X-Bar Theory
Quick Review
• There are important linguistic units called
constituents, which can be tested for.
• Constituents are created by rules
• Constituents are subject to the principle of
modification (attach stuff in so that modifiers are
sisters of the head that they modify)
What PSRs do well
• Capture constituency relationships (mostly)
• Explain distribution and order of categories
• Explain modification relationships (including
ambiguity)
Flat Structure
NPà(D) (AdjP+) N (PP+) ...
NP
D AdjP N PP PP
the student
Adj P NP P NP
tall of with
N
physics red hair
Flat Structure
I saw the tall [student of physics] with red hair not the short
[one] with brown hair.
NP
D AdjP N PP PP
the student
Adj P NP P NP
tall of with
N
physics red hair
Flat Structure
I saw the tall [student of physics with red hair] not the short
[one].
NP
D AdjP N PP PP
the student
Adj P NP P NP
tall of with
N
physics red hair
Flat Structure
I saw this [tall student of physics with red hair] not that
[one].
NP
D AdjP N PP PP
the student
Adj P NP P NP
tall of with
N
physics red hair
N’ Structure
NP
D N’
the
AdjP N’
tall
N’ PP
N PP with red hair
student
of physics
N’ rules
NP à (D) N’
N’ à (AdjP) N’ or N’ (PP)
N’ à N (PP)
An iterative (self-recursive) rule:
can apply as many times as needed
One-Replacement
Replace an N’ node with [one]
not N, not NP
One replacement
*[one] NP
This [one]
D N’
some of you might the
find this one
grammatical -- this is AdvP N’ The short [one]
a dialect issue
tall
N’ PP
the short [one]
with brown hair N PP with red hair
student
*the short [one] of chemistry
of physics
with brown hair
X-bar in other
categories
Flat Structure in VPs
VPà (AdvP+) V (NP) (AdvP+) (PP+) (AdvP+)
VP
AdvP V NP AdvP PP
sings
Adv N Adv P NP
often opera loudly at
N
church
Flat Structure in VPs
John often sings opera loudly at church and Mary
[does so too].
VP
AdvP V NP AdvP PP
sings
Adv N Adv P NP
often opera loudly at
N
church
Flat Structure in VPs
John often sings opera loudly at church and Mary
frequently [does so too].
VP
AdvP V NP AdvP PP
sings
Adv N Adv P NP
frequently opera loudly at
N
church
Flat Structure in VPs
John often sings opera loudly at church but Mary
rarely [does so] in the library.
VP
AdvP V NP AdvP PP
sings
Adv N Adv P NP
rarely opera loudly in
the library
Flat Structure in VPs
John often sings opera loudly at church but Mary
rarely [does so] quietly in the library.
VP
AdvP V NP AdvP PP
sings
Adv N Adv P NP
rarely opera quietly in
the library
V’ Structure
VP
this may seem mysterious, but it is
necessary!
V’
AP V’
V’ PP
often
V’ AdvP
in church
V NP loudly
sings
opera
V’ rules
VP à V’ (a vacuous rule)
V’ à (AdvP) V’ or V’ ({AdvP/PP})
V’ à V (NP)
An iterative (self-recursive) rule:
can apply as many times as needed
Do(so)(too)
replacement
replace a V’ node with [did (so) (too)]
not VP, not V
John often sings opera loudly in church and/but Mary ...
VP
V’
[does so too]
seldom [does so] in
the library AP V’ seldom [does so]
V’ PP
often
V’ AdvP
seldom [does so] in church
quietly in the
library V NP loudly
sings
opera
*seldom does so folksongs quietly in the library
Further Evidence for V’
VP
V’
V’ PP
V’ Conj V’ P NP
and with
V NP V NP a fork
eats shovels
beans hay
Flat Structure in PPs
PP à P (NP)
Tara is very in love with her boss
PP à(AdvP) P (NP) (PP)
Flat Structure in PPs
PPà (AdvP) P (NP) (PP)
PP
AP P NP PP
in
A N P NP
very love with
her boss
Flat Structure in PPs
Mary was very in love with her boss; Susanna
was less [so]
PP
AP P NP PP
in
A N P NP
less love with
her boss
Flat Structure in PPs
Mary was very in love with her boss, but was
less [so] with her husband
PP
AP P NP PP
in
A N P NP
less love with
her husband
P’ rules
PP à P’ (a vacuous rule)
P’ à (AdvP) P’ or P’ (PP)
P’ à P (NP)
An iterative (self-recursive) rule:
can apply as many times as needed
P’ Structure
PP
this may seem mysterious, but I’ve
done it for a reason -- we’ll see in
chapter 10
P’
AP P’
very P’ PP
P NP
in with her boss
love
What about AdjP and
AdvP
Is there intermediate structure in AdjP and
AdvPs?
