BMEE330L : Control

Systems

School of Mechanical Engineering,

Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore
Course Objectives:

To expose the students to classical methods of control engineering,

physical system modelling and control.
To enable the students to design control system for various
applications.
To enrich the ability of the students to analyse the performance of
dynamic control systems.

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Expected Course Outcome:

At the end of the course, the student will be able to

1. Apply the concepts of control systems and modelling techniques.
2. Develop various representations of system based on the first
principles approach.
3. Infer the domain specifications from the time and frequency
response.
4. Analyse the stability of closed-loop systems using different
techniques.
5. Demonstrate the state-space representation and modern control
theory.
6. Design appropriate control systems for different applications.

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Course Structure:
Module:1 Introduction
Module 2: Model Representations
Module 3: Modelling of Physical Systems
Module 4: Time Response Analysis
Module 5: Stability Analysis
Module 6: Frequency Response Analysis
Module 7: Introduction to State Space Analysis
Text Book(s)
1. Nagrath I.J, and Gopal M, Control Systems Engineering, 2017, 6th
edition, New Age International Publishers.
2. Ogata K, Modern Control Engineering, 2015, 5th Edition, Prentice Hall
of India Pvt. Ltd.
 INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEMS

System : When a number of elements or components are connected in

sequence to perform a specific function - An interconnection of
elements and devices for a desired purpose
Control System : In a system, when the output quantity is controlled
by varying the input quantity, the system is called control system.
The output quantity is called controlled variable or response, and
input quantity is called command signal or excitation.
Process – The device, plant, or system under control. The input and
output relationship represents the cause-and- effect relationship of
the process.

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A control system consisting of interconnected components designed to
achieve a desired purpose.
To understand the purpose of a control system, it is useful to examine
examples of control systems through the course of history. These early
systems incorporated many of the same ideas of feedback that are in use
today.
Modern control engineering practice includes the use of control design
strategies for improving manufacturing processes, the efficiency of energy
use, advanced automobile control, including rapid transit, among others.
Design gap exists between the complex physical system under investigation
and the model used in the control system synthesis. The iterative nature of
design allows us to handle the design gap effectively while accomplishing
necessary tradeoffs in complexity, performance, and cost in order to meet the
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 HISTORY
18th Century James Watt’s centrifugal governor for the speed control of a steam
engine.
1920s Minorsky worked on automatic controllers for steering ships.
1930s Nyquist developed a method for analyzing the stability of controlled
systems
1940s Frequency response methods made it possible to design linear closed-loop
control systems
1950s Root-locus method due to Evans was fully developed
1960s State space methods, optimal control, adaptive control
1980s Learning controls are begun to investigated and developed.
Present and on-going research fields. Recent application of modern control
theory includes non-engineering systems such as biological, biomedical,
economic and socio-economic systems
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HISTORY
Greece (BC) – Float regulator mechanism
Holland (16th Century)– Temperature regulator

Watt’s Flyball Governor (18th century) 8

Water-level float regulator

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 Important Definitions:
Controlled Variable and Manipulated Variable
The controlled variable is the quantity or condition that is measured
and controlled.
The manipulated variable is the quantity or condition that is varied by
the controller so as to affect the value of the controlled variable.

Normally, the controlled variable is the output of the system.

Plants
A plant may be a piece of equipment, perhaps just a set of machine
parts functioning together, the purpose of which is to perform a
particular operation .
Ex. Mechanical Device, a heating furnace, chemical reactor,
spacecraft.

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 Important Definitions:
Actuator
An actuator in a control system is a mechanical or electromechanical
device that converts energy into controlled motion or force in response to
input control signals or environmental conditions. Actuators can be used
to open or close, push or pull, or lift or drop something. They are often
used in systems that require precise control and movement, such as
manufacturing plants, warehouses, and cars.

Actuators require a control device and a source of energy, such as

electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic. The displacement achieved by an
actuator is usually linear or rotational, and can be produced by different
types of actuators, including rotary, pneumatic, hydraulic, electric,
magnetic, thermal, and mechanical.

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 Important Definitions:
Disturbances
A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely affect the value of the
output of a system. If a disturbance is generated within the system, it is
called internal, while an external disturbance is generated outside the
system and is an input.

Feedback Control
Feedback control refers to an operation that, in the presence of
disturbances, tends to reduce the difference between the output of a system
and some reference input and that does so on the basis of this difference.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
Open-Loop Control Systems utilize a controller or control actuator to obtain
the desired response.
Closed-Loop Control Systems utilizes feedback to compare the actual output
to the desired output response.

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Open-Loop Control Systems:
• Any physical system which does not automatically correct the variation
in its output;

• The output quantity has no effect upon the input quantity; The output
is not fedback to the input for correction;
• In open loop system, the output can be varied by varying the input. But,
due to external disturbances, the system output may change. When the
output changes due to disturbances, it is not followed by changes in input
to correct the output.

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Closed-Loop Control Systems:
• Control systems in which the output has an effect upon the input
quantity in order to maintain the desired output value
• The open loop system can be modified as closed loop system by
providing a feedback. The provision of feedback automatically corrects
the changes in output due to disturbances – Automatic Control Systems

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Type of System Advantages Disadvantages Examples
Open Loop • Simple construction and ease • The system response • Toaster
Control of maintenance. is very sensitive to • Rice cooker
Systems • Less expensive than a external disturbance • Electric fan
corresponding closed-loop and internal • Photocopy
control system variations in system machine
• There is no stability problem parameters.
• Convenient when output is • Recalibration is
necessary from time
hard to measure or
to time in order to
measuring the output
maintain the
precisely is economically not required quality in
feasible the output
Closed Loop • Insensitive to external • Risk of instability • Positioning CS
Control disturbance and internal • Complexity in (robot arms)
Systems variations in system analysis and • Velocity CS
parameters. implementation and (vehicles
• Possible to use relatively expensive cruise
inaccurate and inexpensive system)
components to obtain the • Temperature CS
accurate control of a given (Air-
plant. conditioner)
• Better control of transient &
steady-state response
• Increased accuracy

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• Increased ability to reproduce
 Examples of Control Systems

Speed Control Systems

Watt's speed governor for an engine

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 Examples of Control Systems

Robust Control Systems

Robot using a pattern recognition process

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 Examples of Control Systems

Temperature Control Systems

Temperature control of an electric furnace

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 Requirement of Good Control System

There are some specifications for a system to be a good control system:

Sensitivity
Accuracy
Stability
Noise
Bandwidth
Oscillation
Speed

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 Sensitivity:
The rate of change of a control system with the change in its surroundings
is called Sensitivity. A good control system should be sensitive to its input

only and should not be sensitive to the surrounding parameters.

Accuracy:
The tolerance to errors of an instrument is known as Accuracy. It defines the
limits of errors of an instrument at normal operating conditions. We can
improve the accuracy by using feedback elements.

Stability:
Stability of a system can be explained as, if the input of the system is zero or
null then its output should also be zero value. If the input changes, the output
also changed as per the system function. Then the system is considered as

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stable.
 Noise:
The undesired signal input that is occurred or added to input signal by
external resources is known as Noise. A good control system should have the
high noise tolerance value. It should be able to reduce the noise level. If the
noise occurrence increases, the system performance will decrease.

Bandwidth:
Bandwidth is defined as the range of frequencies of a system. Band width is
decided by the operating frequencies. The system having high band width is
considered as a good control system.
Oscillation:
Oscillation means the fluctuations of output of system. These oscillations will
effect the stability. The increase in the number of fluctuations of a system will
decrease the stability of the system.

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 Speed:
In a control system, the time taken by the output to be stable is known as
Speed. High speed systems are considered as good control systems. The time
taken by the output to reach its stable state is known as Transient state.

Gain:
Gain is a measure of how much a control system amplifies or attenuates the
input signal to produce the output signal. It is an important parameter for
analyzing the performance, stability, and robustness of a control system.
Gain is a proportional value that shows the relationship between the
magnitude of the input to the magnitude of the output signal at steady state.

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 Elements of Feedback Control
Plant (Process) -- The plant is the system (process) whose output is to be
controlled, e.g., a DC motor with the rotor speed as output.

Actuator -- An actuator is a device that can influence the input to the

plant, e.g. the stator current for the motor example.
Disturbance d(t) -- Disturbances are uncontrollable signals to the plant
that tend to adversely affect the output of the system, e.g., external load
torque for the motor example.
Sensor (Measurement System) -- The dynamics of the device (system)
that measures the system output, e.g., an encoder.
Controller -- The controller is the device that generates the controlled
input that is to affect the system output, e.g., electric power system generally

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managed by a DSP (Digital signal processor).
The objective of the control system is to control the output Y by using the
input U, such that the output Y follows a set of reference inputs R.

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 Effects of Feedback
Feedback in a control system can improve performance by measuring the
system's output and using it to adjust the input. This allows the system to
correct errors, compensate for disturbances, and maintain stability.
Feedback can also help systems achieve their goals by increasing
accuracy, reliability, and performance. The type and amount of feedback
can have different effects on a control system:

Positive feedback
Amplifies the output signal, which can make the system more responsive
and reduce rise time. However, too much positive feedback can cause
instability and oscillations.

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A positive feedback system is the one in which the feedback signal is in
phase with the reference input signal. Thus, the two get added and
combinedly the generated response acts as input for further system
operation.
As the two signals get added to give the resultant response in case of a
positive feedback system, thus this increases the overall gain of the
system.
As the magnitude of the input signal gets increases in case of positive
feedback, thereby leading to generate oscillatory response in the system.

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Negative feedback
Uses a fraction of the opposite output signal as an input to stabilize
the control system. Negative feedback can reduce the overall gain of the
system, as well as distortion noise, sensitivity to external change, and
improve system bandwidth and input and output impedance
The system in which the feedback signal is out of phase with the
reference input is known as a negative feedback system. Due to out of phase
relationship, the two signals are subtracted in order to produce the
difference signal.

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The introduction of negative feedback gives rise to a reduction in the
overall gain.
As the difference in the two values specifies the error value which is
needed to be compensated in order to have the desired value, it is always
recommended that the system will have a low value of error signal.
As such systems provide better stability and circuit response with an
increase in operating bandwidth, most of the control systems utilize
negative feedback so as to have a reduction in the overall gain.

