe and
healthy feet.

3 Glove It is important to wear gloves

when working with hazardous
chemicals and Electrical
Shocks in working Area

4 Safety A safety belt or harness has to

Belt/Harness be worn as a safety precaution
by a person working at a great
height. The safety harness has
be worn correctly and fixed to
an anchor point at the roof
5 Fire Are commonly sold at
Extinguisher hardware stores for use in the
kitchen or garage, are
pressurized with nitrogen or
carbon dioxide (CO2) to propel
a stream of fire-squelching
agent to the fire. Fire
extinguisher are also 19
 1.9.2. First Aid
• First aid is the first and immediate assistance given to any person
suffering from either a minor or serious illness or injury.
• First aid helps ensure that the right methods of administering medical
assistance are provided. Knowing how to help a person is just as
important in emergency situations. It only takes six minutes for the
human brain to expire due to lack of oxygen
• First aid is generally performed by someone with basic medical training..

Figure 14: First aid Kit

Figure 15: First Aide procedure

20
 Self-Check -1 Written Test

I. Choose the best option & circle the letter of your choice.
1. What is the name for the flow of electrons in an electric circuit?

A. Voltage B. Resistance C. Capacitance D. Current

2. Which of the following will remain the same in all parts

of a series circuit? (A) Voltage (B) Current (C) Power (D)

Resistance

3. Which instrument would you use to measure resistance?

A. An ammeter B. A voltmeter C. An ohmmeter D. A wave meter

4. What does an electrical insulator do?

A. It lets electricity flow through it in one direction

B. It does not let electricity flow through it

C. It lets electricity flow through it when light shines on it

D. It lets electricity flow through it

5. What is the basic unit of electric current?

A. The volt B. The watt C. The ampere D. The ohm

6. What is the name of the pressure that forces electrons to flow through a circuit?
A. Magneto motive force, or inductance

B. Electromotive force, or voltage

C. Farad force, or capacitance

D. Thermal force, or heat

7. Which instrument would you use to measure electric current?

A. An ohmmeter B. A wave meter

C. A voltmeter D. An ammeter

8. What is the basic unit of electromotive force (EMF)?

A. The volt B. The watt
C. The ampere D. The ohm

21
 9. Which instrument would you use to measure electric potential or
electromotive force?

A. An ammeter B. A voltmeter C. A wave meter D. An ohmmeter

10. What is the basic unit of resistance?

A. The volt B. The watt C. The ampere D. The ohm

11. What are three good electrical conductors?

A. Copper, gold, mica B. Gold, silver, wood

C. Gold, silver, aluminum D. Copper, aluminium, paper

12. What are four good electrical insulators
A. Glass, air, plastic, porcelain B. Glass, wood, copper, porcelain

C. Paper, glass, air, aluminium D. Plastic, rubber, wood, carbon

13. in the figure,

A. 6 ,3 and 9 are in series

B. 9 and 6 are in parallel and the combination is in series with 3

C. 3 ,6 and 9 are in parallel

D. 3 ,6 are in parallel and 9 is in series

14. The resistance across AB is

A. 4 Ohm B. 1 Ohm C. 2 Ohm D. 0.5 Ohm

15. Kilowatt-hour is the unit of

22
 A. Potential difference B. Electric power C. Electrical energy D. Charge

16. What is the current through R3 (I3) in the

image below? A. 3.33 B. 1.67 C. 5 D. 6.66

Note:Satisfactory rating 8 and above points, Unsatisfactory - below 8 points

Short answer question

Answer Sheet
Score =

Rating:

Name: Date:

23
Information Sheet-2 Identifying And Describing Types Of Renewable Energy

2. Identifying And Describing Types Of Renewable Energy

2.1. Introduction
 Renewable energy:-
 is energy generated from natural resources
 is energy that is generated from natural processes
 Renewable resources are replenished naturally
 They are found in unlimited supplies
 They can never be depleted
On the other hand resources that can be depleted such as petroleum and
natural gas are called non-renewable resources

2.2. Identifying and describing types of Renewable Energy Sources

2.2.1. Solar energy

Humans have been harnessing solar energy for thousands of years—to
grow crops, stay warm and dry foods. According to the National Renewable
Energy Laboratory, “more energy from the sun falls on the earth in one
hour than is used by everyone in the world in one year.” Today, we use the
sun’s rays in many ways to heat homes and businesses, to warm water, or
power devices. Photo voltaic panels shown in the pictures below convert

solar radiation in to electricity

Figure 16: solar Installation

2.2.2. Hydro power

Hydropower relies on water typically fast-moving water in a large river or
rapidly descending water from a high point and converts the force of that
water into electricity by spinning a generator’s turbine blades.
Hydropower therefore requires good flow of

24
water and good height difference (termed as head) between the water
level and turbine. Hydropower is the main source of electricity in Ethiopia.

Figure 17: Tekze Hydro power Final work

2.2.3. Tidal energy

Tidal power, also called tidal energy, is a form of hydropower that converts
the energy of tides into useful forms of power – mainly electricity.
Although not yet widely used, tidal power has potential for future
electricity generation. Tides are more predictable than wind energy and
solar power.

Figure 18: Tidal stream generator

2.2.4. Geothermal heat

If you’ve ever relaxed in a hot spring, you’ve used geothermal energy. The
earth’s core is about as hot as the sun’s surface, due to the slow decay of
radioactive particles in rocks at the center of the planet. Drilling deep wells
brings very hot underground water to the surface as a hydrothermal
resource, which is then pumped through a turbine to create electricity.
Geothermal plants typically have low emissions if they pump the steam
and water they use back into the reservoir. There are ways to create
geothermal plants where there
25
are not underground reservoirs, but there are concerns that they may
increase the risk of an earthquake in areas already considered geological

hot spots.
Figure 19: Geothermal heat energy System

2.2.5. Biomass
Biomass energy is organic material that comes from plants and animals,
and includes crops, waste wood, and trees. When biomass is burned, the
chemical energy is released as heat and can generate electricity with a
steam turbine.
 Examples of biomass and their uses for energy
 Wood and wood processing wastes—burned to heat buildings,
to produce process heat in industry, and to generate electricity
 Agricultural crops and waste materials—burned as a fuel or
converted to liquid bio fuels
 Food and wood waste in garbage—burned to generate
electricity in power plants or converted to biogas in
landfills
 Animal manure and human sewage—
converted to biogas.

Figure 20: Types of Bio mass

26
 2.2.6. Wind energy:
Wind energy (or wind power) describes the process by which wind is used to
generate electricity. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into
mechanical power. Mechanical power can also be utilized directly for specific
tasks such as pumping water
Wind turbines operate on a simple principle. The energy in the wind turns two
or three propeller-like blades around a rotor. The rotor is connected to the
main shaft, which spins a generator to create electricity.

Figure 21: Ashegoda Wind Energy

Summary table for renewable energy sources with their respective symbols

Figure 22: General description renewable Energy

27
 Self-Check -2 Written Test

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Use the Answer sheet
provided in the next page:
I. Choose the best answer for the following questions below
1. Which one of the following is a renewable resource:
a) Petroleum b) Natural gas c) Bio mass d) All
2. Energy from organic materials such as plants and animals is

a) Geothermal b) Natural gas c) Tidal d) None

3. Which one of the renewable resources is widely used to produce electricity in Ethiopia?
a) Wind energy b) Solar energy c) Hydropower d) Geothermal
4. The machines that convert kinetic energy in the flow air into mechanical power are called
a) Hydro turbines b) Wind turbines c) Pumpsd) All
5. The heat that we use in hot springs comes from
a) Solar radiation b) Geothermal energy c) Natural gas d) All

Note: Satisfactory rating - 3 points Unsatisfactory - below 3 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.

Answer Sheet
Score =

Rating:

Name: Date:

28
 Information Sheet-3 Basic Working Principles of Renewable Energy

3. Basic Working Principles of Renewable Energy

3.1. Principles of solar energy

Solar energy is created by light and heat which is emitted by the sun, in
the form of electromagnetic radiation. With today's technology, we are
able to capture this radiation and turn it into usable forms of solar energy
- such as heating or electricity.
Solar energy is the sun's nuclear fusion reactions within the continuous
energy generated. Earth's orbit, the average solar radiation intensity is
1,367 W/m2. Circumference of the Earth's equator is 40,000km, thus we
can calculate the energy the earth gets is up to 173,000 TW. At sea level
on the standard peak intensity is 1 kW/m2, a point on the earth's surface
24h of the annual average radiation intensity is
0.20 kW/m2, or roughly 102,000 TW of energy. Humans rely on solar
energy to survive, including all other forms of renewable energy (except
for geothermal resources) Although the total amount of solar energy
resources is ten thousand times of the energy used by humans, but the
solar energy density is low, and it is influenced by location, season,
which is a major problem of development and utilization of solar
energy.
The technical feasibility and economic viability of using solar energy
depends on the amount of available sunlight (solar radiation) in the area
where you intend to place solar heaters or solar panels. This is sometimes
referred to as the available solar resource. Every part of Earth is provided
with sunlight during at least one part of the year.
"Part of the year" refers to the fact that the north and south polar caps are
each in total darkness for a few months of the year. The amount of
sunlight available is one factor to take into account when considering
using solar energy.
There are a few other factors, however, which need to be looked at when
determining the viability of solar energy in any given location. These are
as follows:
 Geographic location
 Time of day
 Season
 Local landscape
 Local weather

29
 Self-Check -3 Written Test

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Use the Answer sheet
provided in the next page:

Match Colum B to Column A

No Column A Column B

1 Geothermal Energy A. Created by light and heat

2 Hydro power B. Uses organic materials as

source
3 Solar energy C. uses heat as a prime mover

4 Wind energy D. converts one kind of energy to

rotational energy by its blades

5 Biomass E. uses falling water

Note:
Satisfactory rating - 3 points
Unsatisfactory - below 3 points
You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.

