MODULE 3 MDM

Syllabus: • Types of networks: PSTN, Cellular, Satellite, Internet • Network topologies: Star,
Mesh, Ring, Hybrid • Overview of Switching and Routing

📘 1. PUBLIC SWITCHED TELEPHONE NETWORK (PSTN)

🔹Introduction

The Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) is the traditional telephone system used
worldwide for voice communication. It is one of the oldest communication systems and was
mainly designed for landline telephones. Initially, PSTN worked on analog technology, but later
it also started using digital switching.

In simple words, PSTN is the global network of telephone lines and exchanges that allows
people to make voice calls without using the internet.

🔹 Basic Concept

PSTN works on the principle of circuit switching. In this method, a dedicated communication
path (circuit) is established between the caller and the receiver for the entire duration of the
call.

This means:

 The connection is reserved

 No other user can use that path during the call

 Communication is continuous and stable

🔹 Main Components of PSTN / Architecture of PSTN (PSTN follows a hierarchical structure:)

1. Subscriber Line (Local Loop)

This is the physical connection between the user’s telephone and the nearest telephone
exchange.

 Usually made of copper wires or fiber cables

 Also called the last-mile connection

 Carries voice signals to and from the exchange

2. Telephone (Subscriber Equipment)

  Devices used by users to communicate

 Converts voice signals into electrical signals and vice versa

3. Switching Centers (Exchanges)

 These are the core units of PSTN

 Responsible for:

o Receiving dialed numbers

o Finding the correct route

o Establishing connection between users

 Automatically connects calls using switching techniques

4. Transmission Media

This is the medium through which signals travel. It includes:

 Copper cables (short distance)

 Fiber optic cables (high-speed communication)

 Microwave links (wireless long-distance)

 Satellite links (international communication)

5. Trunk Network

 Used for long-distance communication

 Connects different cities or regions

 Transfers signals between exchanges

6. Signaling System

 Controls the entire communication process

 Responsible for:

o Call setup

o Routing

o Supervision

o Call termination
🔹 Working of PSTN (Step-by-Step)

1. The user dials a phone number

2. The signal is sent through the local loop to the exchange

3. The exchange analyzes the number

4. It finds the best route through the network

5. A dedicated circuit is established

6. Voice signals are transmitted continuously

7. After the call ends, the circuit is released

🔹 Types of PSTN Networks

 Local Exchange Network – connects users in the same area

 Trunk Network – connects cities

 International Gateway – connects different countries

🔹 Advantages
  Reliable and stable communication

 High voice quality

 Works without internet

 Wide global coverage

🔹 Limitations

 Low data transmission speed

 Expensive infrastructure

 Less flexible compared to modern networks

🔹 Conclusion

PSTN is a foundation of traditional communication systems. Although it is reliable, it is gradually

being replaced by modern technologies like internet-based communication systems.

📘 2. CELLULAR NETWORK

Definition:

A cellular network is a wireless communication system that divides a large geographic area into
smaller regions called cells, each served by a Base Transceiver Station (BTS).

It is used for:

 Voice calls

 SMS

 Internet services

1. Introduction to Cellular Network

A cellular network is a wireless communication system used for mobile communication (like
mobile phones). Instead of using a single powerful transmitter, the entire geographic area is
divided into smaller regions called cells.

Each cell has a base station (also called Base Transceiver Station – BTS) that communicates with
mobile users within that area.

👉 The main idea is:

 Divide a large area into smaller parts (cells)

  Use low-power transmitters

 Reuse frequencies efficiently

2. Basic Concept of Cellular Network

 The total area is divided into small hexagonal cells

 Each cell uses a specific frequency range

 Adjacent cells use different frequencies to avoid interference and crosstalk.

 Cells far apart can reuse same frequency (frequency reuse)

 Each cell has a BTS

 All BTS are connected to MSC (Mobile Switching Center)

👉 Important concept:

 Uses low power transmitters (~100W or less)

 Uses SDM (Space Division Multiplexing)

3. Cellular System Architecture

Flow of communication:

Mobile Station → BTS → BSC → MSC → PSTN / Internet (prefer diagram)

4. Components of Cellular Network

1. Mobile Station (MS):

 The user device (mobile phone)

