CHAPTER
17
COMPRESSIBLE
FLOW
1 2022 Fall semester1 1
Objectives
• Develop the general relations for compressible flows encountered when
gases flow at high speeds.
• Introduce the concepts of stagnation state, speed of sound, and Mach
number for a compressible fluid.
• Develop the relationships between the static and stagnation fluid properties
for isentropic flows of ideal gases.
• Derive the relationships between the static and stagnation fluid properties
as functions of specific-heat ratios and Mach number.
• Derive the effects of area changes for one-dimensional isentropic subsonic
and supersonic flows.
• Solve problems of isentropic flow through converging and converging–
diverging nozzles.
• Discuss the shock wave and the variation of flow properties across the
shock wave.
• Develop the concept of duct flow with heat transfer and negligible friction
known as Rayleigh flow.
• Examine the operation of steam nozzles commonly used in steam turbines.
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17-1 STAGNATION PROPERTIES
Stagnation (or total) enthalpy
Static enthalpy: the ordinary enthalpy h
Energy balance (with no heat or work
interaction, no change in potential energy):
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17-1 STAGNATION PROPERTIES
If the fluid were brought to a complete
stop, the energy balance becomes:
Stagnation enthalpy: The enthalpy of a
fluid when it is brought to rest adiabatically.
During a stagnation process, the kinetic energy of a
fluid is converted to enthalpy, which results in an
increase in the fluid temperature and pressure.
The properties of a fluid at the stagnation state are
called stagnation properties (stagnation temperature,
stagnation pressure, stagnation density, etc.).
The stagnation state is indicated by the subscript 0.
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17-1 STAGNATION PROPERTIES
Isentropic stagnation state: When the
stagnation process is reversible as well as
adiabatic (i.e., isentropic).
The stagnation processes are often
approximated to be isentropic, and the
isentropic stagnation properties are simply
referred to as stagnation properties.
When the fluid is approximated as an ideal
gas with constant specific heats
T0 is called the stagnation (or total)
temperature, and it represents the
temperature an ideal gas attains when it
is brought to rest adiabatically.
The term V2/2cp corresponds to the
temperature rise during such a process
and is called the dynamic temperature.
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17-1 STAGNATION PROPERTIES
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17-1 STAGNATION PROPERTIES
The pressure a fluid attains when brought to rest
isentropically is called the stagnation pressure P0.
Stagnation density 0
When stagnation enthalpies are used, the energy
balance for a single-stream, steady-flow device
When the fluid is approximated as an ideal gas with
constant specific heats
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17-2 SPEED OF SOUND AND MACH NUMBER
Speed of sound (or the sonic speed):
The speed at which an infinitesimally
small pressure wave travels through a
medium.
To obtain a relation for the speed of
sound in a medium, the systems in the
figures are considered.
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17-2 SPEED OF SOUND AND MACH NUMBER
Speed of
sound
For an ideal gas
Mach
number
Ma = 1 Sonic flow
Ma < 1 Subsonic flow
Ma > 1 Supersonic flow
Ma >> 1 Hypersonic flow
Ma 1 Transonic flow
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17-2 SPEED OF SOUND AND MACH NUMBER
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17-2 SPEED OF SOUND AND MACH NUMBER
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17-3 ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC FLOW
During fluid flow through many devices such as nozzles, diffusers, and turbine
blade passages, flow quantities vary primarily in the flow direction only, and the
flow can be approximated as one-dimensional isentropic flow with good accuracy.
EXAMPLE
A converging–diverging nozzle.
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17-3 ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC FLOW
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17-3 ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC FLOW
We note from Example that the flow area
decreases with decreasing pressure up to a
critical-pressure value (Ma = 1), and then it begins
to increase with further reductions in pressure.
The Mach number is unity at the location of
smallest flow area, called the throat.
The velocity of the fluid keeps increasing after
passing the throat although the flow area
increases rapidly in that region.
This increase in velocity past the throat is due to
the rapid decrease in the fluid density.
The flow area of the duct considered in this
example first decreases and then increases. Such
ducts are called converging–diverging nozzles.
These nozzles are used to accelerate gases to
supersonic speeds and should not be confused
with Venturi nozzles, which are used strictly for
incompressible flow.
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17-3 ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC FLOW
Variation of Fluid
Velocity with Flow Area
In this section, the relations for the variation
of static-to-stagnation property ratios with
the Mach number for pressure, temperature,
and density are provided.