Answer Sheet
Score = Rating:

Name: Date:

Short answer questions

30
 Information Sheet-4 Applications of Renewable Energy

4. Applications of Renewable Energy

4.1. Application of Solar Energy

Solar energy is utilized mainly in two ways: photovoltaic and thermal applications.

4.1.1. P h o t o v o l t a i c application of solar energy

The photovoltaic effect (PV) is defined as the generation of electromotive
force as a result of the absorption of ionizing radiation. Therefore, by using
the photovoltaic effect, electricity can be generated directly from sunlight
without going through a thermal process. Devices that use the PV effect to
generate a voltage when sunlight is the source of ionizing radiation are
called solar cells.
An individual cell typically produces about 0.5V power with the current
directly proportional to the cell’s area. The Individual cells are connected in
series – parallel combination o meet the voltage, power and reliability
requirements of the particular application. . A series-connected set of solar
cells or modules is called a "string".

Figure 23: Solar cell, module and array

Some applications for PV systems are lighting for commercial buildings,

outdoor (street) lighting, rural households and village lighting, rural small
entertainment, health post lighting and vaccine storage, etc.

4.1.2. Thermal application of solar energy

In solar thermal systems, solar energy can be converted into thermal
energy with the help of solar collectors and receivers known as solar
thermal devices. Solar energy is used for heating fluid, usually water or air,
which can then be used for suitable applications.
The heating process is done by absorbing the solar radiation on an
absorber plate and thus heating it. Then this heat is transferred to a
31
circulating fluid for use elsewhere. If the surface area of the exposed
sunlight is nearly equal to the surface used for absorbing solar radiation,
the device is said to be a non-concentrating type solar

32
collector, for which the most common is the flat plate collector (FPC). An
efficient solar collector traps the maximum solar radiation incident on its
surface, and converts it to thermal energy for use with minimum losses.

Figure 24: Solar water heater

Solar water heating systems can be either active or passive systems. The
active systems, which are most common, rely on pumps to move the liquid
between the collector and the storage tank. The passive systems rely on
gravity and the tendency for water to naturally circulate as it is heated.
Some industrial applications of solar water heaters are Hotels, Textiles,
Breweries &Distilleries, etc.
 Solar air heating:
hot air is needed for drying crops and for warming the area. Solar air
heating is the same as for water heating where the fluid is heated while
in contact with the surface of the radiation absorber. More specifically, the
influence of the collector’ s orientation and the heat losses from the
blowing of the wind, etc. for the two heating systems are very similar.
 Passive heating system
The concept of passive heating systems is the selection of an absorber
surface facing the sunlight as to capture an optimal amount of solar
energy for a given construction building applications for solar air heating
systems include both building ventilation air heating and process air
heating.
 Solar Cooker:
is a device, which uses solar energy for cooking, thus saving fossil fuels,
fuel wood and electrical energy to a large extent. It is a simple cooking
33
unit, ideal for domestic cooking throughout most of the year except during
the monsoon season, cloudy days and winter months.
The box type solar cookers, with a single reflecting mirror, are the most
popular. These cookers have proved immensely popular in rural areas
where women spend considerable time collecting firewood.

34
 Self-Check -4 Written Test

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Use the Answer sheet
provided in the next page:
Say true or false for the following questions
1. By using PV effect, electricity can be generated directly from sun light
without going through thermal process
2. An individual cell in PV can typically produces above 0.5 V
3. Solar water heater is not used for household application
4. Wind energy can be used to desalinate water.
5. In PV system individual cells are connected in series, parallel
combination to meet the voltage power and reliability requirement

Note:
Satisfactory rating - 3 points Unsatisfactory - below 3 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.

Answer sheet

Score=

Rating
Name: Date:

35
 Information Sheet-5 Advantage and disadvantages of renewable energy sources

5. Advantages and disadvantages of renewable energy sources

5.1. Advantages of Renewable Energy

 Pollution free and causes no greenhouse gases to be emitted after installation.

 Reducing dependence on imported fuels
 Creating economic development and jobs in manufacturing and installation
 Renewable clean power is available in different forms:
solar, wind, hydropower, bioenergy, tidal power etc.
 sustainable energy supply for the future of the country & the next generation
5.2. Disadvantages of Renewable Energy

 Most of the renewable energy sources relatively need large investment

 Many forms of renewable energy are location specific
 Some forms of renewable energy require large space for their application
 Some forms of renewable energy technologies are still under
development and are not commercially available
5.3. Advantages of solar energy
 Solar energy causes no pollution
 Solar energy can be produced free of charge, no cost for fuel.
 Almost no or low maintenance is required on solar technology is installed
 Solar energy can be used in different forms: thermal or electricity
5.4. Disadvantages of solar energy
 Cost: the initial cost of purchasing a solar system is fairly high
 Weather dependent: although solar energy can still be collected
during cloudy and rainy days, the efficiency of the solar system
drops
 Solar energy storage is expensive
 Uses a lot of space

36
 Self-Check -5 Written Test

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Use the Answer sheet
provided in the next page:
Choose the best answer for the following questions.
1. The main disadvantage of renewable energy resources is
a. Pollution b. Cost c. Space d. Technology development
2. The advantage of solar energy can be
a. Produced free of charge
b. Low maintenance
c. Pollution free
d. All of the above
3. Most of the renewable energy resources are location specific.
a. False b. True
4. One of the disadvantages of solar energy is expensive energy storage.
a. True b. False
5. Employing renewable energy resources reduces dependence on fuels
a. True b. False

Note:
Satisfactory rating - 3 points Unsatisfactory - below 3 points

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Answer sheet

Score=

Rating
Name: Date:_

37
Operation Sheet 1 Basic electricity

Operation Title: Procedure to measure current, voltage and resistance in a

circuit
Step -[Link] appropriate personal protective
equipment Step -2. Prepare and plan work place
Step -3 Select appropriate equipment
and tools Step -4 Perform the given
project accurately
Step -5 Switches “ON” the multimeter and point selector switch in
“Ω” section. Step -6. Connect the red lead to “V/Ω” and black lead to
“COM”
Step -7. Read the given colour code value indicated in Schematic symbol
correctly Step -8. Select the Ohm-scale within the range and turn off the
power source
Step -9. Place the black probe of the multi-meter in one terminal of the
resistor. Step -10. Place the red probe of the multi-meter in the other
terminal of the resistor. Step -11 Measure the value each resistor
Step -12 Point selector switch in “V” section.
Step -13 Connect the leads appropriately to the right polarity
Step -14 Measures the voltage drop across each resister by giving
voltage source Step -15 Point selector switch in “A” section and change
the lead position properly Step -16 connect the leads to the right
polarity
Step -17Measure current by disconnecting one leg of a resistor inserting
the ammeter in series with resistors

38
Figure 38:-Ohms Law Circuit Measurement

39
 LAP Test Practical Demonstration

Name: Date Time finished:

Time started

Instructions: Given necessary materials, tools and measuring

instruments you are required to perform the following tasks
within 1 hour.

Task 1. Measure the current, voltage & resister in the circuit.