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 BMEE330L : Control Systems

Module 3
Mathematical Models of Control Systems
Types of Mechanical Control Systems
Translational Mechanical systems

School of Mechanical Engineering,

Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore
 Mathematical Models of Control Systems
A control system is a collection of physical objects (components) connected
together to serve an objective. The input output relations of various physical
components of a system are governed by differential equations.
The following mathematical models are mostly used:
Differential equation model; Transfer function model ;
State space model

The mathematical model of a control system constitutes a set of differential

equations. The response or output of the system can be studied by solving
the differential equations for various input conditions.
A mathematical model will be linear, if the differential equations
describing the system has constant coefficients ( or the coefficients may

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be the functions of independent variables).
 Mathematical Models of Control Systems

If the coefficient of the differential equation describing the system are

constants, then the model is linear time invariant. If the coefficient of
the differential equation describing the system are functions of time, then
the model is linear time varying.
The differential equation of a linear invariant system can be reshaped into
different form for convenience of analysis. One such model for single
input and single output system analysis is transfer function of the
system.
The transfer function of a system is defined as the ratio of Laplace
transform of output to the Laplace transform of input with zero initial
conditions.

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 The Transfer function of a Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system is defined as
the ratio of Laplace transform of output and Laplace transform of input by
assuming all the initial conditions are zero.

If x(t) and y(t) are the input and output of an LTI system, then the
corresponding Laplace transforms are X(s) and Y(s).

The transfer function model of an LTI system is shown in the following

figure.

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 Types of Mechanical Control Systems
Two types of mechanical systems based on the type of motion:
Translational mechanical systems
Translational mechanical systems move along a straight line. These
systems mainly consist of three basic elements. Those are mass, spring
and dashpot or damper.

Rotational mechanical systems

Rotational mechanical systems move about a fixed axis. These
systems mainly consist of three basic elements. Those are moment of
inertia, torsional spring and dashpot.

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Translational System

Rotational System

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 TRANSLATIONAL MECHANICALSYSTEMS
These systems mainly consist of three basic elements. Mass, spring and
dashpot or damper.

Translational Spring

Translational Mass

Translational Damper
A translational spring is a mechanical element that can be deformed by an
external force such that the deformation is directly proportional to the force
applied to it.
 Spring is an element, which stores potential energy.

x =>

=>

Where,
F is the applied force
Fk is the opposing force due to elasticity of spring
K is spring constant
x is displacement

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 Translational Mass is an inertia element

Dash Pot: If a force is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an

opposing force due to friction of the dashpot. This opposing force is
proportional to the velocity of the body. Assume mass and elasticity are
negligible.

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 When dashpot has displacement at both ends,
the opposing force is directly proportional to
differential velocity.

When the spring has displacement at both ends,

the opposing force is directly proportional to
differential displacement.

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BMEE330L : Control Systems

Module 2

School of Mechanical Engineering,

Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore
 TRANSFER FUNCTION OF TRANSLATIONAL
MECHANICALSYSTEMS
First, draw a free-body diagram, placing on the body all forces that
act on the body either in the direction of motion or opposite to it.

Second, use Newton’s law to form a differential equation of motion by

summing the forces and setting the sum equal to zero.
Finally, assuming zero initial conditions, take the Laplace transform of the
differential equation, separate the variables, and arrive at the transfer
function.
For a given continuous and differentiable function f(t), the following
Laplace transforms properties applies:

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Problem # 1: Find the transfer function of the mechanical
translational system given in Figure.

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Problem # 2: Write the governing equation of motion and determine
the transfer function.

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Problem # 3: Determine the transfer function Y2(s)/F(s).

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Problem # 4: Determine the transfer function X1(s)/F(s). X2(s)/F(s).

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Problem # 5: Write the governing equation of motion of the
mechanical rotational system and determine the transfer function.

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 Transfer Function & Stability
In general

Where x is the input of the system and y is the output of the system.

When order of the denominator polynomial is greater than the numerator

polynomial the transfer function is said to be ‘proper’; Otherwise ‘improper’

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Transfer function helps us to check
The stability of the system
Time domain and frequency domain characteristics of the system
Response of the system for any given input

Roots of denominator polynomial of a transfer function are called

‘poles’; “Poles” of a transfer function are the frequencies (values of s)
for which the denominator of the transfer function becomes “zero”.

These are the values at which the value of the transfer function goes to
infinity , like a magnetic pole or black hole.

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 The roots of numerator polynomials of a transfer function are called
‘zeros’. “Zeros” of a transfer function are the frequencies (values of s)
for which the numerator of the transfer function becomes “zero”.
Poles of the system are represented by cross mark ‘x’ and zeros of the
system are represented by circle ‘o’.
System order is always equal to number of poles of the transfer
function.

For example , A linear system is described by the differential equation.

Find the system poles and zeros.

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From the differential equation the transfer function is

which may be written in factored form

The system therefore has a single real zero at s = 1/2, and a pair of real
poles at s = 3 and s = 2.

The poles and zeros are properties of the transfer function, and therefore of
the differential equation describing the input-output system dynamics.
Together with the gain constant K they completely characterize the
differential equation and provide a complete description of the system.

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The Pole-Zero Plot
In general, the poles and zeros of a transfer function may be complex, and
the system dynamics may be represented graphically by plotting their
locations on the complex s-plane, whose axes represent the real and
imaginary parts of the complex variable s. Such plots are known as pole-
zero plots.
It is usual to mark a zero location by a circle ( ) and a pole location a cross
(×). The location of the poles and zeros provide qualitative insights into the
response characteristics of a system.

Consider the transfer function,

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The pole-zero plot for a typical third-order system with one real pole
and a complex conjugate pole pair, and a single real zero.

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If all the poles of the system lie in left half plane the system is said to be
Stable. If any of the poles lie in right half plane the system is said to be
unstable. If pole(s) lie on imaginary axis the system is said to be

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marginally stable.
For example,

Y (s) 1 Y (s) 1
G1 (s) G2 (s)
U (s) s 3 U (s) s 3

Pole-Zero Map
4 Pole-Zero Map
4
3 unstable
3
2
2
1
Imaginary Axis

Imaginary Axis
0 stable 0
-1
-1
-2
-2
-3
-3
-4
-4 -2 0 2 4 -4
-4 -2 0 2 4
Real Axis
Real Axis
 Y (s) 1 Y (s) 1
G1 (s) G2 (s)
U (s) s 3 U (s) s 3

1 1 Y (s) 1 1 1 1 Y (s) 1 1
G1 (s) G2 (s)
U (s) s 3 U (s) s 3
y(t) e 3tu(t) y(t) e3tu(t)
exp(-3t)*u(t) 12
x 10 exp(3t)*u(t)
1
12

0.8 10

8
0.6

6
0.4
4

0.2 2

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 2 4 6 8 10
Problem # 6: Consider the following transfer functions.
Determine
• Whether the transfer function is proper or improper
• Poles of the system
• zeros of the system
• Order of the system
• Draw the pole-zero map
• Determine the Stability of the system

s 3 s
i) G(s) ii) G(s)
s(s 2) (s 1)(s 2)(s 3)

(s 3)2 s 2 (s 1)
iii) G(s) iv) G(s)
2 s(s 10)

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s(s 10)
 Block Diagram Algebra –
Reduction of Multiple Systems
We often represent control systems using block diagrams. A block diagram
consists of blocks that represent transfer functions of the different variables
of interest.
If a block diagram has many blocks, not all of which are in cascade, then it
is useful to have rules for rearranging the diagram such that you end up
with only one block.
A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions
performed by each component and on the flow of signals.

Depicts the interrelationship that exist among the various components.

The elements of a block diagram are block, branch points and summing
point.
 Block:
The arrowhead pointing towards the block indicates the input, and the arrowhead
leading away from the block represents the output. Such arrows are referred as signals.
The output signal from the block is given by the product of input signal and transfer
function in the block.

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 COMPONENTS OF A BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR A LINEAR,
TIME-INVARIANT SYSTEM
 a. Cascaded subsystems;
b. equivalent transfer function
 a. Parallel subsystems;

b. Equivalent transfer function

a. Feedback control system

b. Simplified model

c. Equivalent transfer function

Block diagram algebra for summing junctions

Equivalent forms for moving a block a. To the left past a summing

junction; b. To the right past a summing junction
Block diagram algebra for pickoff points

Equivalent forms for moving a block ; a. To the left past a pickoff point;
b. To the right past a pickoff point
BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION RULES

1. Check for the blocks connected in series and simplify.

2. Check for the blocks connected in parallel and simplify.
3. Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop and simplify.
4. If there is difficulty with take-off point while simplifying, shift it
towards right.

5. If there is difficulty with summing point while simplifying, shift it

towards left.
6. Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified form, i.e., single
block.
The transfer function present in single block is the overall transfer
function of the block diagram.
Problem # 7:Reduce the block diagram shown in figure to a single
transfer function

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Solution:

a. Collapse summing
junctions;
b. Form equivalent cascaded
system in the forward path
c. Form equivalent parallel
system in the feedback path;
d. Form equivalent feedback
system and multiply by
cascadedg1(s)
Problem # 8:Reduce the block diagram shown in figure to a single
transfer function

Solution:

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Problem # 9:Reduce the block diagram shown in figure to a single
transfer function

Solution:

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Problem # 10 :Reduce the block diagram shown in figure to a single
transfer function

Solution:

68
Problem # 11 :Reduce the block diagram shown in figure to a single
transfer function

Solution:

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Problem # 12 :Reduce the block diagram shown in figure to a single
transfer function

Solution:

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Problem # 13 :Reduce the block diagram shown in figure to a single
transfer function

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Problem # 14:Reduce the block diagram shown in figure to a single
transfer function

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 Signal Flow Graphs
Signal flow graph is a graphical representation of algebraic equations.
By taking Laplace Transform, the time domain differential equations
governing a control system can be transferred to a set of algebraic
equations in s-domain. The signal flow graph of the system can be
constructed using these equations.
This method was developed by [Link]. SFG is a graphical
representation of the relationship between the variables of a set of linear
algebraic equations.

In SFG, the transfer function is referred to as transmittance.

For a complicated system, Block diagram reduction is very difficult and
time-consuming process. SFG doesn't require any reduction technique.

It is only applicable to the linear system.