  Communicates with the base station using radio signals

2. Base Station (BTS):

 Located in each cell

 Sends and receives signals from mobile users

 Handles communication with mobiles

 Contains antenna + transceivers + controller

3. Base Station Controller (BSC):

 Controls multiple base stations

 Manages handovers and resource allocation

4. Mobile Switching Center (MSC):

 Main control/Switching unit of the network

Functions:

 Connects calls

 Assigns channels

 Performs handoff

 Billing and monitoring

 Connects to PSTN / Internet

5. Types of Channels

1. Control Channels

 Used for:

o Call setup

o Call maintenance

o Communication between mobile and BTS

2. Traffic Channels

 Carry:

o Voice
 o Data

6. Working of Cellular Network

i. User makes a call using Mobile Station (MS).

ii. Signal is sent to nearest Base Transceiver Station (BTS) via radio waves.

iii. BTS receives signal and forwards it to Base Station Controller (BSC).

iv. BSC manages resources and sends request to Mobile Switching Center (MSC).

v. MSC routes the call to:

 Another mobile, or

 Landline (PSTN), or

 Internet

vi. A traffic channel is assigned for communication.

vii. If user moves, handoff transfers call to another BTS without interruption.

viii. When call ends, the channel is released.

7. Frequency Reuse

Definition:

Frequency reuse is the process of reusing same frequencies in different cells to improve
capacity/efficiency.

Features:

1. Improves spectral efficiency

2. Improves Quality of Service (QoS)

3. Reduces interference

4. Total bandwidth divided into sub-bands

👉 Important:

 Depends on distance between cells

 Controlled to avoid interference

8. Cell Splitting
i. Cell Splitting is the process of dividing a large cell into smaller cells, each having its own base
station.

ii. The new smaller cells are called microcells.

iii. Each microcell is:

 Independent

 Has smaller radius

 Uses lower antenna height and transmitter power

iv. Cell splitting is mainly done to handle increased traffic in a particular area.

v. It increases the overall capacity of the cellular system.

vi. It also improves frequency reuse, meaning the same frequency can be used more efficiently
in different cells.

vii. Higher frequency reuse leads to better performance and more users being supported.

Advantages:

i. Increases capacity

ii. Improves SNR (signal to noise ratio)

iii. Reduces interference

 iv. Increases reliability

Disadvantages:

i. More base stations needed

ii. Frequent handoffs

iii. Complex channel assignment

9. Cell Sectoring

i. Cell Sectoring is the process of dividing a cell into wedge-shaped sectors, each having its own
set of channels.

ii. The sectors are formed at angles of 120° (3 sectors) or 60° (6 sectors).

iii. Each sector uses a directional antenna for better signal transmission.

iv. Sectoring helps to:

 Increase channel capacity

 Reduce interference

v. From one cell, 3 or 6 sectors can be created.

vi. Unlike cell splitting, the cell radius remains the same in sectoring.

vii. It improves system performance by reducing co-channel interference.

Advantages:

1. Improves signal-to-interference ratio

2. Increases capacity

3. Better frequency reuse

4. Easier channel assignment

Disadvantages:

1. More antennas required

2. Reduced efficiency

3. More handoffs

4. Possible traffic loss

[Link] of Cellular Network

1. First Generation (1G):

1G was introduced in the 1980s in the USA. It was the first time mobile phones were used
for voice calling.

This generation used analog signals to transmit data. It used Analog Frequency Modulation
and circuit switching techniques for communication.

In 1G, each call was assigned a different frequency using Frequency Division Multiple Access
(FDMA).

The operating frequency of 1G systems was around 800 MHz to 900 MHz. The maximum
data speed was very low, about 2.5 Kbps, with a bandwidth of 30 KHz.

Limitations of 1G:

 Small coverage area

 No roaming support between different operators

 Poor sound quality

 High battery consumption

 Devices were large and difficult to carry

2. Second Generation (2G):

2G was introduced in the 1990s in Finland with the launch of GSM (Global System for
Mobile Communication).

This generation marked a major improvement by shifting from analog to digital

communication. It used technologies like Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and Code
Division Multiple Access (CDMA).

The data speed in 2G was up to 64 Kbps.

2G enabled new services such as:

 SMS (Short Message Service)

 MMS (Multimedia Messaging Service)

It supported different sectors of wireless communication, including:

 Digital Cellular Systems (DCS)

 Mobile Data

 Personal Communication Services (PCS)

 WLAN

Advantages of 2G:

 Better capacity and improved security

 Supports international roaming

 Allows messaging (SMS and MMS)

 Improved network coverage compared to 1G

Limitations of 2G:

 Requires strong network signals for proper data transmission

 Cannot support video transmission efficiently

3. Third Generation (3G):

3G was introduced in 2000 in Japan. It brought major improvements in mobile

communication by supporting both voice and high-speed data services.