There certainly are adjuncts:
Lynn is interested in syntax but less [so] in
phonology
Generalization 1: 3
types of rules
For each major category there are 3 types of rules:
A rule that generates the phrase NP à(D) N’
A rule that iterates: N’ à (AdjP) N’
A rule that introduces the “head” N’ à N (PP)
Specifier rule
Adjunct rule
Complement rule
Generalization 2:
Headedness
In each rule the only item that is obligatory is
the item that gives its category to the node that
dominates it:
NP à(D) N’
N’ à (AdjP) N’
N’ à N (PP)
There are no rules of the form NP à V AP. (this
is called endocentricity)
Generalization 3:
Optionality
With the exception of determiners, all non-head
material is both phrasal and optional
NP à(D) N’
N’ à (AdjP) N’
N’ à N (PP)
Goals of X-bar theory
Simplify the system of rules
Capture intermediate structure
Capture the cross-categorial generalizations.
We will use VARIABLES to do this. A variable is
a category that can stand for any other category.
X, Y, W, Z are variables that can stand for
ANY of N,V,A,P
The X-bar Rules (to be
slightly revised)
Specifier Rule: XP à(YP) X’
Adjunct Rule: X’ à(ZP) X’ or X’ à X’ (ZP)
Complement Rule: X’ à X (WP)
where X can stand for any category (N,V,
Adj, Adv, P). X must be consistent through
the 3 rules.
X-bar Structures
XP
YP X’
X’ ZP1
X’ ZP2
X WP
X-bar Structures
NP
YP N’
N’ ZP1
N’ ZP2
N WP
X-bar Structures
VP
YP V’
V’ ZP1
V’ ZP2
V WP
X-bar Structures
AdjP
YP Adj’
Adj’ ZP1
Adj’ ZP2
Adj WP
X-bar Structures
AdvP
YP Adv’
Adv’ ZP1
Adv’ ZP2
Adv WP
X-bar Structures
PP
YP P’
P’ ZP1
P’ ZP2
P WP
Summary
Constituency tests show us there is
intermediate structure in phrases.
There are cross-categorial generalizations to be
made:
3 rules: Specifier, adjunct, complement
Headedness & Endocentricity
Optionality of modifiers
Summary
X-bar rules:
Specifier Rule: XP à(YP) X’
Adjunct Rule: X’ à(ZP) X’ or X’ à X’ (ZP)
Complement Rule: X’ à X (WP)
This is still pretty messy. To do:
discuss the differences between the
specifier/complement/adjunct rules
Account for cross-linguistic variation
tidy up some ugly loose ends (like the lack of motivation for the
specifier rule, the fact that determiners aren’t phrases , and the
fact that the TP rule doesn’t fit into the system.)
Properties of X-bar
Complements, Adjuncts
(& Specifiers.)
X-bar theory
Specifier Rule: XP à(YP) X’
Adjunct Rule: X’ à(ZP) X’ or X’ à X’ (ZP)
Complement Rule: X’ à X (WP)
©2021 Andrew Carnie
Predictions?
• Propose three different kinds of modifiers:
• specifiers
• complements
• adjuncts
• Is this valid? Are there really three different
kinds? Do they have different properties?
©2021 Andrew Carnie
Formal Definitions
Specifier: Daughter of XP, sister to X’
XP
XP à(YP) X’
YP X’
Adjunct: Daughter of X’, sister to X’
X’
X’ à(ZP) X’ or X’ à X’ (ZP)
X’ ZP
Complement: Daughter of X’, sister to X
X’
X’ à X (WP)
X WP
©2021 Andrew Carnie
N, N’, … NP are
maximal projection
specifier called the
NP projections of N
adjuncts
D N’
the
AdjP N’
young N’ PP
N’ PP from Phoenix
N PP with red hair
student
of linguistics
head
complement
The student of linguistics The student from Phoenix
NP NP
D N’ D N’
the the
N PP N’ PP
student N
of linguistics student from Phoenix
Complements of N are marked with the preposition ‘of’. All
other prepositions mark adjuncts.
Complements always closest to
head
The student [of linguistics] [from Phoenix]
head complement adjunct
*The student [from Phoenix] [of linguistics]
head adjunct complement
NP
D N’
the
since complements are N’ PP
sister to head
N PP from Phoenix
Student
of linguistics
©2021 Andrew Carnie
Only one complement,
multiple adjuncts
X’ à(ZP) X’ or X’ à X’ (ZP) Iterative
X’ à X (WP) not iterative
the student of linguistics with the red hair from Phoenix in the bath
*the student of linguistics of chemistry from Phoenix
©2021 Andrew Carnie
Adjuncts can be
reordered
The student of linguistics from Phoenix with red hair on the bus.