40
 List of Reference

1. Jan Kai Dobelmann and Antje Klauss-Vorreiter, Promotion of the Efficient Use of
2. Renewable Energies in Developing Countries, Level 2 Technician
Training Manual, DGS REEPRO, 2009.
3. Bhatia,S.C., &Gupta,R.K., Textbook of Renewable Energy,Woodhead
Publishing India, 2018.
4. [Link]
5. [Link]
6. [Link]
7. [Link]
disadvantages-of-solar- energy-2/
8. [Link]
9. [Link]

41
 Solar PV System Installation and
Maintenance
Short Term Training

LG -02
Unit of Competence Apply Principles of Photovoltaic
system Operation
Module Title Applying Principles of Photovoltaic
system Operation
LG Code EIS PIM2 M01 LO2 LG-2
TTLM Code PIM STT TTLM 0120v1

LO2: Explain the basics of photovoltaic (PV)

Technology

42
Instruction Sheet-1 Learning Guide:-02

This learning guide is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding
the following content coverage and topics
• Basic terms of PV technology
• Conversion of sunlight into electric current
• Different types of photovoltaic cells
• Identifying different PV configurations

This guide will also assist you to attain the learning outcome stated in the
cover page. Specifically, upon completion of this Learning Guide, you will
be able to:-
• state and describe basic terms of PV technology
• Describe conversion of sunlight into electric current
• Describe different types of photovoltaic cells
• describe different PV configurations

1. Read the specific objectives of this Learning Guide.

2. Follow the instructions described below 3 to 6.
3. Read the information written in the information Sheet 1, Sheet 2, Sheet
3 and Sheet 4 in page 41, 44, 47 & 51 respectively.
4. Accomplish the Self-check 1, Self-check 2, Self-check 3 and Self-check
4 in page 43, 46, 50 & 61 respectively
5. If you earned a satisfactory evaluation from the Self-check proceed to
Operation Sheet 1 in page 62.
6. Do the LAP test in page 63

43
 Information Sheet-1 Basic terms of PV technology

1. Basic terms of PV technology

1.1. What is Photovoltaic

The term photo voltaic (PV) is drive from Greek word meaning:
 Photo.....light and
 Voltaic.....Electricity
Photovoltaic (PV) Technology
Is a process of generating electrical energy from the Energy of solar radiation.
The principle of conversion of solar energy into electrical Energy is based on the
effect called photovoltaic effect. The smallest part of the device that converts
solar energy into electrical energy is called solar cell. Solar cells are in fact large
area semiconductor diodes, which are made by combining silicon material with
different impurities. The sand, a base material for semiconductor, is the most
abundantly available raw material in the world. The ordinary sand (SiO2) is the
raw form of silicone.

1.2. Definition of photovoltaic conversion

Photovoltaic cells, or solar cells, convert solar radiation into electricity using a
process known as the “photovoltaic effect.” During this process, the materials in
the solar cell produce electrons when exposed to the photons in sunlight.
Solar-powered photovoltaic (PV) panels convert the sun's rays into electricity by
exciting electrons in silicon cells using the photons of light from the sun. This
electricity can then be used to supply renewable energy to your home or
business.
Conversion of light energy in electrical energy is based on a phenomenon called
photovoltaic effect. When semiconductor materials are exposed to light, the
some of the photons of light ray are absorbed by the semiconductor crystal
which causes a significant number of free electrons in the crystal.

1.3. Main components of a solar photovoltaic system.

 Photovoltaic Array: this is the core of the system, composed
of several solar modules which are in turn composed of solar
cells.
 Battery Bank
 Charge Controller
 DC And Ac Disconnect
 Inverter
 Optional: Electric Meter
44
Figure 25: Buildup of a solar cell

45
 Self-Check -1 Written Test

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Use the Answer sheet
provided in the next page:
I. Say true or false for the following questions below
1. The term photo voltaic (PV) is derived from England word

Note:
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Answer sheet

Score=

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Name: Date:_

46
Information sheet -2 Conversion of sunlight in to electric current

1. Conversion of sunlight into electricity

Photovoltaic (PV) effect is the conversion of sunlight energy into
electricity. In a PV system, the PV cells exercise this effect. Semi-
conducting materials in the PV cell are doped to form P-N structure as an
internal electric field.
Photo voltaic directly convert solar energy into electricity. They work on
the principle of the photovoltaic effect. When certain materials are
exposed to light, they absorb photons and release free electrons. This
phenomenon is called as the photoelectric effect.

1.1. The Sun

The sun is the Earth’s nearest star and the source of virtually all the
Earth’s energy, producing 3.8 x1023 kW of power in huge nuclear fission
reactions. Most of this power is lost in space, but the tiny fraction that does
reach the Earth, 1.73 x 1016 kW, is thousands of times more than enough
to provide all of humanity’s energy needs.
The energy we derive from wood fuel, petroleum products, coal,
hydroelectricity and even our food originates indirectly from the sun. Solar
energy is captured and stored by plants. We use this energy when we burn
firewood or eat food. The sun also powers rainfall cycles that fill rivers from
which we extract hydroelectricity. Petroleum and coal are made up of the
fossilized remains of plants and animals that collected energy from the sun
thousands of years ago.
Energy can also be harvested from the sun directly for heating, drying,
cooking, distilling, raising steam and generating electricity. Many types of
equipment can be used to collect solar energy. These include flat plate
solar- thermal panels and evacuated tubes, which harvest solar energy for
heating water, and solar concentrators that focus the rays of the sun into
high energy beams to produce heat for electricity generation (known as
concentrated solar power or CSP).

1.1.1. Converting Solar Energy

To make use of solar energy, we must convert it into useful forms. Solar
energy can be usefully transformed in three ways:

1.1.2. Solar energy to chemical energy

Green plants transform solar energy to chemical energy in sugar and

cellulose by the process of photosynthesis (all biomass contains chemically
47
stored solar energy). Unfortunately, we have not yet developed a way to
directly transform solar energy into chemical energy. Photosynthesis
remains a secret of plants.

48
 1.3.1. Solar energy to heat energy
Solar heating devices transform solar energy into heat that is used for
drying, water- heating and space-heating, cooking and distilling water. CSP
plants convert water to steam that is used to generate electricity.
1.3.2. Solar energy to electrical energy
Solar electric devices transform solar energy into electrical energy. This
can be used to directly power electrical devices such as pumps and fans –
or it can be stored in batteries to power lights, televisions, refrigerators
and other appliances (these appliances are often used mainly at night
when the sun has gone down).

1.3.3. The photoelectric effect

The photovoltaic or photoelectric effect was explored by the great
scientist Albert Einstein. 1904 he described this phenomenon along
with a paper on his theory of relativity.
The photovoltaic effect is the generation of voltage and electric current in
a material upon exposure to light. It is a physical and chemical
phenomenon. The photovoltaic effect is closely related to the photoelectric
effect.
The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons when electromagnetic
radiation, such as light, hits a material. Electrons emitted in this manner
are called photoelectrons.

Figure 26: Design and functioning of a crystalline silicon solar cell

49
Self-Check -2 Written Test

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Use the Answer sheet
provided in the next page:
Say true or false for the following questions below
1. Solar cells, also called photovoltaic (PV) cells by scientists, convert
sunlight indirectly into electricity
2. Photovoltaic cells, or solar cells, convert solar radiation into
electricity using a process known as the photovoltaic effect.
3. Solar-powered photovoltaic (PV) panels convert the sun's rays into fuel
energy by exciting electrons in silicon cells using the photons of light
from the sun.
4. A photovoltaic cell is a mechanical device usually made from silicon alloys.
5. Photovoltaic Array is the core of the system, composed of several
solar modules which are in turn composed of solar cells.
Note:
Satisfactory rating - 5 points Unsatisfactory - below 5 points

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Answer sheet

Score=

Rating
Name: Date:_

50
 Information Sheet-3 Different types of photovoltaic cells

2. Different types of photovoltaic cells

2.1. Definitions of photovoltaic cells:

A photovoltaic cell (PV cell) is a specialized semiconductor diode that
converts visible light into direct current (DC). Some PV cells can also
convert infrared (IR) or ultraviolet (UV) radiation into DC electricity. Large
sets of PV cells can be connected together to form solar modules, arrays,
or panels.
There are three types of PV cell technologies that dominate the world
market: Mono crystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon, and thin film.
For Further Reading
 Photovoltaic cell.
 Solar panel.
 P-n junction.
 Semiconductor.
 Concentrated photovoltaic.
The Two Types of Solar Energy, Photovoltaic and Thermal. Photovoltaic
technology directly converts sunlight into electricity. Solar thermal
technology harnesses its heat. These different technologies both tap the
Sun's energy, locally and in large-scale solar farms.
2.2. Photovoltaic cells:
Photovoltaic cells are based on a related phenomenon called the
photovoltaic effect, and they convert light directly into electricity.

Figure 27:-Basic operating Principle of solar Cell

51
 1.1. Types of photo voltaic cells
1.1.1. Mono crystalline silicon PV Cells
These are made slicing cells from a single cylindrical crystal of silicon. This
is the most efficient photovoltaic technology, with cells typically converting
around 23% of the sun's energy into electricity. The manufacturing process
required to produce mono- crystalline silicon is complicated, resulting in
slightly higher costs than other technologies.

Figure 28:-Mono-Crystalline cells

1.1.2. Polycrystalline silicon PVCells
Also sometimes known as multi crystalline cells, polycrystalline silicon
cells are made from cells cut from an ingot of melted and re-crystallized
silicon. The ingots are then saw-cut into very thin wafers and assembled
into complete cells. They are generally cheaper to produce than
monocrystalline cells, due to the simpler manufacturing process, but
they tend to be slightly less efficient, with average efficiencies of around

12%.