This generation uses technologies like UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications

System), which is widely used in smartphones.

The data speed of 3G is up to 3.1 Mbps, which is much faster than 2G.

With 3G, users can:

 Make video calls

 Browse the internet

 Play online games

 Use multimedia services

3G provides broadcast internet services, along with high security and international roaming
support.

Advantages of 3G:

 High data speed

 Supports both voice and data

 Enables video calling and online gaming

 Better security and roaming support

 Increased capacity for data transmission

Limitations of 3G:

 More expensive compared to earlier generations

 High power consumption (battery drains faster)

5. 4G (4th Generation):

4G was first introduced wound 2010 in South Korea. It provides very high-speed internet
and improved communication services.

This generation uses technologies like Long Term Evolution (LTE) and Wi-Fi for faster data
transmission.

The data speed of 4G ranges from 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps. It also provides high security using
advanced encryption techniques.

4G offers ultra-broadband internet services, allowing fast uploading and downloading of

data.

Advantages of 4G:

 Very high data speed

 Supports ultra-broadband internet

 Enables high-quality video streaming and online services

 Provides global mobility and supports international calls

 Better security using encryption

Limitations of 4G:

 Requires costly hardware and infrastructure

  Initial setup is expensive

Note: Due to faster data transmission, tasks are completed quickly, which can help in
managing battery usage efficiently.

6. 5th Generation(5G):

5G is the latest generation of mobile communication, designed to meet the growing demand for
high-speed data, global connectivity, and support for the Internet of Things (IoT).

In the beginning, 5G works along with 4G networks, and later it becomes a fully independent
technology.

5G provides extremely high data speeds and very low delay (latency), making it suitable for
advanced applications.

Key Features of 5G:

 Peak data rate: Up to 20 Gbps (download) and 10 Gbps (upload)

 Real-world speed: Around 100 Mbps download and 50 Mbps upload

 Low latency: As low as 4 milliseconds

 High spectral efficiency: Better use of available bandwidth

 High connection density: Supports up to 1 million devices per square kilometer

Advantages of 5G:

 Very high data speed

 Extremely low delay (latency)

 Supports a large number of connected devices

 Ideal for IoT, smart cities, and advanced technologies

 Better network efficiency and performance

Limitations of 5G:

 Requires expensive infrastructure and setup

 Limited availability in many areas (still developing)

 Year Data
Generation Technology Type Main Features Limitations
Introduced Speed

Poor quality, no
Up to 2.5
1G 1980s Analog Voice calls only security, large
Kbps
devices

Digital Up to 64 SMS, MMS, better No video support,

2G 1990s
(TDMA/CDMA) Kbps security slow data

Up to 3.1 Video calls, internet, Expensive, high

3G 2000 Digital (UMTS)
Mbps online gaming battery usage

High-speed internet,
100 Mbps
4G Around 2010 LTE, Wi-Fi streaming, global Costly infrastructure
– 1 Gbps
mobility

Recent Advanced Up to 20 Very fast speed, low Expensive, limited

5G
(2019+) wireless Gbps latency, IoT support coverage

📡 GSM Architecture (Explanation)

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) is a 2G cellular network system used for digital
communication like voice calls, SMS, and basic data services.

GSM architecture defines how different parts of the network are organized and how they
communicate with each other.

🔹 Main Parts of GSM Architecture

GSM architecture is divided into 3 main subsystems

1️⃣ Mobile Station (MS):

 It is the user’s mobile device

  Consists of:

o Mobile equipment (phone)

o SIM card (stores user identity)

Functions:

 Communicates with BTS using radio signals

 Sends and receives calls and messages

2️⃣ Base Station Subsystem (BSS):

It handles communication between mobile and network.

Components:

a) Base Transceiver Station (BTS):

 Directly communicates with mobile

 Covers a specific cell

 Handles radio transmission

b) Base Station Controller (BSC):

 Controls multiple BTS

 Manages:

o Handoff

o Channel allocation

3️⃣ Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS):

It is the core part of GSM network.