This relation describes the variation of pressure
with flow area.
At subsonic velocities, the pressure
decreases in converging ducts (subsonic
nozzles) and increases in diverging ducts
(subsonic diffusers).
At supersonic velocities, the pressure
decreases in diverging ducts (supersonic
nozzles) and increases in converging ducts
(supersonic diffusers).
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17-3 ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC FLOW
This equation governs the shape of a nozzle or a
diffuser in subsonic or supersonic isentropic flow.
The proper shape of a nozzle depends on the highest velocity
desired relative to the sonic velocity.
To accelerate a fluid, we must use a converging nozzle at
subsonic velocities and a diverging nozzle at supersonic velocities.
To accelerate a fluid to supersonic velocities, we must use a
converging–diverging nozzle.
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17-3 ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC FLOW
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17-3 ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC FLOW
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17-3 ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC FLOW
Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases
The relations between the static properties
and stagnation properties of an ideal gas
with constant specific heats
Critical
ratios
(Ma=1)
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17-3 ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC FLOW
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17-4. ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES
Converging or converging–diverging nozzles
are found in steam and gas turbines and
aircraft and spacecraft propulsion systems.
In this section we consider the effects of back
pressure (i.e., the pressure applied at the
nozzle discharge region) on the exit velocity,
the mass flow rate, and the pressure
distribution along the nozzle.
Converging Nozzles
Mass flow rate through a nozzle
Maximum mass flow rate
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17-4. ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES
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17-4. ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES
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17-4. ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES
Ma* is the local velocity
nondimensionalized with
respect to the sonic
velocity at the throat.
Ma is the local velocity
nondimensionalized with
respect to the local sonic
velocity.
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17-4. ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES
Converging–Diverging Nozzles
The highest velocity in a converging nozzle is limited to the sonic velocity (Ma = 1),
which occurs at the exit plane (throat) of the nozzle.
Accelerating a fluid to supersonic velocities (Ma > 1) can be accomplished only by
attaching a diverging flow section to the subsonic nozzle at the throat (a converging–
diverging nozzle), which is standard equipment in supersonic aircraft and rocket
propulsion.
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17-4. ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES
When Pb = P0 (case A), there will be no
flow through the nozzle.
1. When P0 > Pb > PC, the flow remains
subsonic throughout the nozzle, and the
mass flow is less than that for choked
flow. The fluid velocity increases in the
first (converging) section and reaches a
maximum at the throat (but Ma < 1).
However, most of the gain in velocity is
lost in the second (diverging) section of
the nozzle, which acts as a diffuser. The
pressure decreases in the converging
section, reaches a minimum at the
throat, and increases at the expense of
velocity in the diverging section.
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17-4. ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES
2. When Pb = PC, the throat pressure becomes
P* and the fluid achieves sonic velocity at the
throat. But the diverging section of the nozzle
still acts as a diffuser, slowing the fluid to
subsonic velocities. The mass flow rate that
was increasing with decreasing Pb also
reaches its maximum value.
3. When PC > Pb > PE, the fluid that achieved a
sonic velocity at the throat continues
accelerating to supersonic velocities in the
diverging section as the pressure decreases.
This acceleration comes to a sudden stop,
however, as a normal shock develops at a
section between the throat and the exit plane,
which causes a sudden drop in velocity to
subsonic levels and a sudden increase in
pressure. The fluid then continues to
decelerate further in the remaining part of the
converging–diverging nozzle.
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17-4. ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES
4. When PE > Pb > 0, the flow in the
diverging section is supersonic, and the
fluid expands to PF at the nozzle exit with
no normal shock forming within the
nozzle. Thus, the flow through the nozzle
can be approximated as isentropic.
When Pb = PF, no shocks occur within or
outside the nozzle.
When Pb < PF, irreversible mixing and
expansion waves occur downstream of
the exit plane of the nozzle.
When Pb > PF, however, the pressure of
the fluid increases from PF to Pb
irreversibly in the wake of the nozzle exit,
creating what are called oblique shocks.
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17-5. SHOCK WAVES AND EXPANSION WAVES
For some back pressure values, abrupt
changes in fluid properties occur in a
very thin section of a converging–
diverging nozzle under supersonic flow
conditions, creating a shock wave.