Figure 29:-Poly Crystalline cells

52
 Figure 30:-Steps of production of crystalline PV cells

2.2.1. Thin-film PV cells

A thin-film solar cell is a second generation solar cell that is made by
depositing one or more thin layers, or thin film (TF) of photovoltaic
material on a substrate, such as glass, plastic or metal. Thin-film solar
cells are commercially used in several technologies, including cadmium
telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS), and
amorphous thin-film silicon (a-Si, TF-Si).

Figure 31:-Thin film

Amorphous silicon can be deposited on a wide range of substrates, both

rigid and flexible. Amorphous silicon is an allotropic variant of silicon, and
amorphous means "without shape" to describe its non-crystalline form.

53
Figure 32:-Amorphous

54
 Self-Check -3 Written Test

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Use the Answer sheet
provided in the next page:
I. Choose the best answer for the following questions below
1. All are components of photo voltaic cell except one
a. Photovoltaic cell.
b. Solar panel.
c. P-n junction.
d. Semiconductor.
e. Concentrated photovoltaic.
f. Voltmeter
2. Identify the one which is not types of photovoltaic cell
a. mono crystalline silicon
b. polycrystalline silicon
c. Thin film.
d. Tetra crystalline cupper

Note: Satisfactory rating – 1.5 points Unsatisfactory - below 1 point

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Answer sheet

Score=

Rating
Name: Date:_

55
 Information Sheet-4 Identifying different PV configurations

3. Identifying different PV configurations

3.1. PV connection
A bulk silicon PV module consists of multiple individual solar cells
connected, nearly always in series, to increase the power and voltage
above that from a single solar cell. There are two main types of connecting
solar panels

3.1.1. In series
In series connection when two cells are connected, voltages are added
while the current remains same. You connect solar panels in series when
you want to get a higher voltage

Figure 33:-Series Connection

The following videos show about series, parallel & combination
connections [Link] parallel-
connections- XwXbe

56
 1.1.1. Parallel connection:
In parallel connection voltage remains same and the amperage adds up.
If you need to get higher current, you should connect your panels in
parallel.
Strictly parallel connections are mostly utilized in smaller, more basic
systems, and usually with PWM Controllers, although they are
exceptions. Connecting your panels in parallel will increase the amps
and keep the voltage the same. This is often used in 12V systems with
multiple panels as wiring 12V panels in parallel allows you to keep your
charging capabilities 12V.

Figure 34: Parallel Connection

• [Link]
connections-XwXbe

57
 1.1.1. Series parallel PV connection
When connecting multiple solar panels in a 12-48 volt off-grid system, you
have a few options: parallel, series, or a combination of the two

Figure 35: Series Parallel

Connection Please also see the following video:
[Link]

58
 1.1. Application of PV Power
Photovoltaic (PV) cells are one of the ways to harness solar energy. PV
cells convert sunlight directly to electricity and can be influential in
meeting the world's energy demand. PV systems are being used in a
variety of applications.

Table 6: Application of PV power

No. Application Description Symbol
1 Mobile Mobile banking refers to the
Banking use of a smartphone or
other cellular device to
perform online banking
tasks. Remote access is
possible using power from
PV systems.
2 Residential Homes in rural and Urban
Homes areas use PV systems to
power electrical appliance

3 Holiday Remote holiday

Properties properties employ
PV power systems

4 Telecom The telecommunication

sector uses PV systems to
power Remote antennas and
masts

5 Street Sale Movable street sell carts

Light use PV panels.
Street lights may also be
powered from PV systems
directly installed on the
street light poles.

59
No. Application Description Symbol
6 Health In health centres PV
systems are used to power
refrigerators to preserve
medicine and vaccination

7 Cell Phone The average solar-powered

Charging charger takes between 6
and 10 hours to charge an
electronic device, such as a
cell phone.

8 Water Solar water pumping

pumping employs PV systems to
power motor driven pumps
 Advantages of the PV technology:
 Environmental friendly it does not produce the greenhouse gases CFC
 It is limitless supply and in abundance
 Because of the sun solar energy founds every where
 Economic viability for future
 Low maintenance & operating cost
 Solar PVs do not produce noise when in operation
 Does not have mechanical moving parts that can fail or break.
 No fuel/running cost
 The technology is save & reliable
 Energy independence from the national grid
 Independence of import from foreign nation (save of currency)

 Disadvantages of Solar Energy

 Cost. The initial cost of purchasing a solar system is fairly high
 Weather Dependent. Although solar energy can still be
collected during cloudy and rainy days, the efficiency of the
solar system drops
 Solar Energy Storage Is Expensive
 Uses a Lot of Space

60
Needs to be recycled at the end of lifetime, especially battery waste
needs to be collected to not harm the environment

61
 1.1. Define PV configurations
Solar modules can be used for many different applications. Depending on
the purpose different system configurations are being used. Solar
modules can be used in very simple systems with only a few components
(e.g. solar lamps or pico systems) or can be combined in more complex
systems to supply more power (e.g. Solar Home Systems). Solar energy
can even be used on a utility scale to produce power for the public grid.
In the following paragraphs some system configurations or types of PV
systems are introduced.

1.1.1. Solar lamps

A solar lamp also known as solar light or solar lantern, is a lighting system
composed of an LED lamp, solar panels, battery, charge controller and
there may also be an inverter. The lamp operates on electricity from
batteries, charged through the use of solar photovoltaic panel.

Figure 36: solar lamp

Figure 37: solar Lantern

3.1.2. P i c o solar systems

Pico Solar Systems are becoming more common place with us using Pico
solar cells in our daily lives without even knowing it. Pico solar systems are
much smaller and cheaper than traditional solar systems but have the
potential to provide useful amounts of electrical power to charge the
increasing number of low power gadgets such as calculators, toys,
cameras, mp3 players, cell phones, tablets, and other portable electronic
62
devices etc., as well as a variety of chargers all use Pico solar cells to
charge

63
 batteries.

Figure 38: Pico Light

A typical Pico solar system generates relatively small and safe amounts of
electricity of about 5 volts, affectionately called “Pico power”, which means
that the amount of electricity generated by a Pico Solar Charger is low but
can still be incredibly useful for people travelling or without access to a
mains powered charger. Pico solar systems come in a range of shapes and
sizes, with a typical system being made up of the following components:
 A Pico PV solar module usually less than 20 watts-peak to
capture the sun’s light to generate the electricity.
 Rechargeable dry-cell battery or batteries of less than 12 volts
to store the solar power for use when needed.
The following videos show about the use of Pico PV solar
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]

3.1.3. DC coupled Solar Home System (DC only)

A simple 12 volt DC system provides lighting for small houses. Low
wattage (<150W) solar panels are connected to a simple charge
controller which charges the battery. The l a mp s and other 12 volt DC
appliances are connected to the charge controller as shown in below figure.
There is only DC power available and the amount is limited to the battery
capacity and the PV production. Available appliances are limited for 12
volt DC power, because wire resistance limits power to a few hundred
watts. This system is not connected to AC power lines and is considered
to be “off the grid”.
If 2, 3 or 4 batteries are connected in series the system can also be a 24V,
36V or 46V system. The number of PV modules should also be increased to
be able to charge the batteries.

64
 Figure 39: DC-coupled Solar Home System (DC only)
 Solar Home Systems:
Like in the DC only Solar Home System, PV modules are connected to a
charge controller which charges the battery and provides a DC power
outlet. Additionally, there is an inverter connected to the battery which
converts the DC power into AC. Conventional AC appliances like AC fridges
or TVs can be connected to the inverter - under the condition that the
consumption of the appliances matches the size of the PV system.
These systems typically have PV generators in the range of 100W – 5000W.
If a public grid is available. DC coupled solar home systems can also be
connected to the grid. To connect them, an inverter charger is needed
instead of the simple inverter. It must be able to connected to the grid and
create an island grid in case of power failure. This type of system is often
used when the available grid is rather unstable.

65
 Figure 40: Solar Home System (with AC outlet)

1.1.1. Grid connected PV Systems

The solar modules are connected to a grid-tied inverter which converts the
DC solar electricity directly to 220V AC. This system is connected to AC
power lines (i.e., connected to the grid) as shown in Figure 54.
The customer can use the solar electricity during daytime. Depending on
the legal situation, excess electricity can be sold to the power company
during the day. During the night the client buys power from the power
company.
In this setup no batteries are used which reduces the costs of the systems
but on the other hand, there will not be any power when there is a power
failure in the grid. This kind of PV system cannot operate without the grid
and switches off during power failure.