Main Component:

Mobile Switching Center (MSC)

 Main switching unit

 Connects calls between users

 Connects to:

o PSTN (landline)
 o Internet

Other Databases (Important):

 HLR (Home Location Register) → Stores permanent user data

 VLR (Visitor Location Register) → Stores temporary user data

 AuC (Authentication Center) → Provides security

 EIR (Equipment Identity Register) → Checks device validity

📊 Working Flow (Simple):

MS → BTS → BSC → MSC → Destination

QB:

Q. Define a telecommunication network and list its basic components.

Ans:

Definition

A telecommunication network is a system of interconnected devices and communication links

that allows transmission of information (such as voice, data, text, or video) between two or
more users over a distance using wired or wireless communication technologies.

Basic Components of a Telecommunication Network

1. Sender (Source)

 The device that generates and sends the information

 Example: computer, mobile phone

2. Receiver (Destination)

 The device that receives the transmitted information

 Example: another computer or phone

3. Transmission Medium

 The physical or wireless path through which data travels

 Types:
 o Wired: Twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, optical fiber

o Wireless: Radio waves, microwaves, satellite

4. Transmitter

 Converts the message into a signal suitable for transmission

 Example: Modulator in communication systems

5. Receiver Device (Demodulator)

 Converts received signals back into original data

6. Switching Devices

 Direct data from source to destination

 Example: switches, exchanges

7. Routing Devices

 Determine the best path for data transmission

 Example: routers

8. Protocols

 Set of rules that govern communication between devices

 Example: TCP/IP

9. Repeaters and Amplifiers

 Strengthen signals to travel long distances without loss

Q. Explain satellite communication networks and discuss their applications and limitations.

Ans:

A Satellite Communication Network is a type of wireless communication system in which signals

are transmitted between different locations on Earth using an artificial satellite placed in space.

The satellite acts as a relay station. It receives signals from one Earth station, processes them,
and sends them back to another Earth station.
👉 In simple words:
A satellite communication network allows long-distance communication using satellites instead
of cables.

Basic Concept

Satellite communication works on two main signal paths:

 Uplink → Signal sent from Earth station to satellite

 Downlink → Signal sent from satellite back to Earth

The satellite receives, amplifies, changes frequency, and retransmits the signal.

Working of Satellite Communication Network

The working process can be explained step-by-step:

1. The Earth station generates a signal (voice, video, or data)

2. Signal is transmitted to the satellite (uplink)

3. Satellite receives the signal using transponder

4. Signal is amplified and frequency converted

5. Satellite retransmits the signal (downlink)

6. Receiving Earth station receives the signal

7. Signal is processed and converted into usable form

(same diagram as above)

🔹 Applications of Satellite Communication

1. Television Broadcasting

o DTH services and live TV transmission

2. Long-distance Communication

o International voice and data communication

3. Internet Services

o Satellite internet in remote areas

4. Weather Forecasting

o Monitoring climate and predicting weather

5. Navigation Systems

o GPS and location tracking

6. Military and Defense

o Secure communication and surveillance

7. Disaster Management

o Communication during emergencies

🔹 Limitations of Satellite Communication

1. High Cost

o Launching and maintaining satellites is expensive

2. Signal Delay (Latency)

o Long distance causes delay in communication

3. Signal Loss

o Affected by weather conditions (rain, storms)

4. Limited Bandwidth

o Capacity is limited compared to fiber networks

5. Security Issues

o Signals can be intercepted if not protected

 6. Complex Technology

o Requires advanced equipment and maintenance

More last exam POV:

Structure of Satellite Communication Network

A satellite communication network mainly consists of three major parts:

1. Earth Segment (Earth Stations)

Earth stations are ground-based communication systems.

🔸 Components:

 Dish antenna

 Transmitter

 Receiver

 Modulator/Demodulator

 Amplifier

🔸 Functions:

 Generate communication signals (voice, video, data)

 Convert signals into suitable form

 Transmit signals to satellite (uplink)

 Receive signals from satellite (downlink)

🔸 Examples:

 TV broadcasting stations

 Satellite internet stations

 VSAT terminals

2. Space Segment (Satellite)

The satellite is placed in orbit around the Earth and acts as a microwave repeater.

🔸 Functions:

 Receives signals from Earth

  Amplifies the signals

 Changes frequency

 Sends signals back to Earth

Most communication satellites are placed in Geostationary Orbit (GEO) so they appear
stationary relative to Earth.

3. Transponder

The transponder is the most important part inside the satellite.