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Comparison of BD and SFG

Signal Flow Graph

Block Diagram

In this case at each step block SFG is to be drawn only one

diagram is to be redrawn. That’s time and then Mason’s gain
why it is tedious method. So, formula is to be evaluated. So
wastage of time and space. time and space is saved.

Signal Flow Graph

Alternative to block diagram; Consists only branches (systems) and nodes
(signals).

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 Signal Flow Graph Representation
Basic elements are Nodes and Branches
Node is a point which represents either a variable or a signal.
Input Node (Source) Only outgoing branches.
Output Node (Sink) Only incoming branches.
Mixed Node Both incoming and outgoing branches.
Branch: Path from one node to another node, in the direction indicated by
the arrow.

y1, y2 are the input and output node, respectively;

y2 and y3 are mixed nodes;
Forward Path: It is a path from an input node to an output node in the
direction of branch arrow.
Loop: It is a path that starts and ends at the same node.

Non-touching loop: Loop is said to be non-touching if they do not have

any common node.

Forward path gain: A product of all branches gain along the forward path
is called Forward path gain.
Loop Gain: Loop gain is the product of branch gain which travels in the
loop.
SIGNAL-FLOW GRAPH COMPONENTS

a. System;
b. Signal;
c. Interconnection of Systems and Signals
Building signal-flow graphs

a. Cascaded System Nodes

b. Cascaded System Signal-
flow Graph;
c. Parallel System Nodes
d. Parallel System Signal-flow
Graph;
e. Feedback System Nodes
f. Feedback System Signal-
flow Graph
 Conversion of Block Diagrams Into Signal Flow Graphs

Represent all the signals, variables, summing points and take-off points
of block diagram as nodes in signal flow graph.
Represent the blocks of block diagram as branches in signal flow
graph.
Represent the transfer functions inside the blocks of block diagram as
gains of the branches in signal flow graph.

Connect the nodes as per the block diagram.

If there is connection between two nodes (but there is no block in
between), then represent the gain of the branch as one.
Problem # 15: Convert the block diagram to signal flow graph.

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Solution:

Signal-flow graph
development:
a. signal nodes;
b. signal-flow graph;
c. simplified signal-flow
graph
Problem # 16: Convert the block diagram to signal flow graph.

Solution:
 MASON’S GAIN FORMULA

The relation between input variable and output variable of a signal flow
graph is given by Mason's Gain Formula.
The overall system Gain (Transfer Function) is given by
n
Tk k Pi
G (s ) C (s ) k C(s) i 1
i
(OR)
R (s ) R(s)
Where,
TK / PK = forward path gain of the Kth forward path.
= 1 - [Sum of the loop gain of all individual loops] + [Sum of gain
products of all possible of two non-touching loops] - [Sum of gain products
of all possible three non-touching loops]+ .......
K = 1 – (loop gain which does not touch the Kth forward path)

i = 1 if there are no non-touching loops to the i-th path.)

Problem # 17: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of
the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph.

Solution:

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Forward path – One
P1 = G1(s)G2(s)G3(s)G4(s)G5(s)

1 1
=

Loop gains - 4
G2(s)H1(s), G4(s)H2(s), G7(s)H4(s),
G2(s)G3(s)G4(s)G5(s)G6(s)G7(s)G8(s)

Loop gain which does not touch the Kth forward path : G7(s)H4(s)

1 = 1 - G7(s)H4(s)

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Sum of the loop gain of all individual loops:
G2(s)H1(s) + G4(s)H2(s) + G7(s)H4(s) +
G2(s)G3(s)G4(s)G5(s)G6(s)G7(s)G8(s)
Non-touching loops:
Sum of gain products of all possible of two non-touching loops
2 at a time
G2(s)H1(s)G4(s)H2(s) + G2(s)H1(s)G7(s)H4(s)
+ G4(s)H2(s)G7(s)H4(s)
Sum of gain products of all possible of three non-touching loops
3 at a time G2(s)H1(s)G4(s)H2(s)G7(s)H4(s)

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Now = 1-[G2(s)H1(s)+G4(s)H2(s)+G7(s)H4(s)+
G2(s)G3(s)G4(s)G5(s)G6(s)G7(s)G8(s)] + [G2(s)H1(s)G4(s)H2(s) +

G2(s)H1(s)G7(s)H4(s) + G4(s)H2(s)G7(s)H4(s)] –
[G2(s)H1(s)G4(s)H2(s)G7(s)H4(s)]
Now,
1 1
=

= {G1(s)G2(s)G3(s)G4(s)G5(s) * (1 - G7(s)H4(s)) }/

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Problem # 18: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of
the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph.

Solution:
n
Pi i
C(s) i 1
R(s)

89
 C P1 1 P2 2
R
There are three feedback loops

L1 G1G4 H 1 , L2 G1G2G4 H 2 , L3 G1G3G4 H 2

There are no non-touching loops, therefore

= 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)

1 L1 L2 L3

1 G1G4 H1 G1G2G4 H 2 G1G3G4 H 2

90
K = 1 – (loop gain which does not touch the Kth forward path)

i = 1 if there are no non-touching loops to the i-th path.)

1 =1

2 =1

91
Problem # 19: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of
the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph.

P1
P2

Solution:

1. Calculate forward path gains for each forward path.

P1 G1G2G3G4 (path 1) and P2 G5G6G7G8 (path 2)
2. Calculate all loop gains.
L1 G2 H 2 , L2 H 3G3 , L3 G6 H 6 , L4 G7 H 7

3. Consider two non-touching loops.

L1L3 L1L4
L2L4 L2L3
4. Consider three non-touching loops.
None.

5. Calculate from steps 2,3,4.

1 L1 L2 L3 L4 L1L3 L1L4 L2 L3 L2 L4

1 G2 H 2 H 3 G3 G6 H 6 G7 H 7
G2 H 2G6 H 6 G2 H 2 G7 H 7 H 3 G3 G6 H 6 H 3 G3 G7 H 7

Eliminate forward path-1

1 1 L3 L4

1 1 G6H 6 G7 H 7
Eliminate forward path-2

2 1 L1 L2

2 1 G2H 2 G3 H 3

Y (s) P1 1 P2 2
R(s)

Y (s) G1G2G3G4 1 G6 H 6 G7 H 7 G5G6G7G8 1 G2 H 2 G3 H 3

R(s) 1 G2 H 2 H 3G3 G6 H 6 G7 H 7 G2 H 2G6 H 6 G2 H 2G7 H 7 H 3G3G6 H 6 H 3G3G7 H 7
Problem # 20: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of
the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph.
Solution:

1. Forward Path Gains 2. Loop Gains

3. Non-Touching Loops gains

No combinations of three non-touching loops, 4 non-touching loops and

etc.

96
4. Loops gains

5. Overall Transfer function

97
Problem # 21: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of
the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph.

1. Forward Path Gains 2. Loop Gains 4. Overall Transfer Function

3. Non touching Loops

=0

Transfer Function for the

Signal Flow graph

98
Problem # 22: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of
the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph.

1. Forward Path Gains 2. Loop Gains

P1 = G1G2G3G4G5 L1 = – G1H1
P2 = G1G2G6 L2 = – G4H2
3. Gain

= 1 – (L1+L2) + (L1L2)
= 1 – (- G1H1 – G4H2) + [(- G1H1) (- G4H2)]

99
= 1 + G1H1 + G4H2 + [(G1G4 H1H2)]
4. Gain of forward path non touching loops

1 =1 2 = 1 – (L2)
2 = 1 + G4H2
5. Overall Transfer Function

100
 BMEE330L : Control Systems

Module 3
Mathematical Model of Electrical System
Electromechanical,
Thermal,
Hydraulic and Pneumatic systems.

School of Mechanical Engineering,

Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore
 Mathematical Model of Electrical System
The mathematical model of electrical systems can be obtained by using
resistor, inductor and capacitor – R, L, C
A resistor is an electrical component that dissipates energy, usually in
the form of heat. In contrast, a capacitor stores energy in an electric
field, and an inductor stores energy in a magnetic field.
The following mathematical models are mostly used.
Differential equation model
Transfer function model
State space model
Example: RLC Circuit

Mesh equation for this circuit is

where

The above equation is a second order differential equation.

Transfer Function = Y(s) / X(s)

103
Problem # 23: Obtain the transfer function for the electrical network as
shown in Figure

104
 TRANSFER FUNCTION OF ARMATURE CONTROLLED
DC MOTOR
A DC machine is an electromechanical energy alteration device.
The working principle of a DC machine is - when electric current flows
through a coil within a magnetic field, and then the magnetic force
generates a torque that rotates the dc motor.
A DC motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy. In a DC motor, the input electrical energy is the direct
current which is transformed into the mechanical rotation.
The speed of DC motor is directly proportional to armature voltage and
inversely proportional to flux in the field winding.

In armature-controlled DC motor, the desired speed is obtained by

105
varying the armature voltage.
 The electric system consists of the armature and the field circuit; but
analysis purpose, only the armature circuit is considered as the field is
excited by constant voltage.

Armature controlled DC motor

Equivalent Circuit for Armature

By Kirchoff’s voltage law,

106
 Torque of DC motor is proportional to the product of flux and current.
As the flux is constant in this system, the torque is proportional to the
armature current alone;

The mechanical system of the motor :

The governing differential equation of the mechanical system of motor :

Where J – Moment of inertia of the motor and load, kg-m2/ rad;

107
B –Frictional Coefficient of motor, N-m / (rad/s)
 The back emf of DC machine is proportional to speed (angular velocity)
of shaft :

The governing differential equations of motion of the armature-

controlled DC motor speed control system :

Taking Laplace transform of the above equations with zero initial

conditions:

108
109
Mathematical Model of Electro-mechanical System
Mathematical Model of Electro-mechanical System
Mathematical Model of Electro-mechanical System
Mathematical Model of Electro-mechanical System
Mathematical Model of Electro-mechanical System
Mathematical Model of Electro-mechanical System
Mathematical Model of Electro-mechanical System
 System Modelling: Thermal System
qi(t) RHL

Ta

RLa TL, CL
T H, C H

RHL

Mixer

A closed, insulated vessel filled with liquid and contains an electrical heater
immersed in liquid. Heating element is contained within metal jacket that has
a thermal resistance of RHL. Thermal resistance of vessel and its insulation is
RLa. Heater has a thermal capacitance of CH, and liquid has a thermal
capacitance of CL. Heater temperature is TH and that of liquid is TL (assumed
to be uniform due to the mixer). Rate at which energy is supplied to the
heating element is qi.
 System Modelling: Thermal System

1 1
TˆH TˆL TˆH qi
C H R HL CH

1 ˆ
TˆL TH TˆL / R HL TˆL / R La
CL

Take Laplace of Eq. (1) and determine the equation for TH(s) .