Figure 41: Grid-connected Solar System (source: [Link])

It is possible to use a PV system as backup system or uninterrupted power

supply system (UPS). Then batteries and a control unit for the batteries, an
66
inverter-charger are added to the system. The inverter charger not only
charges the batteries but can

67
 also supply an island grid which enables the system to supply power
during power failures of the public grid. This system configuration is called
AC-coupled backup system. The major parts of a DC-coupled Solar Home
System
 PV modules (which together form a PV array) with racking.
 A battery-based inverter
 A combiner box (for systems with more than 2 strings)
 A charge controller.
 A battery bank.
 DC over current protection.
 AC disconnects (for stationary
SHS). Table 7: Basic Tools Needed for
Installation

No Tool No Tool
1 Angle finder 14 Wire strippers
2 Torpedo level 15 Crimpers
3 Fish tape 16 Needle-nose pliers
4 Chalk line 17 Lineman's pliers
5 Cordless drill (14.4V or greater), 18 Slip-joint pliers
multiple catteries
6 Uni bit and multiple drill bits (wood, 19 Small cable cutters
metal, masonry)
7 Hole saw 20 Large cable cutters
8 Hole punch 21 AC/DC multimeter
9 Torque wrench with deep sockets 22 Hacksaw
10 Nut drivers (most common PV 23 Wire strippers
sizes are 7/16”, ½”, 9/16”)
11 Tape measure 24 Caulking gun
12 Blanket, cardboard or black plastic to 25 Fuse Pullers
keep modules from going “live” during
installation
13 Heavy duty extension cords 26 Screwdriver (flat and
Philips)

68
 Self-Check -4 Written Test

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Use the Answer sheet
provided in the next page:
Say true or false for the following questions below
1. In urban Home System a simple 12 volt DC system provides lighting.
2. In Log Cabin System larger panels providing 200- 400 volts are connected
3. In country Home System panels providing 24- 96 volts are connected
4. Photovoltaic cells are connected electrically in series and/or
parallel circuits to produce higher voltages, currents and power
levels.
5. Photovoltaic modules consist of PV cell circuits sealed in an
environmentally protective laminate, and are the fundamental
building blocks of PV systems.

Note:
Satisfactory rating - 5 points Unsatisfactory - below 5 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.

Answer sheet

Score=

Rating
Name: Date:_

69
Operation Sheet 1 Identify PV Components

Operation Title: Procedure to identify PV

components Given the PV system components
Step-1Plan and prepare work place
Step-2Use appropriate tools and Instruments
Step-3Identify and record models of the given PV components
Step- 4. Identify the capacity/ratings of each component (in terms of
power, voltage, current ratings etc.)
[Link] the given PV module identify the type of solar cells used
(Monocrystalline, polycrystalline, thin film)
[Link] the given charge controller identify the connections for the
PV module, Battery and Load

70
 LAP Test Practical Demonstration

Name: Date
Time started Time finished
Instructions: Given necessary materials, tools and measuring
instruments you are required to perform the following tasks within 1 hour.
Task [Link] each components of Photovoltaic (PV) system

63
 List of Reference

1. KhamphoneNanthavong, Promotion of the Efficient Use of

Renewable Energies in Developing Countries: Photovoltaic, DGS
REEPRO, 2008.
2. ChristofBuam, Solar Photovoltaic: Basic in Solar Photovoltaic Systems,
2nd edition, Don Bosco, Addis Ababa, 2008.
3. SNV, Solar PV Training and Refferal Manual, Developed by SNV for the
Rural Solar Market Development, 2015.
4. SNV, Solar PV Standardized Training Manual, Developed by SNV for
the Rural Solar Market Development, 2015.
5. David Tan and AngKianSeng, Handbook for Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Systems,
Energy Market Authority and Building and Construction Authority, 2019.
6. Mark Hankins, Stand-Alone Solar Electric Systems: the Earthscan
Expert Handbookfor Planning, Design and Installation,Earthscan,
2010.
7. Jan Kai Dobelmann and Antje Klauss-Vorreiter, Promotion of the Efficient Use
ofRenewable Energies in Developing Countries, Level 2 Technician Training
Manual, DGS REEPRO, 2009.

8. CLEAN (Clean Energy Access Network), Installation, Operation and

Maintenance of Solar PV Microgrid Systems: A hand book for trainers, GSES
Indian Sustainable Energy, 2016.
9. [Link]
[Link]://[Link]/watch?v=Sc8bX4sNje0
[Link]://[Link]/watch?v=W6gKoLrHuAU
[Link]://[Link]/lecture/solar-cells/series-and-parallel-connections-XwXbe
[Link]
64
 Solar PV System Installation and
Maintenance
Short Term Training

LG -03
Unit of Competence Apply Principles of Photovoltaic
system Operation
Module Title Applying Principles of Photovoltaic
system Operation
LG Code EIS PIM2 M01 LO1 LG-3
TTLM Code PIM2 STT TTLM 0120v1

LO 3: Describe PV components

65
 Instruction Sheet Learning Guide - 03

This learning guide is developed to provide you the necessary

information regarding the following content coverage and topics
• PV components
• Explaining PV components
• Characteristics of PV components
• Limitations of the various PV components
• Strengths and weaknesses of different PV system components
This guide will also assist you to attain the learning outcome stated
in the cover page. Specifically, upon completion of this Learning
Guide, you will be able to:-
• List PV components
• List and explain uses of PV components
• Explain characteristics of PV components
• Explain limitations of the various PV components
• Explain strengths and weaknesses of the different PV system components

1. Read the specific objectives of this Learning Guide.

2. Follow the instructions described below 3 to 6.
3. Read the information written in the information Sheet 1, Sheet 2, Sheet
3, Sheet 4 & Sheet 5 in page 67, 69, 76, 79 & 81 respectively.
4. Accomplish the Self-check 1, Self-check 2, Self-check 3, Self-check 4
& Self- check 5 in page 68, 75, 78, 80 & 82 respectively
5. If you earned a satisfactory evaluation from the Self-check proceed to
Operation Sheet 1, in page 83
6. Do the LAP test in page 84

66
 Information Sheet-1 PV components

1. PV components
Photovoltaic systems consist of some or all of the following components:
• PV modules (groups of PV cells), which are commonly called PV panels;
• One or more batteries;
• A charge regulator or controller for a stand-alone system;
• An inverter when alternating current (ac) rather than direct current
(dc) is required and inverter-charger for a utility-grid-connected
system;
• Wiring; and
• Mounting hardware or a framework.

Figure 42:Components

67
 Self-Check -1 Written Test

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Use the Answer sheet
provided in the next
page:
Choose the best answer from the following question below
1. All are PV components except
a) PV modules
b) Solar batteries;
c) A charge controller
d) An inverter
e) Wind energy

Note: Satisfactory rating - 1 points Unsatisfactory - below 1 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Answer sheet

Score=

Rating
Name: Date:_

68
 Information Sheet-2 Explaining PV components

2. Explaining PV components

2.1 Solar Modules

Solar Panel (Solar Module) The solar panel produces electricity when there
is sunlight by converting it into DC (direct current) electricity.. Photovoltaic
(PV) or solar cells are the building blocks of solar panels. Solar panels
come in different sizes and power ratings. For off-grid applications often
modules with 60 solar cells are used, in grid- connected PV systems 72
cells modules are more common. There is also a variety of smaller
modules available that are made especially for solar home systems and

pico solar systems. Those modules have between 5 and 150 W.

Figure 43: Different solar panel

2.2 Charge Controller

69
Manages the flow of electricity between the solar panel and the batteries.
It converts the solar electricity to the right voltage level so that the battery
can be charged. Its main job is to keep the batteries from overcharging

and deep discharging.

Figure 44: Charge Controller

Figure 45: Charge Controller

Connection The following videos show charge
controller operation
• [Link]
2.1.1. Purposes of a Charge Controller
 Protection of the battery from:
 Overvoltage
 deep discharge
 Overcharging
 Increase the battery’s lifetime by optimal treatment
 Increase the system efficiency by intelligent management
 Increase usability of the produced energy
 Reduce system costs by intelligent management
 Give system information
 Facilitate maintenance
2.3 Solar Batteries
70
The battery stores electricity produced by the solar panel for later use. It is
an important part of solar systems that need to have electricity at night
when the solar panel is not

71
producing power.
The battery is one of the most expensive parts of the solar system. It also
has the shortest life and is the part most easily damaged by poor
maintenance or improper use. The most important thing a PV technician
can learn is how to take care of batteries and how to tell if the people
using a PV system are causing battery damage through improper use.