🔸 Functions of Transponder:

1. Receives uplink signal

2. Amplifies weak signal

3. Converts frequency

4. Transmits signal back to Earth

🔸 Components:

 RF Receiver

 Low Noise Amplifier (LNA)

 Frequency Converter

 Power Amplifier

👉 It acts as a repeater in space.

Types of Satellite Orbits

1. LEO (Low Earth Orbit)

 Height: 160–2000 km

 Low delay

 Used for mobile communication and internet

2. MEO (Medium Earth Orbit)

 Height: 2000–36,000 km

 Used in navigation systems (GPS)

3. GEO (Geostationary Orbit)

 Height: ~36,000 km

 Satellite appears fixed

 Used for TV broadcasting and communication

Advantages

 Covers very large geographical area

 Useful in remote and rural areas

 Reliable long-distance communication

 Supports broadcasting services

 No need for physical cables

Disadvantages

 High cost of launching satellites

 Signal delay (especially in GEO satellites)

 Affected by weather conditions (rain attenuation)

 Requires complex technology

Q. Explain different types of network topologies with advantages and disadvantages.

Ans: A Network Topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of devices (nodes) and
communication links in a computer network. It defines how computers, servers, and other
devices are connected and how data flows between them.

Types of Network Topologies

The major types of network topologies are:

1. Bus Topology
 2. Star Topology

3. Ring Topology

4. Mesh Topology

5. Hybrid Topology

1. BUS TOPOLOGY

Description

In Bus Topology, all devices are connected to a single central cable called the backbone cable.

 Data is transmitted in the form of signals along this cable

 When a device sends data, it travels across the entire network

 Each device checks the address and accepts only relevant data

At both ends of the cable, terminators are used to prevent signal reflection.

Working

1. A device sends data onto the backbone cable

2. The signal travels in both directions

3. All devices receive the signal

4. Only the destination device accepts the data

5. Others ignore it

Advantages

 Simple and easy to install

  Requires less cable compared to other topologies

 Cost-effective for small networks

 Easy to extend by adding new devices

Disadvantages

 Failure of backbone cable leads to total network failure

 Difficult to identify faults

 Performance decreases with increase in devices

 Limited cable length and number of nodes

 Data collision may occur

Applications

 Small office networks

 Temporary network setups

2. STAR TOPOLOGY

Description

In Star Topology, all devices are connected to a central device such as a hub or switch.

 Each device has a dedicated connection to the central node

 All communication passes through the central device

Working

1. A device sends data to the central hub/switch

2. The hub/switch receives the data

3. It identifies the destination device

4. Data is forwarded to the correct device

Advantages

 Easy to install and manage

 Failure of one device does not affect others

  Easy fault detection and isolation

 High performance due to dedicated links

 Scalable (easy to add devices)

Disadvantages

 Failure of central device causes total network failure

 Requires more cable

 Higher installation cost

 Dependency on central device

Applications

 Home networks

 Office LANs

 School and college networks

3. RING TOPOLOGY

Description

In Ring Topology, devices are connected in a circular loop.

 Each device is connected to two other devices

 Data travels in one direction (unidirectional) or both directions (bidirectional)

Working

1. Data is sent from one device

2. It passes through each node in the ring

 3. Each node checks the address

4. Data reaches the destination device

5. Signal continues until it returns to sender

Advantages

 No data collisions (controlled data flow)

 Equal access for all devices

 Better performance than bus under heavy load

Disadvantages

 Failure of one node affects entire network

 Difficult to troubleshoot

 Adding or removing devices disrupts network

 Slower compared to star topology

Applications

 Token Ring networks

 Some older LAN systems

4. MESH TOPOLOGY

Description
In Mesh Topology, every device is connected to every other device.

 Provides multiple paths for data transmission

 Can be:

o Full Mesh (all nodes connected)

o Partial Mesh (some nodes connected)

Working

 Data can travel through multiple paths

 If one path fails, another path is used

 Ensures continuous communication

Advantages

 Very high reliability

 Fault tolerant (no single point of failure)

 High security (direct links)

 No network congestion

Disadvantages

 Very expensive

 Requires large number of cables

 Complex installation and maintenance

 Not suitable for small networks

Applications

 Military communication systems

 Banking networks

 Critical systems where reliability is important

5. HYBRID TOPOLOGY

Description

Hybrid Topology is a combination of two or more topologies such as:

 Star + Bus

 Star + Ring

It is used to combine the advantages of different topologies.