Take Laplace of Eq. (2), determine the equation for TL(s) and
substitute the equation for TH(s) in it.

Transfer Function is: TL(s)/qi(s)

Fluid System Building Blocks
The basic building blocks of fluid systems are the volumetric rate of flow q and the
pressure difference.

Input Output

Volumetric rate of flow Pressure difference

Fluid system can be divided into two types: hydraulic and pneumatic.
Hydraulic resistance is the resistance to flow of liquid as the liquid flow
through valves or changes in pipe diameter takes place.

p1 p2 Rq
p1 - p2 is pressure difference
R is the hydraulic resistance
q is the volumetric rate of flow
Hydraulic capacitance is the term used to describe energy storage with a liquid where it is
stored in the form of potential energy. A height of liquid in a container is one form of such
a storage. For such capacitance, the rate of change of volume V in the container (dV / dt)
is equal to the difference between the volumetric rate at which liquid enters the container
q1 and the rate at which it leaves q2.

dV
q1 q2 ; V Ah
dt
dh
q1 q2 A
dt
A dp
q1 q2
pg dt
( p is liquid density; g is the acceleration due to gravity)
A dp
C ; q1 q2 C
pg dt
Hydraulic inertance is the equivalent of inductance in electrical systems or a spring in
mechanical systems. To accelerate a fluid and so increase its velocity a force is required.

F1=p1A
Mass m
F1 F2 p1 A p2 A ( p1 p2 ) A
F2=p2A
( p1 p2 ) A ma
dv dv dq
( p1 p2 ) A m ALp Lp
dt dt dt L
dq Lg
p1 p2 I ; I is the hydraulic inertance
dt A
L is the length of the block and g is the density
With pneumatic systems the three basic buildings blocks are as with hydraulic systems,
resistance, capacitance, and inertance. However, gasses differ from liquids in being
compressible.

dm p1 p2
Resistance
dt R
dm d ( p1 p2 )
Capacitance C
dt dt
dm 1
Inertance ( p1 p2 )dt
dt L
 BMEE330L : Control Systems

Module 4 TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS

Standard test signals, Time response of first order systems and second order systems,
Transient response of second order systems – Time domain specifications, Steady state
errors and error constants, General Controllers – P, PI, PD and PID controllers.

School of Mechanical Engineering,

Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore
 TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS
In time-domain analysis, the response of a dynamic system to an input is
expressed as a function of time.
The time response of the system is the output of the closed system as
function of time.
It is possible to compute the time response of a system if the nature of
input and the mathematical model of the system are known.
Usually, the input signals to control systems are not known fully ahead of
time. For example, in a radar tracking system, the position and the speed
of the target to be tracked may vary in a random fashion.
It is therefore difficult to express the actual input signals mathematically
by simple equations.

110
 The time response can be obtained by solving the differential equation
governing the system.
Alternatively, the response c(t) can be obtained from the tranfer function
of the system and the input of the system.

The time response of a control system consists of two parts: the transient
and the steady state response; The transient response is the response of the
system when the input changes from one state to another while the steady

111
state response is the response as time, t, approaches infinity.
 For example, let us find the transient and steady state terms of the time
response of the control system

Here, the second term will be zero as t denotes infinity. So, this
is the transient term. And the first term 10 remains the same, even as t

112
approaches infinity. So, this is the steady state term.
TEST SIGNALS
The knowledge of input signal is required to predict the response of a
system. In most cases, the input signals are not known ahead and difficult
to express the input signals mathematically by simple equation;
Characteristics – sudden shock, sudden change, a constant velocity and
constant acceleration;
Commonly used test input signals are impulse, step, ramp, acceleration
and sinusoidal signals.
The standard test signals:
1. a) Step Signal; b) Unit Step Signal;
2. a) Ramp Signal; b) Unit Ramp Signal
3. a) Parabolic Signal; b) Unit Parabolic Signal

113
4. Impulse Signal 5. Sinusoidal Signal
 Step Signal
The step signal is a signal whose value changes from zero to A at t =0
and remains constant at A for t >0; The step signal resembles an actual
steady input to a system.
A special case of step signal is unit step in which A is unity.

114
 Ramp Signal
The ramp signal is a signal whose value increases linearly with time
from an initial value of zero at t = 0. The ramp signal resembles a constant
velocity input to the system.
A special case of ramp signal is unit ramp signal in which A is unity.
r(t)
At t 0
r(t)
0 t 0
r(t)

Ramp signal with slope A t

0

r(t)

115
Unit ramp signal
 Parabolic signal
In parabolic signal, the instantaneous value varies square of the time from
an initial value of zero at t = 0. The parabolic signal imitate the constant
acceleration characteristic of actual input signal.
If A=1, the parabolic signal is called unit parabolic signal.
p(t)
At 2
t 0
p(t) 2
0 t 0
0 t
p(t)
p(t)

Parabolic signal with slope A

Unit parabolic signal
Impulse signal
A signal of very large magnitude which is available for very short duration
is called impulse signal. Ideal impulse signal is a signal with infinite
magnitude and zero duration but with an area of A.

The impulse signal imitate the sudden shock characteristic of actual input
signal. If A=1, the impulse signal is called unit impulse signal.
(t)

A t 0
(t)
0 t 0 A

0 t
ORDER OF THE SYSTEM
The input and output relationship of a control system can be expressed by
n th order differential equation as:

The order of the system is given by the order of the differential equation
governing the system.
Alternatively, the order can be determined from the transfer function of
the system. The transfer function of the system can be obtained by taking
Laplace transform of the differential equation governing the system and

119
rearranging them as a ratio of two polynomials in s.
120
RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER SYSTEM FOR UNIT STEP
INPUT

The closed loop order system with unity feedback :

121
122
T is called Time constant of the system; In a time of 5T, the system is

123
assumed to have attained steady state.
124
PRACTICAL EXAMPLES - RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER
SYSTEM

Example # 1: A Mercury Thermometer

Consider the mercury thermometer shown in the figure. Develop the
transfer function of the thermometer.

125
 Taking Laplace transform,

Transfer Function:

The parameter ( / ) has the units of time and is called the time
constant of the system and is denoted by T;
The time constant is a measure to how fast be the system response.

126
The smaller is the time constant, the more responsive is the system.
Example # 2: Liquid Level System:
A tank of uniform cross sectional area A, the inlet flow is q and the outlet is
. The liquid level in the tank is h and the tank has a linear flow resistance at
the outlet (e.g. valve). (qo=hR); Determine the transfer function ( ) / ( )
and ( ) / ( ) (note: this system is called single input multi-output SIMO)

Tanks having small cross-sectional area are more responsive.

127
Example # 3: Liquid level with constant flow outlet
A tank of uniform cross sectional area A, the inlet flow is q and the outlet is
. The liquid level in the tank is h and the tank has a a constant flow pump ;
Determine the transfer function ( ) / ( );

128
Tanks having small cross-sectional area are more responsive.
Example # 4: Mechanical System

X o (s) 1
X i (s) b
s 1
k

129
 SECOND ORDER SYSTEM
A general second-order system is characterized by the following transfer
function.

The damping ratio is defined as the ratio of the actual damping to the
critical damping. The response c(t) of second order system depends on

130
the value of damping ratio.
 Depending on the value of damping ratio, the system can be classified into
four categories:

The characteristics equation of the second order system :

131
132
RESPONSE OF UNDAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM
FOR UNIT STEP INPUT
A general second-order system is characterized by the following transfer
function.

For undamped system

133
By partial fraction expansion,

134
135
RESPONSE OF UNDER DAMPED SECOND ORDER
SYSTEM FOR UNIT STEP INPUT
A general second-order system is characterized by the following transfer
function.

For

136
137
138
139
 RESPONSE OF CRITICALLY DAMPED SECOND
ORDER SYSTEM FOR UNIT STEP INPUT
A general second-order system is characterized by the following transfer
function.

140
141
142
RESPONSE OF OVER DAMPED SECOND ORDER
SYSTEM FOR UNIT STEP INPUT

143
144
145
146
 TIME DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS

The desired performance of characteristics of control systems are

specified in terms of time domain specifications.
Systems with energy storage elements can not respond instantaneously
and will exhibit transient response, whenever they are subjected to inputs
or disturbances.
The desired performance characteristics of a system of any order may be
specified in terms of the transient response to a unit step signal.

The transient response of a system to a unit step input depends on the

initial conditions.
The transient response of a practical control system often exhibits

147
damped oscillations before reaching steady state.
Unit Step Response of Second Order System
Percentage Overshoot (% O.S): It is the amount that the response
overshoots the steady state, or final, value at the peak time, expressed
as a percentage of the steady-state value.
2
1
Max % overshoot 100e
Rise Time (Tr): Time required for the step response to rise from 10%
to 90% of its final value.
0.8 2.5
Rise Time Tr for 0 1
n
Delay Time (Td): Time required for the step response to reach 50%
of final value
1 0.7
Delay Time Td for 0 1
n

Peak Time (TP): It is the time required for the response to reach the peak
value for the first time. At t=tp the first derivate of the response is zero.
Settling Time (Ts): It is defined as the time taken by the response to reach
and stay within a specified error. It is usually expressed as % of final value.
In general, the tolerance bands are 2% and 5%.

Steady State Error (ess): It is the difference between the output and
the reference input after the steady state has reached.
For quick response i.e. small rise time and smallest settling time, the control
system should be under damped. So, control systems are normally designed
with <1
Problem # 24: Obtain the response of unity feedback system whose

open loop transfer function is and when the input is unit

step.
Solution:

154
Problem # 25: A position control system with velocity feedback is shown
in Figure. What is the response of the system for unit step input. Obtain
the response of unity feedback system.

Solution:

155
Problem # 26: The response of a servomechanism is
, when subjected to a unit step input.
Obtain an expression for the closed loop transfer function.

Determine the undamped natural frequency and damping ratio.

Solution:
Problem # 27: The unity feedback system is characterized by an
open loop transfer function . Determine the gain K,
so that the system will have a damping ratio of 0.5 for this value
of K. Determine peak overshoot and time at peak overshoot for a
unit step input.