The student of linguistics with red hair from Phoenix on the bus.
The student of linguistics with red hair on the bus from Phoenix.
The student of linguistics on the bus with red hair from Phoenix.
The student of linguistics on the bus from Phoenix with red hair.
The student of linguistics from Phoenix on the bus with red hair.
*The student from Phoenix of linguistics with red hair on the bus
*The student from Phoenix with red hair of linguistics on the bus
*The student from Phoenix with red hair on the bus of linguistics
(etc.)
©2021 Andrew Carnie
Conjunction
The conjunction rule: Xn à Xn Conj Xn
The red and blue house *The red and cat
Complements can be conjoined with complements:
The student of linguistics and of philosophy
Adjuncts can be conjoined with adjuncts
The student with red hair and with a tattoo
Complements cannot be conjoined with adjuncts
*The student of linguistics and with red hair
©2021 Andrew Carnie
One replacement
One Replacement: replace N’ with one.
NP
D N’ can be replaced by one
the
N’ PP
N PP from Phoenix
Student
of linguistics therefore an adjunct
can NOT be replaced by one can follow ‘one’ but
complements cannot!
©2021 Andrew Carnie
Telling complements
from adjuncts
©2021 Andrew Carnie
An easy mistake to
make!
When you have only one PP modifier or AdjP
modifier, be very careful to see if it is a
complement or adjunct. If it is an adjunct it must
be a sister to the X’ level!!!!!
this N’ is CRUCIAL!!
NP NP
D N’ D N’
the the
AdjP N’ AdjP N
banana
big N big
banana
©2021 Andrew Carnie
The complement
adjunct distinction in
other categories
Telling complements
from adjuncts
©2021 Andrew Carnie
The complement/adjunct
distinction in VPs
John [VP often eats apples with a fork]
adjunct head complement adjunct
In VPs, the direct object is always the
complement. (Almost) everything else is an
adjunct.
(Exception to the rule: the verbs give and put take
two complements a NP and PP. )
I gave the apple to John (both are complements)
I put the book on the table
©2021 Andrew Carnie
I loved the policeman intensely with all my heart
VP
V’
V’ PP
V’ AdvP with all my heart
V NP intensely adjuncts
loved
the policeman
complement
• Only 1 complement
• *I loved the policeman the fireman
• Reordering
• I loved the policeman with all my heart intensely
• I loved the policeman intensely with all my heart
• *I loved intensely the policeman with all my heart
• *I loved intensely with all my heart the policeman
• Conjunction
• I loved the policeman and the fireman
• I loved the policeman intensely and with all my heart
• *I loved the policeman and intensely
• Do so replacement
• Susan loved the policemen intensely with all her heart but/and
• Mary did so with her brain!
• Mary did so mildly with her brain
• *Mary did so the fireman
PPs
Evidence is much weaker.
very in love with himself
adjunct head complement adjunct
©2021 Andrew Carnie
Specifiers
The only element we have seen in
specifiers so far is the determiner.
©2021 Andrew Carnie
Summary
Specifier: sister to X’, daughter of XP
Adjunct: sister to X’, daughter of X’
Complement: sister to X, daughter of X’
X-bar theory predicts differences in behavior
between complements and adjuncts
only one complement, multiple adjuncts
complement must be closest to head
adjuncts can be reordered
conjunction
*One/did so + complement
©2021 Andrew Carnie
Drawing X-bar Trees
How to draw trees in X-bar notation
©2012 Andrew Carnie
Drawing Trees
Step 1: Identify the parts of speech for all the words in the sentence
Step 2: figure out what words "go together in phrases"
Step 3: apply the rules backwards (bottom up) to build the tree.
•Determine whether the modifier is a complement,
adjunct, specifier -- REMEMBER, adjuncts are sisters to X’,
complements to X.
• Start with the modifiers closest to the head
Step 4: now check your tree against your rules. Start at the top, and
check that each set of lines can be generated by the rules.
None of the Rules are
optional
minimal X’ structure
XP NP
X’ N’
X N
people
Warning
Be very careful about Adjuncts!!!!
They must be daughter of X’ and sister of X’
NP
D N’
the
N’ PP
! N from Phoenix
student
TP
VP
V’
NP
V’
NP
N’
N’
PP PP PP
N’ P’ P’
P’
NP NP
NP
N’ N’ N’
D N P N V D N P N P D N
The man from Brazil found a book of poems in the puddle