Figure 46: Solar Battery

2.3.1 Connecting a Battery to a Solar System

 Before you begin the process of connecting, please ensure that
the panel is shaded/covered (no sunshine reaching the collector) to
avoid a sudden raise of voltage that damages the inverter.
 Always connect the battery bank first. Most charge controller
automatically detect the voltage level of the system.
 To protect the battery a fuse should be put between the
charge controller and battery. The fuse is mounted as close as
possible to the positive battery terminal
 Fit the cable to the positive terminal of the charge controller and to
the positive terminal of the battery.
 Fit the cable to the negative terminal of the charge controller and
to the negative terminal of the battery characteristics.
 Insert the fuse

2.4 Inverter
Used when there are AC loads to be used in the solar system it converts
DC from the batteries to AC.

72
 Figure 47 : Inverter

2.4.1 Connecting the Inverter

 The inverter is connected directly to the solar battery. One should
make sure that the inverter has a deep discharge protection
function to avoid damaging the battery.
 Sometimes, in small applications the inverter is connected to the
charge controller at the terminals indicated in the image below
(+) and (-). In this case the charge controller must provide a
significantly higher amperage than the inverter consumes.
 The terminals are loosened and the cable from the inverteris
fitted with the same polarity:

Figure 48: Wave Form

The following videos show about the wave forms of inverter

• [Link]

2.5 Loads
An electrical load is an electrical component or portion of a circuit that
consumes (active) electric power. This is opposed to a power source, such
as a battery or generator, which produces power. Typical loads are in off-
grid systems are lights, computer, radio, TV

73
 Figure 49: Output Load (source: [Link]/)

2.6 Wires
Connect the other various components together. Solar cables have a
double insulation and better UV protection because they must resist the
sunlight on the roof.

Figure 50: Wire

1.1. General Description of PV Solar Configuration

The solar panel are connected to the Charge controller and the Controller
control the power that receives from the solar panel and battery and that
distributes to solar load.

74
 Figure 51: General Installation

The following videos show general installations of PV solar

components [Link]
v=2l29gKFkr-M

75
Self-Check -2 Written Test

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Use the Answer sheet
provided in the next page:
[Link] COLUMN B TO COLUMN A
A B
1. Converts sun light to electricity A. inverter
2. Converts DC power to AC B. battery
3. Stores electricity C. solar panel
4. Manages the flow of
electricity
B/n the solar panel & load D. charge
controller
5. Produced by PV modules &
Stored in batteries E. AC
F. DC

Note: Satisfactory rating - 5 points Unsatisfactory - below 5 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.

Answer sheet

Score=

Rating

Name ___________________ Date:

:

Short answer questions

76
Information sheet -3 Characteristics of PV components

3. Characteristic PV Components
 Irradiance (sunlight intensity or power), in Watts per square meter
falling on a flat surface.
 Air Mass refers to “thickness” and clarity of the air through which
the sunlight passes to reach the modules (sun angle affects this
value).
 Cell temperature , which will differ from ambient air temperature.
4. typical applications of PV

 Stand-alone power systems for cottages and remote residences,

 Remote telecommunication sites for utilities and the military,
 Water pumping for farmers,
 Emergency call boxes for highways and college campuses,
 Street Lighting
 Grid Connected supply of Electricity
 Navigational aids for the Coast Guard

4.1. Advantages and disadvantages of using photovoltaic systems

4.1.1. Advantages
 Reliability-Even in harsh climates, photovoltaic systems have
proven their reliability. Often, photovoltaic systems are chosen for
systems that must remain operational at all times. Photovoltaic
systems may prevent costly or dangerous power failures in
situation where continuous operation is critical
 Low Maintenance Cost on a commercial building roof or field, solar
power products can be deployed in many sizes and configurations
and can be installed quickly and almost anywhere in the world.
 Universal Applications- Solar PV is the only renewable energy
technology that can be installed on a truly global scale because
of its versatility and
 because it generates power under virtually all conditions,
i.e. even in overcast light condition
 Peak Shaving- The output of solar systems typically correlates with
periods of high electricity demand where air conditioning systems
create peak demands during hot sunny days.
 Dual use- Solar panels are expected to increasingly serve as both a
power generator and the skin of the building.
 Flexibility Solar systems can be adjusted to various applications,
size, costs, power complexity and yield of a system can be
adjusted to the particular use (pico soalr up to utility scale)
 Environmentally safe- Solar power systems produce no air or water
77
emissions or greenhouse gases and produce no noise.

78
4.1.2. Disadvantages
 Cost- Photovoltaic systems have a high initial cost. Each installation
must be evaluated from an economic perspective and compared
to existing alternatives.
 Variability of Available Solar Radiation- Weather can adversely affect
the power output of any PV system. If there is no sunshine there is
no power.
 Energy Storage- Some photovoltaic systems use batteries for
storing energy which will be used at a later time. The battery
increases the system’s size and cost can make the system more
complex.
Lack of awareness- Photovoltaic systems use a new technology
with which many people are unfamiliar. Few people understand its
applicability. This lack of information slows market and
technological growth.

79
 Self-Check -3 Written Test

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Use the Answer
sheet provided in the next page:
I. Choose the best answer for the following questions below
1. Which one of the following is a wave types of inverter
a. Square wave
b. Modified sine wave
c. triangular wave
d. A& B
e. B&C
f. None

2. Typical applications of PV
a) Stand-alone power systems for cottages and remote residences,
b) Remote telecommunication sites for utilities and the military,
c) Water pumping for farmers,
d) Emergency call boxes for highways and college campuses,
e) Street Lighting
f) all

Note:
Satisfactory rating – 1 and above points Unsatisfactory - below 1 points

Answer sheet

Score=

Rating
Name: Date:_

Short answer questions

80
 Information Sheet-4 Limitations of the various PV components

5. Limitations of the various PV components

5.1. Limitations of PV modules

 Hot spots are places on the panels which are overloaded and
therefore become warm. Hotspots on panels are mainly caused by
badly-soldered connections, or are a result of a structural defect in
the solar cells. Planning and construction errors can also lead to
hotspot development when a cell is constantly shaded

5.2. Limitations of Batteries

 Batteries make up the largest component cost over the lifetime
of a solar system. Good batteries are expensive, but worth the
investment. The right type of battery for should be chosen for
the PV system.

81
 Self-Check -4 Written Test

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Use the Answer sheet
provided in the next page:
I. Choose the best answer for the following questions below

1. Which one of the following is not limitation of PV modules

a. Micro cracks b . Delamination c. corrosive sulphuric acid d. Hot spots
2. Which one of the following is not limitation of batteries in solar application
a. High cost b. Energy storage. c. Potential for explosion d. Need for maintenance

Note:
Satisfactory rating – 1 and above points Unsatisfactory - below 1 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.

Answer sheet

Score=

Rating
Name: Date:_

Short answer questions

82
Information Sheet-5 Strengths and weaknesses of different PV system components

6. Strengths and weaknesses of different PV system components

6.1. Introduction
There are many different types of PV equipment available on the market. It
is important to understand the various components and technology’s
strengths and weaknesses to make informed decisions on which
equipment to procure.
In this section, we will look at the following components:
 PV Modules
 Batteries
 Charge Controllers
 Inverters
Fig. 8 Comparison between crystalline and thin-film

Cell Technology Crystalline Silicon Thin Film

Types of Technology Mono-crystalline silicon (c-Si) Amorphous silicon (a-Si)

Poly-crystalline silicon (pc-Si/ Cadmium Telluride (CdTe)
mc-Si) Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIG/
CIGS)
Organic photovoltaic (OPV/ DSC/ DYSC)
Environment Recyclable Some Thin-film technologies very toxic
to environment
Temperature Higher Lower
Coefficients (Lower is beneficial at high ambient
temperatures)
Module construction With Anodized Aluminum Frameless, sandwiched between glass;
lower cost, lower weight
Module efficiency 13%-19% plus 4%- 12% plus
Mounting systems Industry standard Special clips and structures may
be needed.
DC wiring Industry standard May require more circuit combiners
and fuses
Application Type Residential/ Commercial/ Utility Commercial/ Utility
Required Area Industry standard May require up to 50% more space
for a given project size
Example Brands Canadian Solar, IBC, REC, Yingli First Solar, Solyndra, UniSolar, Konarka,
Trina, JA Solar, Jinko, Hanwha Q Dye Solar, Bosch Solar, Sharp, Abound
Cells, LG, Risen Solar, Etterbright

83
Self-Check -5 Written Test

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Use the Answer sheet
provided in the next page:
Say true or false for the following questions below
1. Thin film modules are the most common used modules
2. Crystalline cells are the most common used modules

Note: Satisfactory rating - 5 points Unsatisfactory - below 5 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.

Answer sheet

Score=

Rating

Name: Date:_

Short answer questions

84
Operation Sheet 1 Identify PV Components

Operation Title: Procedure to connect PV components

Given PV system components: PV module, charge controller, battery, inverter
and light bulb
[Link] appropriate working space for the PV system
components [Link] appropriate tools and measuring
instruments
[Link] the capacity/ratings of each component
[Link] sure the components are compatible to each other
[Link] the PV module to the charge controller appropriately.
Cover the PV module with cloth or carton to avoid the danger of electric
shock.
[Link] the charge controller to the battery to the correct
polarity [Link] loads: check that appliance is appropriate for the
DC voltage level.
Step-8. Connect the DC appliance to the charge controller on the load side
terminal. Step-9. AC loads: connect the inverter DC connection to the
charge controller on the load side terminals with the correct polarities.
[Link] the AC light bulb to the inverter correctly on the AC connection

85
 LAP Test Practical Demonstration

Name: Date:
Time started: Time finished
Instructions: Given necessary components of PV system, tools and
measuring instruments you are required to perform the
following tasks within 1 hour.