Solution:
Problem # 28: Consider the system shown in Fig 1. To improve the
performance of the system a feedback is added to this system, which
results in Fig 2. Determine the value of K, so that the damping ratio
of the new system is 0.4. Compare the overshoot, rise time, peak time
and settling time and the nominal value of the systems shown in Fig
1 and 2.

158
K = 0.128

159
 STEADY STATE ERROR
The steady state error is the value of error signal e(t), when t tends ti
infinity;
The steady state error arise from the nature of inputs, type of system and
non-linearity of system components.

The steady state performance of a stable control system is generally

judged by its steady state error to step, ramp and parabolic inputs.

160
161
162
TYPE NUMBER OF CONTROL SYSTEM

'Type' of any system is the number poles at origin, as calculated from

the denominator of its transfer functions.
If we say the Type is 2, then it is having two poles at origin in s-plane.
Marginally stable systems are the system which got its poles at origin
The order of the control system is determined by the power of “s” in the
denominator of the transfer function.

The number of open-loop poles occurring at the origin determine the

type of the system.

163
164
For example,

STATIC ERROR CONSTANTS

Static error constants are figures of merit that help determine the steady-
state error of a system: Position constant (Kp), Velocity constant (Kv),
and Acceleration constant (Ka)
A higher value for the static error constants indicates a smaller steady-
state error. The value of these constants, along with the system type, can
help predict if a system will have a finite steady-state error
Steady-state error, also called static error, is the difference between the
desired and actual value of a system when it reaches steady state.
It's a measure of how well a control system can track and maintain a
desired output. Steady-state error can be caused by a number of factors,

165
including: Non-linear behavior of control system elements, Configuration
of the control system, and Proportional offset
When a control system is excited with standard input signal, the steady
state error may be zero, constant or infinity;
“Type – 0” system will have a constant steady state error when the input
is step signal;
“Type – 1” system will have a constant steady state error when the input
is ramp signal or velocity signal;
“Type – 2” system will have a constant steady state error when the input
is parabolic signal or acceleration signal.

166
Problem # 29: Determine the steady state error when the input is unit
step input

167
Static Error Constants for Various Steady State Error Constants for
Type Number of Systems Various Types of inputs

168
Problem # 30: For a unity feedback control system, the open loop transfer

function,

Find a. the position, velocity and acceleration error constants.

b. the steady state error when the input is R(s), where R(s) =

169
Problem # 31: For servomechanisms with open loop transfer function
given below, explain what type of input signal given rise to a constant
steady state error and calculate their values:

170
 AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM

The plant is the open loop system whose output is automatically

controlled by closed loop system.

The combined unit of error detector, amplifier and controller is called

“automatic Controller”.
The reference input will be an input signal proportional to desired output.
The feedback signal is a signal proportional to current output of the

171
system.
The error detector compares the reference input and feedback signal and if
there is a difference, it produces an error signal.
An amplifier can be used to amplify the error signal, and the controller
modifies the error signal for better control action.
The actuator amplifies the controller output and converts to the required
form of energy that is acceptable for the plant.

Generally, the error signal will be weak signal and so it has to be amplified
and then modified for better control action.
In most of the system, the controller amplifies the error signal and integrates
or differentiates to produce a control signal (ie., modified error signal).
The different types of controllers are P, PI, PD, PID controllers.

172
AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM
A controller is a device introduced in the system to modify the error
signal and to produce a control signal. The manner in which the
controller produces the control signal is called the control action.
The following six basic control actions are very common among
industrial analog controllers:

1. Two-position or ON-OFF control action

2. Proportional Control Action
3. Integral Control Action
4. Proportional –plus- integral control action
5. Proportional –plus-derivative control action
6. Proportional –plus-integral-plus-derivative control action

173
Applications of Controllers
The Controllers are widely used in various fields:
• Industrial Automation: The Controlling processes in manufacturing
and industrial machinery.
• Aerospace: The Managing flight systems, autopilots and navigation.
• Automotive: To Implementing cruise control or anti-lock braking
systems and engine control units.
• Robotics: The Regulating robot movements and autonomous
navigation.
• Home Automation: The Controlling heating, ventilation and smart
devices.

174
 Depending on the control actions provided, the controller can be
classified as follows:
1. Two-position or ON-OFF controllers
2. Proportional Controllers
3. Integral Controllers
4. Proportional –plus- integral Controllers
5. Proportional –plus-derivative Controllers
6. Proportional –plus-integral-plus-derivative Controllers

Two-position or ON-OFF controllers

175
The ON-OFF or two position controller has only two fixed positions.
They are either on or off. The on-off control system is very simple in
construction and hence less expensive. It is widely used in both industrial
and domestic control systems.

The ON-OFF control action may be provided by a relay.

Most popular- Electromagnetic relay. It is a device which has NO
(Normally Open) and NC (Normally Closed) contacts, whose opening
and closing are controlled by the relay coil. A controller is a device
introduced in the system to modify the error signal and to produce a
control signal. The manner in which the controller produces the control
signal is called the control action.

176
177
Proportional Controllers

178
Working of Proportional Controller
The proportional controller initially compares the Set Point (SP) value with
the actual Process Variable (PV) value. Following this, the system’s feedback
loop becomes operational, continuously monitoring the system’s output and
comparing it to the desired output. As necessary, the inputs are modified to
minimize the disparity between the output and the desired value.
Subsequently, the controller generates an error signal, which is then
multiplied by a proportional gain factor. This multiplication yields an output
that is proportionate to the error signal and endeavors to bring the system
closer to the desired value. The feedback loop plays a pivotal role in ensuring
the system’s ability to adapt to changing conditions and maintain a stable
output, even in the face of internal or external disturbances.

179
Gain factor and controller output both are the two most important terms in a
P controller.
Gain factor
This is a constant tuning parameter of P controller which is need to adjust to
control the system response. In a proportional controller it is used as
proportional gain or Kp. This Kp value is directly proportional to the
changes in error signal.
High Kp value means the controller will react more strongly and faster in
changes of error signal. And low Kp value means the controller will react
slowly in changes of error signal.
Controller output
Controller output means the signal generated by the controller. It is denoted
by ‘U’ . According to this output the system will take required action to get
more closer answer of the set point.
Tuning of Proportional Controller
Tunning refers the adjustment of Kp value to get most efficient output of
process variable. The choice of Kp value effects the controller in terms of
stability, speed overshot etc.

180
Let’s consider a simple example of tuning process.
Suppose,
X-axis represents the time, and Y-axis represents the difference between
setpoint and process variable.

When the Kp value is 0.5, Kp value is 1.2

Kp value is 1.3

181
Examples of Proportional controller
• Fly-ball governor : The fly-ball governor is an example of proportional
controller. There are some balls which rises with the speed of flow, and
blocks the flow, and controls the flow rate.

182
• Adaptive cruise control : Throttle input is continuously adjusted to respond
to changes in road conditions, including both declining gradients and
increasing momentum. Moreover, the vehicle’s throttle is dynamically
regulated based on the distance to the vehicles ahead.
In situations requiring emergency collision avoidance, a distinct
proportional control system is engaged to gently apply the brakes when the
proximity to a lead vehicle becomes too close, or more forcefully when
necessary.
Advantages
• Simple and easy to implement
• Quickly responses to the errors
• It provides a stable control process
• P controller reduces steady state error when it is applied currently for an
know situation.

Disadvantages
• It reduces steady state error but cannot eliminate it entirely.
• It needs manual tuning.

183
• P controller may lead to oscillations in some system.
Integral Controllers

184
Advantages:
An integral controller is a control mode that helps eliminate steady-
state error in a control system. It's also known as a reset controller.

Increases system accuracy

Drawbacks:
Integral controllers can increase response time and cause oscillations.
They can also cause windup, which is when the output saturates and
can't follow the error quickly enough

Slower response to sudden changes in setpoint.

Lead to instability if excessively tuned.

185
186
Proportional Plus Integral Controller

The proportional plus integral controller (PI- Controller) produces an

output signal consisting of two terms: one proportional to error signal
and the other proportional to the integral of error signal;

187
 The proportional component responds to the current error, while the
integral component accumulates past errors to eliminate steady-state
errors.
Properly tuning the Kp and Ki gains is crucial to achieve stable control
with fast response and minimal error in various engineering applications.
Applications of Proportional Integral Controller
• Used in temperature control systems, such as ovens, furnaces, and HVAC systems.
• Used in motor control applications to control speed and position.
• In robotics, PI controllers are used to control the movements and positions of
robot arms and manipulators.
• An essential part of the flight control systems in aircraft.
• PI controllers can be used in audio systems for applications like noise
cancellation.
• Used in medical devices, such as infusion pumps and respirators, to regulate

188
parameters like drug delivery rates or patient ventilation.
Advantages
• It responses fast as compared to other controllers like PD controller or PID
controller.

• PI controller enhance system stability.

• They eliminate steady state error.
• PI controllers are versatile to use in various system.
Disadvantages
• PI controller may not be suitable for highly dynamic or complex system.
• In some cases, it can produce overshoot before settling.
• Proper tuning can be challenging for a PI controller.
• PI controller might not be the best choice for rapidly changing setpoints.

189
Proportional Plus Derivative Controller
The proportional plus derivative controller (PD- Controller) produces an
output signal consisting of two terms: one proportional to error signal and
the other proportional to the derivative of error signal;

190
In this control, the purpose of the D-only control is to predict the error in
order to increase stability of the closed loop system.
P-D control is not commonly used because of the lack of the integral
term. Without the integral term, the error in steady state operation is not
minimized. P-D control is usually used in batch pH control loops, where

error in steady state operation does not need to be minimized.

In this application, the error is related to the actuating signal both
through the proportional and derivative term.

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Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controller
PID- Controller produces an output signal consisting of three terms: one
proportional to error signal, another one proportional to integral of error
signal and the other proportional to the derivative of error signal;

192
PID-control is most commonly used because it combines the advantages of
each type of control. This includes a quicker response time because of the
P-only control, along with the decreased/zero offset from the combined
derivative and integral controllers. This offset was removed by additionally
using the I-control.
The addition of D-control greatly increases the controller's response when
used in combination because it predicts disturbances to the system by
measuring the change in error.
However, although the PID controller seems to be the most adequate
controller, it is also the most expensive controller. Therefore, it is not used
unless the process requires the accuracy and stability provided by the PID
controller.