Structure

 Uses a backbone network

 Connects multiple subnetworks

 Common in large organizations

Advantages

 Highly flexible

 Scalable (easy to expand)

 Reliable (failure in one part does not affect entire network)

 Can be customized as per requirements

Disadvantages

 Complex design and configuration

 Expensive

 Difficult to manage and troubleshoot

Applications
  Universities

 Banks

 Large companies

Q. Explain the concept of switching in communication networks and describe its types, also
differentiate between circuit switching and packet switching

Ans: In communication networks, switching is the technique used to transfer data from a source
to a destination through intermediate nodes such as switches or routers.

When two devices are not directly connected, the data must pass through multiple devices.
Switching helps in:

 Selecting the best path

 Forwarding data efficiently

 Managing network traffic

👉 In simple words:
Switching decides how data travels inside a network.

Need for Switching

Switching is required because:

 Direct connection between all devices is not possible

 Networks have limited resources

 Multiple users need to share the same communication system

Thus, switching ensures:

 Efficient use of bandwidth

  Reliable communication

 Better network performance

Types of Switching Techniques

There are three main types of switching:

1. Circuit Switching

2. Packet Switching

3. Message Switching

1. CIRCUIT SWITCHING

Concept

Circuit switching is a technique in which a dedicated communication path is established

between sender and receiver before data transmission begins.

This path remains reserved for the entire duration of communication.

Working

1. Connection Establishment

o A dedicated path is created between sender and receiver

2. Data Transfer

o Data is transmitted continuously

3. Connection Termination

o Path is released after communication ends

Characteristics

 Dedicated path

 Continuous transmission

 Fixed bandwidth

 Low delay after setup

Advantages

 Reliable communication
  No data loss during transmission

 Constant data rate

Disadvantages

 Inefficient bandwidth usage

 Path remains reserved even if no data is sent

 Setup time required

Example

Traditional telephone systems (PSTN)

2. PACKET SWITCHING

Concept

In packet switching, data is divided into small units called packets, and each packet is
transmitted independently.

There is no dedicated path, and packets may travel through different routes.

Working

1. Data is divided into packets

2. Each packet contains:

o Source address

o Destination address

o Sequence number

3. Packets are sent through the network

4. They may take different paths

5. At destination, packets are reassembled

Characteristics

 No dedicated path

 Dynamic routing

 Efficient bandwidth usage

Advantages

 Efficient use of bandwidth

 Faster transmission

 Flexible routing

 Suitable for modern networks

Disadvantages

 Packet loss possible

 Packets may arrive out of order

 Requires reassembly

Example

Internet communication

3. MESSAGE SWITCHING

Concept

In message switching, the entire message is sent as one unit and is stored temporarily at each
node before being forwarded.

Working

1. Full message is sent to first node

2. Node stores the message

3. After processing, forwards to next node

4. Process continues until destination

Characteristics

 Store-and-forward technique

 No dedicated path

 High delay

Advantages

 No need for dedicated path

  Efficient use of network

Disadvantages

 High delay due to storage

 Requires large memory

 Not suitable for real-time communication

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CIRCUIT SWITCHING AND PACKET SWITCHING

Feature Circuit Switching Packet Switching

Path Dedicated path No dedicated path

Data Transmission Continuous Divided into packets

Setup Time Required Not required

Bandwidth Usage Inefficient Efficient

Delay Low after setup Variable delay

Reliability High Moderate

Flexibility Low High

Example Telephone network Internet

Q. Describe the basic principle of routing in networks and explain how routing differs from
switching.

Ans:

Routing is the process of selecting the best path for data to travel from a source device to a
destination device across different networks.

In a large network like the Internet, data does not travel directly. It passes through multiple
intermediate devices called routers, which decide the path of the data.

👉 In simple words:
Routing is the process of deciding where data should go next to reach its final destination.

Basic Principle of Routing

The basic principle of routing is based on:

 Logical addressing (IP address)

 Path selection

 Forwarding data packets

How Routing Works (Step-by-Step)

1. Data Creation

o A user sends data (for example, opening a website)

2. Packet Formation

o Data is divided into packets

o Each packet contains:

 Source IP address

 Destination IP address

3. Routing Decision

o The router checks the destination IP address

o It looks into its routing table

4. Path Selection

o Router selects the best path using routing algorithms or protocols

5. Packet Forwarding

o Packet is forwarded to the next router

6. Final Delivery

o Process continues until packet reaches destination

Routing Table

A routing table is a database inside the router that contains:

 Network addresses

 Possible paths

 Next-hop information
It helps the router decide where to send data next.