Task-1 Connect the PV components appropriately & Measure

voltage and current in the PV circuit

86
 List of Reference

1. KhamphoneNanthavong, Promotion of the Efficient Use of

Renewable Energies in Developing Countries: Photovoltaic, DGS
REEPRO, 2008.
2. ChristofBuam, Solar Photovoltaic: Basic in Solar Photovoltaic Systems,
2nd edition, Don Bosco, Addis Ababa, 2008.
3. SNV, Solar PV Training and Refferal Manual, Developed by SNV for the
Rural Solar Market Development, 2015.
4. SNV, Solar PV Standardized Training Manual, Developed by SNV for
the Rural Solar Market Development, 2015.
5. David Tan and AngKianSeng, Handbook for Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Systems,
Energy Market Authority and Building and Construction Authority, 2019.
6. Mark Hankins, Stand-Alone Solar Electric Systems: the Earthscan
Expert Handbookfor Planning, Design and Installation,Earthscan,
2010.
7. Jan Kai Dobelmann and Antje Klauss-Vorreiter, Promotion of the Efficient Use
ofRenewable Energies in Developing Countries, Level 2 Technician Training
Manual, DGS REEPRO, 2009.
8. CLEAN (Clean Energy Access Network), Installation, Operation and
Maintenance of Solar PV Microgrid Systems: A hand book for trainers, GSES
Indian Sustainable Energy, 2016.
9. [Link]
[Link]://[Link]/watch?v=ln9VZIL8rVs
[Link]://[Link]/watch?v=xKxrkht7CpY
85
 Solar PV System Installation and
Maintenance
Short Term Training

LG -04
Unit of Competence Apply Principles of Photovoltaic
system Operation
Module Title Applying Principles of Photovoltaic
system Operation
LG Code EIS PIM2 M01 LO1 LG-4
TTLM Code PIM2 STT TTLM 0320v1

LO 4: Distinguish DC and AC appliances

86
 Instruction Sheet Learning Guide:-04

This learning guide is developed to provide you the necessary information

regarding the following content coverage and topics
• Discussing differences between DC and AC appliances are discussed
• Voltage, current and power ratings of AC and DC appliances is explained.
This guide will also assist you to attain the learning outcome stated in the
cover page. Specifically, upon completion of this Learning Guide, you will
be able to:-
• Discuss differences between DC and AC appliances
• Explain voltage, current and power ratings of AC and DC appliances

1. Read the specific objectives of this Learning Guide.

2. Follow the instructions described below 3 to 6.
3. Read the information written in the information Sheet 1 & Sheet 2 in
page 88 & 97 respectively.
4. Accomplish the Self-check 1 & Self-check 2 in page 96 & 98 respectively

87
Information Sheet-1 Discussing differences between DC and AC appliances

1. Discussing differences between DC and AC appliances

1.1. Concepts of DC & AC appliance

The chapter below is adapted from (Hankins, 2010).
In electricity generation there are two distinct types of electrical current -
direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC). Alternating current is the
type of current most commonly used in households to power electrical
appliances (for example TVs, refrigerators, radios and computers). Grid
supplied electricity is alternating current. Direct current is produced by PV
modules and stored in batteries. It is possible to convert direct current to
alternating current and vice versa using an adapter (e.g. cell phone
charger) or an inverter.
Commonly used appliances in PV systems include televisions, DVD players,
radios, cell-phone chargers and communication devices, music systems,
sewing machines, fans, small tools, refrigerators, office equipment,
medical equipment and laptops.

Selecting System Voltage: 12V DC or 110/230V AC?

 Appliances are available that operate:
 at 12 volt direct current (or 24V DC if the system is wired at 24 volts); or
 Through an inverter at 110 or 230 volts alternating current.
When to use DC
Many 12V DC appliances are readily available from solar equipment
suppliers. Even super-efficient DC colour televisions are available. If you
have a chance, try to select 12V DC appliances for small off-grid PV
systems. There are a number of reasons for this:
• DC appliances are often more efficient than AC appliances, especially if
they are made for off-grid purposes.
• It is more efficient to power DC appliances directly from the battery
than to use an inverter. Inverters are usually less than 80 per cent
efficient and they are even less efficient with loads that use motors
(e.g. refrigerators). Running a 200W inverter for a colour TV over the
course of a night can consume an extra 150Wh (the entire daily output
of a 40Wp module in sunny weather).
• If the inverter breaks down or fails, then so will the AC appliances.
• DC-only PV systems are easier to manage – and well-designed smaller
systems are to a large degree self-managing. They are less complex,
less can go wrong and they are less likely to be over-discharged
because of the charge control low- voltage disconnect.
88
• Because of inverter losses, it is often better to use DC power to operate
small loads that must be left on continuously. Examples of such devices
include telephones, doorbells, garage-door openers, motion-sensing
devices and alarms.

89
When to use AC (and an inverter)
Many larger off-grid PV systems (i.e. above 200W) will find that having an
inverter is useful. As long as the PV charge is properly sized (and the right
inverter type is chosen) it may be a good idea to include an inverter in the
system. Choose an inverter when:
• You already have an efficient AC appliance (or appliances). If, for
example, you have a music system or a laptop that operates on 230V
AC, there is no need to throw it away and look for a 12V DC music
system. Use what you have through a properly chosen inverter.
• There is no 12V DC appliance available. In isolated countries or regions,
it may not be easy to find 12V DC televisions, laptops or radios. Run
what is available through an inverter.
• There is a 110 or 230V AC circuit already wired in the building where
the PV system is to be installed (which had been, for example,
previously run by a generator). Again, as long as the appliances are
carefully selected and energy use is managed, an inverter may be right
for this type of system.

1.1. DC & AC appliance

Appliances used in our day to day live are usually AC appliances. Some of
our AC appliances, such as radios, TVs and computer anyhow operate on
direct current. Those appliances have an integrated inverter to convert the
alternating current from the plus into the respective direct current.
This chapter will present typical AC and DC appliances.

1.2. AC Appliances

1.2.1. Air conditioning

Air conditioning (often referred to as AC, A/C, or air con)is the process of
removing heat and moisture from the interior of an occupied space to
improve the comfort of occupants. Air conditioning can be used in both
domestic and commercial environments. This process is most commonly
used to achieve a more comfortable interior environment, typically for
humans and other animals; however, air conditioning is also used to cool
and dehumidify rooms filled with heat-producing electronic devices, such
as computer servers, power amplifiers, and to display and store some
delicate products, such as artwork.
Air conditioners often use a fan to distribute the conditioned air to an
occupied space such as a building or a car to improve thermal comfort and
indoor air quality. Electric refrigerant-based AC units range from small
units that can cool a small bedroom, which can be carried by a single
90
adult, to massive units installed on the roof of office towers that can cool
an entire building. The cooling is typically achieved through a refrigeration
cycle, but sometimes evaporation or free cooling is used.

91
 Figure 52: Air conditioning units outside a building
1.1.1. Electric water boiler
An electric water boiler, also called a thermo pot, is a consumer electronics
small appliance used for boiling water and maintaining it at a constant
temperature. It is typically used to provide an immediate source of hot
water for making tea, hot chocolate, coffee, instant, or baby formula, or for
any other household use where clean hot water is required. They are a
common component of Japanese kitchens and the kitchens of many East
Asian countries but are found in varying use globally. Some thermo pots
are designed with a feature that can purify water.

Figure 53: Boiler

1.1.2. Tea kettle

A kettle, sometimes called a tea kettle or teakettle, is a type of pot,
specialized for boiling water, with a lid, spout, and handle, or a small
kitchen appliance of similar shape that functions in a self-contained
manner. Kettles can be heated either by placing on a stove, or by their
own internal electric heating element in the appliance versions.

92
 Figure 54: A stainless steel kettle with handle
1.1.1. Refrigerator
A refrigerator (colloquially fridge) consists of a thermally insulated
compartment and a heat pump (mechanical, electronic or chemical) that
transfers heat from the inside of the fridge to its external environment so
that the inside of the fridge is cooled to a temperature below the ambient
temperature of the room. Refrigeration is an essential food storage
technique in developed countries.
The lower temperature lowers the reproduction rate of bacteria, so the
refrigerator reduces the rate of spoilage. A refrigerator maintains a
temperature a few degrees above the freezing point of water. Optimum
temperature range for perishable food storage is 3 to 5 °C (37 to 41 °F). A
similar device that maintains a temperature below the freezing point of
water is called a freezer. The refrigerator replaced the icebox, which had
been a common household appliance for almost a century and a half.
In most households AC fridges are used, especially when they have a grid
connection or a Diesel generator.
1.1.2. Washing machine
A washing machine (laundry machine, clothes washer, or washer) is a home
appliance used to wash laundry. The term is mostly applied to machines that
use water as opposed to dry cleaning (which uses alternative cleaning
fluids, and is performed by specialist businesses) or ultrasonic cleaners.
The user adds laundry detergent, which is sold in liquid or powder form, to
the wash water.