193
Applications of Proportional Integral Derivative Controller
1. PID controller are used in various industries such as, manufacturing, process
control, robotics, automotive and many more.

2. They regulate temperature, pressure, flow control, motor speed and other
variable to maintain desired variable.
Advantages
1. PID controller are simple, efficient and widely understood.
2. They offer fast response, stability and adaptability.
Disadvantage
1. This controller may struggle in complex linear system.
2. Optimal tuning can be challenging due to the(P, I and D) parameters.

194
Controller Type PI P PD PID

proportional,
Proportional an Proportional Proportional and
Terms Integral and
Integral Terms term only derivative term
derivative term
Improves
balances steady
Eliminates transient
Corrects steady state and
Purpose steady state response,
state error transient
error reduces
response
overshoot
Depends on Depends on
Generally Can lead to
Overshoot tunning tunning
reduces overshoot
parameters parameters
Can be adjusted
improves due to
based on
Rise Time Generally short long rise time Derivative
tunning
action
parameters
Cruise control, Temperature

195
Robotics, Automation
Application industrial control, level
motion control system
process control
Problem # 32: Determine the response of PI- controller with the second

order system with open loop transfer function

196
197
The PI- controller introduces a zero in the system and increases the order
by one;

The increase in the order results in a less stable system than the original
one because higher order system are less stable than lower order system.
PI- controller increases the type by one. This results in reducing the
steady state error.

198
Problem # 33: Determine the response of PD- controller with the second

order system with open loop transfer function

199
200
The PD- controller introduces a zero in the system and increase the
damping ratio;

The addition of zero may increases the peak overshoot and reduce the rise
time; But, the effect of increased damping ultimately reduces the peak
overshoot.

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 BMEE330L : Control Systems

Module 5 STABILITY ANALYSIS

The concept of stability – Routh-Hurwitz’s stability criterion – qualitative stability
and conditional stability – Root Locus Technique: Concept of root locus –
Construction of root locus.

School of Mechanical Engineering,

Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore
 STABILITY ANALYSIS
The term stability refers to the stable working condition of a control
system. Every working system is designed to be stable system, the
response or output is predictable, finite and stable for a given input.

202
Routh Hurwitz Criterion

The Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion is a mathematical method for

determining the stability of linear systems.
It's based on the ordering of the coefficients in the characteristic equation
of a system. The criterion is commonly used in control systems analysis.
We need to find the roots of the characteristic equation i.e. poles to
determine the stability of the system. In the analysis, the characteristic
equations are mostly large and complex. Hence it is difficult to simplify
them into roots (like those of order 4 and above). For such situations,
Routh Hurwitz Method provides an easy and quick method to determine

203
the stability without the need to disintegrate the characteristic equation.
Necessary Condition for Routh-Hurwitz Stability:
The necessary condition is that the coefficients of the characteristic
polynomial should be positive. This implies that all the roots of the
characteristic equation should have negative real parts.

Consider the characteristic equation of the order ‘n’ is

Note that, there should not be any term missing in the nth order
characteristic equation. This means that the nth order characteristic equation
should not have any coefficient that is of zero value.

Sufficient Condition for Routh-Hurwitz Stability

The sufficient condition is that all the elements of the first column of
the Routh array should have the same sign. This means that all the elements
of the first column of the Routh array should be either positive or negative.

204
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206
207
Problem # 34: Using Routh criterion, determine the stability of the
system represented by the characteristics equation,

Comment on the location of the roots of characteristics equation.

208
 On examining the elements of the first column of Routh array, it is
observed that all the elements are positive and there is no sign change.
Hence, all the roots are lying on the left hand side of S-plane and the
system is stable.

Problem # 35: Using Routh criterion, determine the stability of the

system represented by the characteristics equation,

Comment on the location of the roots of characteristics equation.

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Problem # 36: Using Routh criterion, determine the stability of the
system represented by the characteristics equation,

Comment on the location of the roots of characteristics equation.

212
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Problem # 37: Determine the range of K for stability of unity feedback
system whose open loop transfer function is

214
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 Root Locus
In the Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion, we can know whether the closed loop
poles are in on left half of the ‘s’ plane or on the right half of the ‘s’ plane or on an
imaginary axis. So, we can’t find the nature of the control system. To overcome
this limitation, there is a technique known as the root locus.
The root locus technique was introduced by W R Evans for the analysis of control
system. It is a powerful tool for adjusting the location of closed loop poles to
achieve the desired system performance by varying one or more system
parameters.
In the root locus diagram, we can observe the path of the closed loop poles.
Hence, we can identify the nature of the control system. In this technique, we will
use an open loop transfer function to know the stability of the closed loop control
system.

The Root locus is the locus of the roots of the characteristic equation by varying

216
system gain K from zero to infinity.
 The characteristic equation of the closed loop control system is

We can represent G(s)H(s)

Where,
K represents the multiplying factor
N(s) represents the numerator term having (factored) nth order polynomial of
‘s’.
D(s) represents the denominator term having (factored) mth order polynomial
of ‘s’.
Substitute, G(s)H(s) value in the characteristic equation,

217
Case 1: K = 0
If K=0, then D(s) = 0.
That means, the closed loop poles are equal to open loop poles when K is zero.

Case 2 : K =
Re-write the above characteristic equation as

Substitute, in the above equation

If then N(s)=0. It means the closed loop zeros are equal to the open loop
zeros when K is infinity.
From above two cases, we can conclude that the root locus branches start

218
at open loop poles and end at open loop zeros.
 Angle Condition and Magnitude Condition
The points on the root locus branches satisfy the angle condition. So, the
angle condition is used to know whether the points exist on root locus
branch or not.
We can find the value of K for the points on the root locus branches by
using magnitude condition. So, we can use the magnitude condition for the
points, and this satisfies the angle condition.

Characteristic equation of closed loop control system is

The phase angle of G(s)H(s) is

219
The angle condition is the point at which the angle of the open loop transfer
function is an odd multiple of 1800.
Magnitude of G(s)H(s) is -

The magnitude condition is that the point (which satisfied the angle
condition) at which the magnitude of the open loop transfer function is one.

The root locus is a graphical representation in s-domain and it is

symmetrical about the real axis.
The open loop poles and zeros exist in the s-domain having the values
either as real or as complex conjugate pairs.

220
Rules for Construction of Root Locus
Follow these rules for constructing a root locus:
Rule 1 Locate the open loop poles and zeros in the ‘s’ plane.
Rule 2 Find the number of root locus branches.
We know that the root locus branches start at the open loop poles and end at
open loop zeros. So, the number of root locus branches N is equal to the
number of finite open loop poles P or the number of finite open loop
zeros Z, whichever is greater.

Mathematically, we can write the number of root locus branches N as

221
Rule 3 Identify and draw the real axis root locus branches.
If the angle of the open loop transfer function at a point is an odd
multiple of 1800, then that point is on the root locus.
If odd number of the open loop poles and zeros exist to the left side of
a point on the real axis, then that point is on the root locus branch.
Therefore, the branch of points which satisfies this condition is the real axis
of the root locus branch.

Rule 4 Find the centroid and the angle of asymptotes.

• If P = Z, then all the root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and
end at finite open loop zeros.
•If P > Z, then Z number of root locus branches start at finite open loop poles
and end at finite open loop zeros and number of root locus branches

222
start at finite open loop poles and end at infinite open loop zeros.
• If P < Z, then P number of root locus branches start at finite open loop poles
and end at finite open loop zeros and number of root locus branches

start at infinite open loop poles and end at finite open loop zeros.
So, some of the root locus branches approach infinity, when
Asymptotes give the direction of these root locus branches. The intersection
point of asymptotes on the real axis is known as centroid.
We can calculate the centroid by using this formula,

The formula for the angle of asymptotes is

223
Rule 5 Find the intersection points of root locus branches with an
imaginary axis.

We can calculate the point at which the root locus branch intersects the
imaginary axis and the value of K at that point by using the Routh array
method
Rule 6 Find Break-away and Break-in points.

Break-away and break-in points exist only on the real axis root locus
branches.
• Write K in terms of s from the characteristic equation 1+G(s)H(s)=0.
• Differentiate K with respect to s and make it equal to zero.
Substitute these values of s in the above equation.

• The values of s for which the K value is positive are the break points.

224
Rule 7 Find the angle of departure and the angle of arrival.
The Angle of departure and the angle of arrival can be calculated at
complex conjugate open loop poles and complex conjugate open loop
zeros respectively.

225
Effects of adding Open Loop Poles and Zeros on Root Locus
By adding open loop Poles and Zeros the Root Locus can be shifted in s plane
. Following are the effects of adding open loop poles and zeros .
1. By adding open loop poles in transfer function , the root locus shift towards
right side of s plane . Therefore, the stability of system decreases .
2. By adding open loop zeros in transfer function , the root locus shift towards
left side of s plane . Therefore, the system stability increases.
Therefore, we can add zeros and poles in transfer function as per requirement .

226
To Find Stability of system from Root Locus
Following are the criteria to find stability of system from Root Locus
1. If any branch of Root Locus is always in left hand side of s plane, then system is
stable.
2. If any branch of Root Locus is always in right hand side of s plane, then the system
is always unstable.

3. If any branch of Root Locus crosses imaginary axis, then it is conditionally stable.
4. If any branch of Root Locus is always on imaginary axis, then system is marginally
stable.

227
Problem # 38: Draw the root locus of the control system having open loop
transfer function, G(s)H(s)=K/ (s(s+1)(s+5))

Step 1 The given open loop transfer function has three poles at s = 0, s =
and It doesn’t have any zero. Therefore, the number of root locus
branches is equal to the number of poles of the open loop transfer function.

N =P = 3
The three poles are located are shown in the figure. The line segment between
s= and s=0 is one branch of root locus on real axis. And the other branch
of the root locus on the real axis is the line segment to the left of s =

228
Step 2 Get the values of the centroid and the angle of asymptotes by
using the given formulae.

Centroid =

q = P-Z-1 = 2; 0,1,2

The angle of asymptotes are .

229
Step 3 Since two asymptotes have the angles of and
two root locus branches intersect the imaginary axis. By using the Routh
array method and special case(ii), the root locus branches intersects
the imaginary axis at and –

Step 4: Find break-away and break-in points.