We study the conditions under which
shock waves develop and how they
affect the flow.
Normal Shocks
Normal shock waves: The shock
waves that occur in a plane normal
to the direction of flow. The flow
process through the shock wave is
highly irreversible.
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17-5. SHOCK WAVES AND EXPANSION WAVES
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17-5. SHOCK WAVES AND EXPANSION WAVES
Fanno line: Combining the
conservation of mass and energy
relations into a single equation and
plotting it on an h-s diagram yield a
curve. It is the locus of states that
have the same value of stagnation
enthalpy and mass flux.
Rayleigh line: Combining the
conservation of mass and
momentum equations into a single
equation and plotting it on the h-s
diagram yield a curve.
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17-5. SHOCK WAVES AND EXPANSION WAVES
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17-5. SHOCK WAVES AND EXPANSION WAVES
The relations between various properties before and after the
shock for an ideal gas with constant specific heats:
This represents the intersections of the Fanno and Rayleigh
lines and relates the Mach number upstream of the shock to that
downstream of the shock.
Various flow property ratios across the shock are listed in Table A–33.
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17-5. SHOCK WAVES AND EXPANSION WAVES
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17-5. SHOCK WAVES AND EXPANSION WAVES
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17-5. SHOCK WAVES AND EXPANSION WAVES
Since the flow across the shock
is adiabatic and irreversible, the
second law requires that the
entropy increase across the
shock wave.
Thus, a shock wave cannot exist
for values of Ma1 less than unity
where the entropy change would
be negative.
For adiabatic flows, shock waves
can exist only for supersonic
flows, Ma1 > 1.
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17-5. SHOCK WAVES AND EXPANSION WAVES
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17-5. SHOCK WAVES AND EXPANSION WAVES
Oblique Shocks
When the space shuttle travels at supersonic speeds through the
atmosphere, it produces a complicated shock pattern consisting
of inclined shock waves called oblique shocks.
Some portions of an oblique shock are curved, while other
portions are straight.
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17-5. SHOCK WAVES AND EXPANSION WAVES
Unlike normal shocks, in which the
downstream Mach number is always
subsonic, Ma2 downstream of an oblique
shock can be subsonic, sonic, or
supersonic, depending on the upstream
Mach number Ma1 and the turning angle.
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17-5. SHOCK WAVES AND EXPANSION WAVES
All the equations, shock tables, etc., for normal shocks apply to oblique shocks as
well, provided that we use only the normal components of the Mach number.
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17-5. SHOCK WAVES AND EXPANSION WAVES
The dependence of straight oblique shock deflection angle on shock angle for
several values of upstream Mach number Ma1. Calculations are for an ideal gas with k
= 1.4. The dashed black line connects points of maximum deflection angle ( = max).
Weak oblique shocks are to the left of this line, while strong oblique shocks are to the
right of this line. The dashed gray line connects points where the downstream Mach
number is sonic (Ma2 = 1). Supersonic downstream flow (Ma2 > 1) is to the left of this
line, while subsonic downstream flow (Ma2 < 1) is to the right of this line.
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17-5. SHOCK WAVES AND EXPANSION WAVES
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17-5. SHOCK WAVES AND EXPANSION WAVES
Mach angle
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17-5. SHOCK WAVES AND EXPANSION WAVES
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17-5. SHOCK WAVES AND EXPANSION WAVES
Prandtl–Meyer Expansion Waves
We now address situations where supersonic
flow is turned in the opposite direction, such as in
the upper portion of a two-dimensional wedge at
an angle of attack greater than its half-angle .
We refer to this type of flow as an expanding
flow, whereas a flow that produces an oblique
shock may be called a compressing flow.
As previously, the flow changes direction to
conserve mass. However, unlike a compressing
flow, an expanding flow does not result in a
shock wave.
Rather, a continuous expanding region called an
expansion fan appears, composed of an infinite
number of Mach waves called Prandtl–Meyer
expansion waves.
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17-5. SHOCK WAVES AND EXPANSION WAVES
Prandtl–Meyer function
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17-5. SHOCK WAVES AND EXPANSION WAVES
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Summary
• Stagnation properties
• Speed of sound and Mach number
• One-dimensional isentropic flow
• Isentropic flow through nozzles
• Shock waves and expansion waves
• Duct flow with heat transfer and negligible
friction (Rayleigh flow)
• Steam nozzles
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