93
Figure 55: A typical front-loader washing machine

94
 1.1.1. Dishwasher
A is a machine for cleaning dishware and cutlery automatically. Unlike
manual dishwashing, which relies largely on physical scrubbing to remove
soiling, the mechanical dishwasher cleans by spraying hot water, typically
between 45 and 75 °C (110 and 170 °F), at the dishes, with lower

temperatures used for delicate items.

Figure 56: Dish washer

1.1.2. Microwave oven

(Also commonly referred to as a microwave) is an electric oven that heats
and cooks food by exposing it to electromagnetic radiation in the
microwave frequency range. This induces polar molecules in the food to
rotate and produce thermal energy in a Process known as dielectric
heating. Microwave ovens heat foods quickly and efficiently because
excitation is fairly uniform in the outer 25–38 mm(1–1.5 inches) of
a homogeneous, high water content food item.

Figure 57: Oven

1.2. DC Appliances
Nowadays, you can find almost any load you need for rural areas as DC
loads, where by the most common loads are lamps and fridges. giz
95
published 2016 a catalogue of DC-Appliances under the title “Photovoltaics
for Productive Use Applications”

96
 Figure 58: Typical DC Loads from the company Solar Works

These DC loads are nice in the sense that they can pull power directly from
the battery bank without the help of an inverter, which increases the
overall efficiency of the system because the loads use the same type of
electricity produced by the PV array and stored in the batteries. However,
DC loads are found in special locations and must be matched to the
voltage available from the batteries and the clients need to have the
budget to invest in those loads.
The following sections is based on (Karina Garbesi, 2011) and presents DC
appliances for three dominant electricity end-uses—cooling, lighting, and
refrigeration, which together consume about 40% of total electricity in
residential and commercial markets (see Error! Reference source not
found.). For each of these products market information, power
characteristics, and a comparison of their energy efficiencies with their AC
counterparts are provided. This is followed by a brief summary of DC
products for other miscellaneous end-uses.

1.1.1. DC Air Conditioners

2. Table 8: DC air-conditioners, manufacturers and DC voltages.

Manufacturer Applications Voltage Source
DC Airco Mobile 12V/24V [Link]
(auto/RV 12v_air_conditioners/
)
DC Airco Mobile 24V/48V [Link]
(telecom and
other)
DC Breeze Marine 12V/24V [Link]
SplitCool Stationary 12V/48V [Link]
conditioning
Securus Stationary 48V [Link]
[Link]
ml
1.1.1. DC Lighting

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Table 9: DC Lighting Product Manufacturers.
Manufacturer Applications Product Voltage Source
Ablamp Ltd Home, street, CFL Edison 12V [Link]
boat, outdoor Socket lamps
Ablamp Ltd Home, office, hotel, LED Edison 12V/24V [Link]
shop, landscape, socket and
security pin lamps
Ablamp Ltd Caravan, boat, LED floodlamp 12V/24V [Link]
landscape
Ablamp Ltd Residential, T8-LED fixture, 12V [Link]
commercial, tube, source
vehicle
Nextek Power Residential, Ballasts for 24V/48V [Link].
Systems commercial T5, T8, and com
CFL
lamps
Phocos Home, street CFL lamps 12V/24V [Link]
Phocos Home LED lamp 12V [Link]
Steca Home CFL floodlight 12V [Link]
SunWize Public building, Lighting 12V/24V [Link]
restroom, garage, systems:
park, sign, wall Fluorescent,
washing, CFL
driveway,
security
SunWize Bus stop, porch, Lighting systems: 12V/24V [Link]
outbuilding LED
Thin-Lite Home, industrial, Fluorescent 12V [Link]
commercial sites, and CFL
area, fixtures and
security ballasts
Thin-Lite Indoor, outdoor Incandescent, 12V [Link]
halogen fixtures

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 1.1.1. DC Lighting

Table 10: DC Lighting Product Manufacturers.

Manufacturer Applications Product Voltage Source
Ablamp Ltd Home, street, CFL Edison 12V [Link]
boat, outdoor Socket lamps
Ablamp Ltd Home, office, hotel, LED Edison 12V/24V [Link]
shop, landscape, socket and
security pin lamps
Ablamp Ltd Caravan, boat, LED floodlamp 12V/24V [Link]
landscape
Ablamp Ltd Residential, T8-LED fixture, 12V [Link]
commercial, tube, source
vehicle
Nextek Power Residential, Ballasts for 24V/48V [Link].
Systems commercial T5, T8, and com
CFL
lamps
Phocos Home, street CFL lamps 12V/24V [Link]
Phocos Home LED lamp 12V [Link]
Steca Home CFL floodlight 12V [Link]
SunWize Public building, Lighting 12V/24V [Link]
restroom, garage, systems:
park, sign, wall Fluorescent,
washing, CFL
driveway,
security
SunWize Bus stop, porch, Lighting systems: 12V/24V [Link]
outbuilding LED
Thin-Lite Home, industrial, Fluorescent 12V [Link]
commercial sites, and CFL
area, fixtures and
security ballasts
Thin-Lite Indoor, outdoor Incandescent, 12V [Link]
halogen fixtures

99
 Self-Check -1 Written Test

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Use the Answer sheet
provided in the next page:
I. Matching from column B to column A
A B
1. Refrigerator A) home appliance used to wash
laundries
2. Tea kettle B) a device which is used to
transfers
heat from the inside to its external
environment
3. Electric water boiler C) a small kitchen appliance
4. Air conditioning D) thermo pot
5. Washing machine E) used to cool the air and to
remove a
moisture

Note: Satisfactory rating - 5 points Unsatisfactory - below 5 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Answer sheet

Score=

Rating
Name: Date:_

Short answer questions

10
0
 Information Sheet-2 Identifying voltage, current and power ratings of AC and DC ap

2. Identifying voltage, current and power ratings of AC and DC appliances

2.1. Energy savings

Estimated percept energy savings from switching from the standard
appliance to the most efficient DC compatible appliance run on AC, and
from avoided AC-DC conversion losses in the DC-appliance.
Table 11: Energy savings AC & DC

2.2. Comparison Voltage between AC & DC appliance

Table 12: Voltage Comparison AC & DC

No Item description AC appliance DC appliances

1 Air conditioning 220-240v 12V, 24V,48v,
2 Electric water boiler 220-240v 12V, 24V,48v,
3 Tea kettle 220-240v 12V, 24V
4 Refrigerator 220-240v 12V, 24V
5 Washing machine 220-240v 12V, 24V,48v,
6 Dishwasher 220-240v 12V, 24V,48v,
7 Microwave oven 220-240v 24V,48v,
8 Light 220-240v 6,12V, 24V,48v,

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1
 Self-Check -2 Written Test

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Use the Answer sheet
provided in the next page:

I. Matching from column B to column

Appliance Energy saving from switching DC compatible
run on AC

NO A B

1. Freezers A. 51%
2. Dish wisher B. 53%
3. Incandescent lamp C. 73%
4. Electric water heater D. 50%

Note: Satisfactory rating - 5 points Unsatisfactory - below 5 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.

Answer sheet

Score=

Rating
Name: Date:_

Short answer questions

10
2
 List of Reference
Materials

 KhamphoneNanthavong, Promotion of the Efficient Use of Renewable

Energies in Developing Countries: Photovoltaic, DGS REEPRO, 2008.
 ChristofBuam,Solar Photovoltaic: Basic in Solar Photovoltaic
Systems, 2nd edition, Don Bosco, Addis Ababa, 2008.
 SNV, Solar PV Training and Refferal Manual, Developed by SNV
for the Rural
 Solar Market Development, 2015.
 SNV, Solar PV Standardized Training Manual, Developed by SNV
for the Rural
 Solar Market Development, 2015.
 David Tan and AngKianSeng, Handbook for Solar Photovoltaic (PV)
Systems, Energy Market Authority and Building and Construction
Authority, 2019.
 Mark Hankins, Stand-Alone Solar Electric Systems: the
Earthscan Expert
 Handbookfor Planning, Design and Installation,Earthscan, 2010.
 Jan Kai Dobelmann and Antje Klauss-Vorreiter, Promotion of the
Efficient Use ofRenewable Energies in Developing Countries, Level 2
Technician Training Manual, DGS REEPRO, 2009.
 CLEAN (Clean Energy Access Network), Installation, Operation and
Maintenance of Solar PV Microgrid Systems: A hand book for trainers,
GSES Indian Sustainable Energy, 2016.

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