• Write K in terms of s from the characteristic equation 1+G(s)H(s)=0
• Differentiate K with respect to s and make it equal to zero.
Substitute these values of s in the above equation.
• The values of s for which the K value is positive are the break points.
There will be one break-away point on the real axis root locus branch between
the poles s=0. By following the procedure given for the calculation
of break-away point, we will get it as

230
231
Problem # 39: Draw the root locus of the control system having open loop
transfer function, G(s)H(s)=K/ (s(s+1)(s+3))

232
Problem # 40: Draw the root locus of the control system having open loop
transfer function,

233
234
 Mathematical Modelling of Thermal Systems
Thermal systems are those that involve the transfer of heat from one
substance to another. Thermal systems may be analyzed in terms of
resistance and capacitance, although the thermal capacitance and
thermal resistance may not be represented accurately as lumped
parameters since they are usually distributed throughout the substance.
For precise analysis, distributed-parameter models must be used. Here,
however, to simplify the analysis, we shall assume that a thermal system
can be represented by a lumped-parameter model, that substances that
are characterized by resistance to heat flow have negligible heat
capacitance, and that substances that are characterized by heat

capacitance have negligible resistance to heat flow.

235
There are three different ways heat can flow from one substance to
another: conduction, convection, and radiation. Here we consider only
conduction and convection.
Radiation heat transfer is appreciable only if the temperature of the
emitter is very high compared to that of the receiver. Most thermal
processes in process control systems do not involve radiation heat
transfer.

The thermal resistance, R for heat transfer between two substances is

defined as the ratio of change in temperature and change in heat flow
rate.

236
For conduction or convection, Heat flow rate, q = K
On differentiating we get, dq = K ; = 1/K
But thermal resistance, R =

Thermal resistance, R = 1/K for conduction

= 1/K = 1/HA = for convection
Thermal Capacitance, C is defined as the ratio of change in heat stored
and change in temperature.

Let M = Mass of substance considered, Kg

c = Specific heat of substance, Kcal/Kg -°C
Now, Thermal capacitance, C = Mcp

237
Transfer function of Thermal system:
Consider a simple thermal system shown. Let us assume that the tank
is insulated to eliminate heat loss to the surrounding air, there is no heat
storage in the insulation and liquid in the tank is kept at uniform
temperature by perfect mixing with the help of a stirrer.
Thus, a single temperature is used to describe the temperature of the
liquid in the tank and of the out flowing liquid. The transfer function
of thermal system can be derived as shown below.

238
 Let 1 = Steady state temperature of inflowing liquid, °C
0 = Steady state temperature of outflowing liquid, °C
G = Steady state liquid flow rate, Kg/sec

M = Mass of liquid in tank, Kg

c = Specific heat of liquid, Kcal/Kg °C
R = Thermal resistance, °C – sec/Kcal
C = Thermal capacitance, Kcal/°C

Q = Steady state heat input rate, Kcal/Sec

Let us assume that the temperature of inflowing liquid is kept constant.
Let the heat input rate to the thermal system supplied by the heater is
suddenly changed from Q to Q + [Link] to this, the heat output flow rate
will gradually change from Q to Q + q0.
The temperature of the outflowing liquid will also be changed

239
from 0 to 0 + .
For this system the equation for q0, C and R are obtained as follows,

Thermal capacitance, C = Mass, M x Specific heat of liquid, c = Mc

In this thermal system, rate of change of temperature is directly

proportional to change in heat input rate.

240
The constant of proportionality is capacitance C of the system.
This is the differential equation governing system and is of first order
equation. The system is first order system.
R= 0 q0 =

Let, L = = ; L{qi} = Qi(s)

On taking Laplace transform + = R Qi(s)
[sRC + 1] = R Qi(s)
1(s) is the required transfer function of thermal system.

241
Problem # 41: Consider the thin, glass-wall, mercury thermometer system
shown in Figure. Assume that the thermometer is at a uniform temperature
(ambient temperature) and that at t = 0 it is immersed in a bath of
temperature where is the bath temperature (which may be
constant or changing) measured from the ambient temperature . Define the
instantaneous thermometer temperature by so that is the change in
the thermometer temperature satisfying the condition that 0) = 0. Obtain a
mathematical model for the system.

242
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 BMEE330L : Control Systems

Module 6 FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS

Frequency domain specifications, Bode plot, Phase margin and Gain margin, Polar
plots, Nyquist Criteria.

School of Mechanical Engineering,

Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore
 FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS
The steady state response of a system for an input sinusoidal signal is known
as the frequency response

Consider a linear system with a sinusoidal input r(t) = A sin

• Under steady-state, the system output as well as the signals at all other
points in the system are sinusoidal.
• The steady-state output is c(t)= B sin
• The magnitude and phase relationship between the sinusoidal input
and the steady-state of a system is termed as Frequency Response.
• The sinusoid is a unique input signal, and the resulting output
signal for a linear system, as well as signals throughout the system,
is sinusoidal in the steady-state.

244
• In LTI systems, the frequency response is independent of amplitude
and phase of the input signal.

• The analysis in frequency domain is easy than in time domain.

• The frequency response is evaluated from the sinusoidal transfer
function by replacing s by in the system transfer function T(s)

• The transfer function has both magnitude and phase angle.

• The characteristics are conveniently represented by graphical plots.

245
• The amplitude of the output sinusoidal signal is obtained by multiplying
the amplitude of the input sinusoidal signal and the magnitude of

at 0.

• The phase of the output sinusoidal signal is obtained by adding the phase
of the input sinusoidal signal and the phase of at 0.

246
Frequency Domain Specifications

• Resonant peak
• Resonant frequency
• Bandwidth
• Cut off rate
• Gain Margin
• Phase Margin
Resonant Peak (Mf) :
The maximum value of the magnitude of closed loop transfer function is
called the resonant peak. A large peak corresponds to a large overshoot in
transient response.

Resonant frequency, r :

247
This is the frequency at which the resonant peak is obtained
Bandwidth :
The bandwidth is the range of frequencies for which normalized gain of
the system is more than -3 db. It is usually defined as the point where the
amplitude drops by 3 db. The frequency of gain is called cutoff frequency.
Bandwidth is usually defined for closed system and it transmits the signals
whose frequencies are less than the cut-off frequency.
The bandwidth is a measure of the ability of a feedback system to
reproduce the input signal, noise rejection characteristics and rise time. A large
bandwidth corresponds to a small rise time or fast response.

Cut-off Rate :
The slope of the log-magnitude curve near the cut off frequency is
called cut-off rate. The cut-off rate indicates the ability of the system to
distinguish the signal from noise.
Gain Margin:
The gain margin is defined as the value of gain, to be added to the
system, in order to bring the system to the verge of instability.
The gain margin is given by the reciprocal of the magnitude of open
loop transfer function at phase cross over frequency. The frequency at
which the phase of open loop transfer function is 180 is called the phase
cross-over frequency.

249
Phase Margin:
The phase margin is defined as the additional phase lag to be added at
the gain cross over frequency in order to bring the system to the verge of
instability.
The gain cross over frequency is the frequency at which the magnitude
of the open loop transfer function is unity ( or it is the frequency at which
the db magnitude is zero.)

250
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253
254
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 Problem # 42: Closed loop transfer function of a second order system is
given as

Find the frequency response parameters.

Problem # 43: The loop transfer function of a system is given by

100( +2)
G(s) = . Find the magnitude and phase at 10 rad/sec
( +1)( +5)

Problem # 44: Consider the system as shown in figure.

(a) Find the value ‘k’ and ‘a’ to satisfy the following frequency domain
specifications: Mr = 1.04; r = 11.55 rad/sec

256
(b) For this value of k and a , calculate settling time and bandwidth of the
system
Frequency Response Plots
Frequency response analysis of control systems can be carried either analytically or
graphically. They are used to determine the frequency domain specifications, study the
stability and adjust the gain of the system to satisfy the desired specifications.

The various graphical techniques available for frequency response analysis are:
1. Bode Plot
2. Polar Plot
3. Nichols Plot
4. M and N Circles
5. Nichols Chart
The Bode Plot , Polar plot and Nichols plot are usually drawn for open loop system.
From the open loop response plot, the performance and stability of closed system are
estimated. The M and N circles and Nichols chars are used to determine graphically the
frequency response of unity feedback closed loop system from the knowledge of open

257
loop response.
Bode Plots
Bode plots describe the linear time-invariant systems’ frequency response
(change in magnitude and phase as a function of frequency). It helps in
analyzing the stability of control system. It applies to the minimum phase
transfer function i.e. (poles and zeros should be in the left half of the s-
plane).

Two graphs, the Bode phase plot (which expresses the phase shift in
degrees) and the Bode magnitude plot (which expresses the magnitude in
decibels), are used to map the frequency response of the system.
Hendrik Wade Bode first introduced Bode plots in the 1930s while he
was employed by Bell Laboratories in the United States. Bode plots, unlike
the Nyquist stability criterion, can handle transfer functions with right half
plane singularities, despite being a reasonably straightforward approach for

258
calculating system stability.
Types of Bode Plot
1. Gain plot:
It represents the magnitude response of the system as a function of
frequency. It is plotted on a logarithmic scale.

2. Phase plot:
It depicts the frequency-dependent phase shift of the system’s output signal
compared to its input signal. It’s also drawn on a logarithmic scale.

259
How to read Bode Plots?
Bode plots show the frequency response, that is, the changes in magnitude
and phase as a function of frequency.

Parameters of Bode Plot

260
Figure shows the gain and phase plot. The gain cross over frequency (wgc)
and phase crossover frequency (wpc) can be calculated using gain plot and
phase plot respectively.

Wgc is the value at 0dB whereas Wpc is the value at -180o.

Phase margin and gain can be calculated by extending the graph as shown
in the figure.

Stability by bode plot:

> : System is stable

< : System is unstable
= : System is marginally stable

261
Phase Margin
The phase margin indicates how much more phases shift we may put in
the open loop transfer function before our system becomes unstable.

It can be calculated from the phase at the gain cross-over frequency.

Phase Margin (PM) = 180 +

= -180

Gain crossover frequency:

It is the frequency at which the magnitude of G(s) H(s) is unity,
=1

262
Gain Margin
The gain margin is the amount of open loop gain that can be increased
before our system becomes unstable.