Types of Routing

1. Static Routing

 Routes are manually configured

 No automatic updates

Advantages:

 Simple and secure

 No extra network traffic

Disadvantages:

 Not suitable for large networks

 Requires manual changes

2. Dynamic Routing

 Routes are automatically updated

 Uses routing protocols like:

o RIP

o OSPF

o EIGRP

o BGP

Advantages:

 Automatically adapts to changes

 Suitable for large networks

Disadvantages:

 Uses more resources

 Complex configuration

3. Default Routing

 Used when no specific route is available

  Data is sent to a default gateway

Advantages:

 Simple configuration

 Useful for small networks

Disadvantages:

 May lead to inefficient routing

Difference Between Routing and Switching

Feature Routing Switching

Function Connects different networks Connects devices in same network

Address Used IP Address MAC Address

Device Router Switch

OSI Layer Layer 3 (Network) Layer 2 (Data Link)

Speed Slower Faster

Decision Basis Routing table MAC address table

LAST EXAM pov:

INTERNET – DETAILED NOTES

1. Introduction to Internet

The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers and devices that communicate
with each other using standard protocols such as TCP/IP.

It allows users to:

  Share information

 Communicate globally

 Access various online services

👉 In simple words:
The Internet is a network of networks that connects millions of devices worldwide.

2. Basic Structure of Internet

The Internet is made up of several important components that work together to enable
communication.

Main Components:

1. Clients (User Devices)

 These are devices used by users

 Examples: Computers, laptops, mobile phones

 They send requests and receive responses

2. Servers

 Powerful computers that provide services

 Store websites, emails, databases

Examples:

 Web servers

 Mail servers

3. Routers

 Devices that direct data packets

 Decide the best path for data transmission

4. ISP (Internet Service Provider)

 Company that provides internet access to users

 Acts as a bridge between user and internet

5. Transmission Media

 Medium through which data travels

  Can be:

o Wired (cables, fiber optics)

o Wireless (Wi-Fi, radio waves)

3. How Internet Works (Step-by-Step)

The working of the Internet can be understood in simple steps:

1. User enters a website (URL)

2. DNS (Domain Name System) converts the URL into an IP address

3. Request is sent through ISP

4. Data is divided into small units called packets

5. Packets travel through different routes in the network

6. Server processes the request

7. Response is sent back to the user

8. Browser displays the webpage

👉 Important point:
Data on the Internet always travels in the form of packets.

4. Key Technologies Used in Internet

1. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

 Ensures reliable data transmission

 Checks for errors

 Ensures all packets reach destination

2. IP (Internet Protocol)

 Responsible for addressing and routing

 Assigns unique IP address to each device

3. DNS (Domain Name System)

 Converts domain names into IP addresses

 Example: [Link] → IP address

4. HTTP / HTTPS

 Used for communication between browser and server

 HTTPS is secure version (encrypted communication)

5. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

 Used for transferring files over the Internet

5. Types of Internet Services

The Internet provides many services:

 🌍 World Wide Web (WWW) → Access websites

 📧 Email → Send and receive messages

 📁 File Transfer (FTP) → Share files

 📞 VoIP → Internet calling

 🎥 Video Streaming → Watch videos online

 ☁ Cloud Computing → Store data online

6. Applications of Internet

The Internet is used in many fields:

 Education (online learning)

 Banking (online transactions)

 Healthcare (telemedicine)

 Business (e-commerce)

 Entertainment (movies, games)

7. Advantages of Internet

 Global connectivity

 Fast communication

 Easy access to information

 Supports online services and business

  Enables remote work and education

8. Disadvantages of Internet

 Security threats (hacking, viruses)

 Privacy issues

 Internet addiction

 Spread of misinformation

9. Important Points for Exam

 Internet uses TCP/IP protocol

 Data is transmitted in packets

 DNS converts URL → IP address

 ISP provides internet access

 Routers guide data

10. Conclusion

The Internet is a powerful global communication system that connects millions of devices and
enables information exchange. It plays a vital role in modern life, supporting communication,
business, education, and entertainment. However, proper security and responsible use are
important for its effective utilization.