It can be calculated from the gain at the phase cross-over frequency.

Gain Margin (GM):

Phase crossover frequency:

It is the frequency where the phase angle of G(s) H(s) is -180 degrees
= -180

263
The Bode plot or the Bode diagram consists of two plots
• Magnitude plot
• Phase plot
In both the plots, x-axis represents angular frequency (logarithmic scale).
Whereas, y axis represents the magnitude (linear scale) of open loop
transfer function in the magnitude plot and the phase angle (linear scale) of the
open loop transfer function in the phase plot.
The magnitude of the open loop transfer function in dB is -
M=

The phase angle of the open loop transfer function in degrees is -

=
Note The base of logarithm is 10.

264
265
266
Consider the open loop transfer function G(s)H(s)=K
Magnitude M=20logK dB

Phase angle degrees

If K=1, then magnitude is 0 dB.
If K>1, then magnitude will be positive.
If K<1, then magnitude will be negative.

The following figure shows the corresponding Bode plot.

267
Consider the open loop transfer function G(s)H(s)=s.
Magnitude dB

Phase angle
At rad/sec, the magnitude is -20 dB.
At rad/sec, the magnitude is 0 dB.
At rad/sec, the magnitude is 20 dB.

268
Rules for Construction of Bode Plots
Follow these rules while constructing a Bode plot.
• Represent the open loop transfer function in the standard time constant form.
• Substitute, s = in the above equation.
• Find the corner frequencies and arrange them in ascending order.
• Consider the starting frequency of the Bode plot as 1/10th of the minimum
corner frequency or 0.1 rad/sec whichever is smaller value and
draw the Bode plot upto 10 times maximum corner frequency.
• Draw the magnitude plots for each term and combine these plots properly.
• Draw the phase plots for each term and combine these plots properly.

The corner frequency is the frequency at which there is a change in the slope
of the magnitude plot.

269
Problem # 45: Sketch Bode plot for the following transfer function and
determine the system gain K for the gain cross over frequency to be 5 rad/s.

270
273
Problem # 46: Sketch Bode plot for the following transfer function and
determine phase margin and gain margin.

274
275
276
277
278
Polar Plots – Nyquist Plot

In Bode plots, we have two separate plots for both magnitude and phase
as the function of frequency.
Polar plot is a plot which can be drawn between magnitude and phase.
Here, the magnitudes are represented by normal values only.
The polar form of is

The Polar plot is a plot, which can be drawn between the magnitude and
the phase angle of by varying from zero to .

The polar graph sheet is shown in the following figure.

This graph sheet consists of concentric circles and radial lines.
The concentric circles and the radial lines represent the magnitudes

279
and phase angles respectively.
 This graph sheet consists of concentric circles and radial lines.
The concentric circles and the radial lines represent the magnitudes
and phase angles respectively.

These angles are represented by positive values in anti-clockwise

direction. Similarly, we can represent angles with negative values in
clockwise direction. For example, the angle 2700 in anti-clockwise
direction is equal to the angle 900 in clockwise direction.

Determination of Gain Margin and Phase Margin from Polar plot

The gain margin is defined as the inverse of the magnitude of at

phase crossover frequency. The phase crossover frequency is the
frequency at which the phase of is 180 .

281
 The phase margin is defined as
= PC

Where PC is the phase angle of at gain crossover frequency. The gain

frequency is the frequency at which the magnitude of is

282
• On the polar plot, Gain Margin (Gm) can be found as an inverse of the
coordinate A of the polar plot crossover with the Real axis, as shown .
• If the crossover is to the right of (-1, j0) point, A <1 & Gm >1 , and
the system is stable.
• If the crossover is to the left of (-1, j0) point, A >1 ,Gm <1, and the
system is unstable.

283
Problem # 47: The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is
given by Sketch the polar plot and determine gain margin
and the phase margin.

284
285
Problem # 48: The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is
given by . Sketch the polar plot and determine gain
margin and the phase margin.

286
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 BMEE330L : Control Systems

Module 7 STATE SPACE ANALYSIS

Frequency domain specifications, Bode plot, Phase margin and Gain margin, Polar
plots, Nyquist Criteria.

School of Mechanical Engineering,

Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore
 STATE SPACE ANALYSIS
A modern complex system may have many inputs and many outputs, and
these may be interrelated in a complicated manner. To analyze such a
system, it is essential to reduce the complexity of the mathematical
expressions, as well as to resort to computers for most of the tedious
computations necessary in the analysis.
The state-space approach to system analysis is best suited from this
viewpoint. While conventional control theory is based on the input-output
relationship, or transfer function, modern control theory is based on the
description of system equations in terms of n first-order differential
equations, which may be combined into a first-order vector-matrix
differential equation.
The use of vector-matrix notation greatly simplifies the mathematical
representation of systems of equations. The increase in the number of state
variables, the number of inputs. or the number of outputs does not increase
the complexity of the equations. In fact, the analysis of complicated
multiple-input-multiple output systems can be carried out by the

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procedures that are only slightly more complicated than those required for
the analysis of systems of first-order scalar differential equations.
Advantages
1. It provides an easy way to find the transfer function of the system where Laplace
Transform and z-transform cannot be applied.
2. It applies to the non-linear and time-variant systems as well.
3. It helps in analyzing the behavior of the system.
4. It helps in the designing of the controllers. It is helpful in pole placement
techniques.

5. It can handle multi-input and multi-output systems easily.

Disadvantages
1. State Space analysis become complex for large-scale systems because it involves a
high number of state variables and equations.

2. It is less preferred in discrete-time systems.

3. It requires a better understanding of the advanced mathematical tools and numerical

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techniques because State Space analysis uses this technique for computation.
Applications of State Space Analysis
1. It finds its application in the modeling of mechanical systems like
manufacturing processes, robotic arms, and many more.
2. It helps design the flight control system. With the help of state space
analysis dynamic behaviour of the aircraft can be studied properly.

3. It is used in robotics technology to study the arm’s motion and stability

using the transfer function
4. To improve the reliability of the control power system, the state space
analysis is used.

There are various key components of the state space analysis which are
as follows: 1. State and State Variable; 2. State Vector 3. State Space

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State and State Variable
The state of a dynamical system is a set of minimal variables and the
knowledge of these variables at t = to together with input for
t to completely determines the behavior of the system for any time t. In other
words, the compact representation of the previous history of the system is
known as the State of the system. The variables that contain the dynamic
information of the system are known as State Variables.

State Vector
The ‘n’ set of state variables which describes the dynamic equations of the
linear system, then it can be considered as N components of a vector q. The
given below is the state vector of continuous system.

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State Space
When the coordinate axis of the N-dimensional space consist of q1-axis, q2-
axis, …., qn-axis, it is known as state space. Any state can be represented by
the point in the state space.

State Space Model

The single-input and single output continuous time LTI system is described
by the differential equation which is given below:

—-(1)

The N state variables q1(t), q2(t), ….,qn(t) is defined as:

q1(t)=y(t) , …., qn(t)= y(n-1)(t)

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where —–(2)
From equation (1) and equation (2)

——-(3)
and, y(t)=q1(t) —— (4)

The equation 3 and equation 4 can be expressed in the matrix form as given
below where :

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Hence the final state equation will be:

—- (state equation)

—- (output equation)

For a single input, single output system

• q is n x 1 (n rows by 1 column)- q is called the state vector, it is a function of
time;

• A is n x n - A is the state matrix, a constant ;

• B is n x 1 - B is the input matrix, a constant
• x is 1 x 1 (i.e., a scalar) - u is the input, a function of time
• C is 1 x n - C is the output matrix, a constant
• D is 1 x 1 (i.e, a scalar) - D is the direct transition (or feedthrough) matrix, a
constant

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• y is 1x1 (i.e, a scalar)- y is the output, a function of time
 Problem # 49: Obtain the state space equation of the following
differential equation:

The final solution is given below:

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Problem # 50: Derive a state space model for the system shown.

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Consider a linearized second order dynamic system:

Let us introduce a vector- state vector such that :

Let us have the relationship such that :

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 Controllability and Observability

Controllability
The system is controllable when the desired output is obtained by applying
the specific controlled input. It is the ability to control the state of the system.
The controllability of the system can be checked using the Kalman Test.
The given below is the condition for the controllability:
Q0 = [B AB A2B ….. An-1B]

If the determinant of Q0 is not equal to 0 then the system is controllable.

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Observability
It is the system’s ability to measure or observe the system state.
If the internal state of the system is determined using the input and output
signals during a finite interval of time then the system is said to be observable.
The observability of the system can be checked using the Kalman Test.

The given below is the condition for the observability:

Q0 = [CT ATCT ….. (AT)n-1CT]

If the determinant of Q0 is not equal to 0 then the system is controllable.

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Problem # 51: Verify the controllability and observability of a control
system which is represented in the state space model as

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In a state space system, the stability of a process can be determined by analyzing the
eigenvalues of the state space A matrix:
Stable
If all eigenvalues have negative real parts or are negative real numbers, the system
is stable. This means that any initial condition will converge to a stable attracting
point.
Unstable

If any eigenvalue has a positive real part, the system is unstable and will
exponentially diverge.
Neutral

If all eigenvalues have a real part of zero, the system is neutrally stable. This
means that the system will oscillate at the same amplitude forever.
The eigenvalues of the A matrix are found from the roots of the characteristic

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polynomial.
Positive Real Part
When the real part is positive, the system is unstable and behaves as an
unstable oscillator. This can be visualized as a vector tracing a spiral away
from the fixed point. The plot of response with time of this situation would
look sinusoidal with ever-increasing amplitude, as shown below.

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Zero Real Part
When the real part is zero, the system behaves as an undamped oscillator.
This can be visualized in two dimensions as a vector tracing a circle
around a point. The plot of response with time would look sinusoidal.

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Negative Real Part
When the real part is negative, then the system is stable and behaves as a
damped oscillator. This can be visualized as a vector tracing a spiral toward the
fixed point. The plot of response with time of this situation would look sinusoidal
with ever-decreasing amplitude, as shown below.
This situation is what is generally desired when attempting to control a process
or unit. This system is stable since steady state will be reached even after a
disturbance to the system. The oscillation will quickly bring the system back to the
setpoint, but will over shoot, so if overshooting is a large concern, increased
damping would be needed.

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Problem # 52: Verify the stability of the given state space model.

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THANK YOU

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