Field Study of the Ndongo River Valley: Degradation and Sustainable Management

PART II: FIELD OBSERVATIONS, SURVEY AND PRESENTATION

OF DATA COLLECTED

II.0 Introduction

On Saturday, 6th June 2026, we, the Level 300 students of the Department of
Geography, Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, University of Buea,
embarked on a full-day academic field excursion to the Ndongo River valley, situated
in the South West Region of Cameroon. This field trip was a compulsory component of
our practical academic training in physical and human geography, designed to expose
us to real-world environmental conditions and allow us to apply the theoretical
knowledge acquired in the classroom to observable phenomena in the field.

This second part of the field report presents a systematic and thematic account of the
observations, surveys, and data collected during that excursion. While Part I provided
a narrative description of the field trip as it unfolded chronologically from start to finish,
Part II organises the findings thematically, covering the physical and human settings of
the study area, the specific surveys conducted at various points along the transect, the
state of environmental degradation observed, and the data gathered through
measurements, soil analysis, and community interviews.

The Ndongo River valley is an environment of considerable geographical complexity

and socio-ecological importance. It serves simultaneously as a natural drainage
system, a source of water and construction material, an agricultural resource, a
transportation corridor, and a recreational space for the communities living along its
banks. Yet this same valley is under intense and growing pressure from a range of
natural and human-induced forces that are progressively degrading its physical
integrity and ecological value. This part of the report is structured to provide a
comprehensive understanding of those pressures, drawing entirely on data and
observations gathered during the field exercise.

II.1 Location of the Study Area

The Ndongo River valley is located in the South West Region of Cameroon, within
the administrative subdivision of Buea, which serves as the regional capital. The valley
lies in close proximity to the University of Buea and is flanked on its upper reaches
by the university campus and the surrounding residential communities of Bokwai,

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Molyko, Mile 14, and Bulu. The lower reaches of the valley descend towards the
coastal plains of Tiko, a town situated in the Fako Division near the Gulf of Guinea.

Geographically, the Ndongo River valley occupies a position on the south-western

slopes of Mount Cameroon, the highest peak in Central and West Africa, rising to
approximately 4,095 metres above sea level. The river originates at an elevation of
approximately 450 metres above sea level in the highland zone and descends to
approximately 53 metres above sea level at the swampy creek margins near Tiko,
covering a total transect distance of approximately 16 kilometres. This significant
elevation gradient gives the river a high erosive potential in its upper reaches and a
strong depositional character in its lower course.

The study area lies within a densely populated peri-urban corridor that has
experienced rapid expansion over the past two decades, driven largely by the growth
of the University of Buea and the associated influx of students, academic staff, and
service workers into the surrounding communities. This demographic expansion has
placed the Ndongo River valley at the centre of competing land use demands, making
it a particularly important and timely subject of geographical study.

II.2 Physical Settings

II.2.1 Climate
The Ndongo River valley falls within the humid tropical climate zone of Central
Africa, characterised by high temperatures, abundant rainfall, and relatively high
humidity throughout the year. The South West Region of Cameroon is widely
recognised as one of the wettest parts of the African continent, a condition attributable
largely to the orographic effect of Mount Cameroon, which forces moisture-laden air
masses from the Atlantic Ocean to rise and cool, releasing precipitation in large
quantities on its south-western slopes (Molua and Lambi, 2006).

Annual rainfall in the Buea area typically ranges between 2,000 and 4,000
millimetres, with the heaviest rainfall occurring during the wet season, which extends
from approximately March to October. The dry season, from November to February,
is characterised by the influence of the harmattan — a dry, dust-laden wind blowing
southward from the Sahara Desert — which reduces humidity and lowers
temperatures slightly. Temperatures in Buea average between 20°C and 27°C
throughout the year, with the valley floor experiencing slightly higher temperatures
than the elevated upper slopes.

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The microclimate of the Ndongo valley itself is influenced by its topographic

configuration and vegetation cover. The enclosed nature of the valley, particularly in its
upper and middle sections, creates localised conditions of higher humidity and
reduced wind exposure. In sections where vegetation has been cleared for agriculture
or construction, the microclimate becomes more exposed and variable, with greater
temperature fluctuations and reduced moisture retention in the soil. On the day of our
field visit, weather conditions were overcast and mild, consistent with the transitional
period between the dry and wet seasons.

II.2.2 Relief
The relief of the Ndongo River valley is defined by the broader topographic context of
Mount Cameroon and the south-western escarpment that descends from its volcanic
flanks toward the coastal plains. The valley is a product of fluvial incision, carved over
geological time by the erosive action of the Ndongo River cutting into underlying
volcanic and sedimentary rock formations.

The upper course begins near the University of Buea Parish at an elevation of 450
metres and is characterised by a steep gradient and a narrow, V-shaped valley
cross-section typical of youthful river systems undergoing active vertical erosion. As
the river descends into the middle course, the gradient becomes less pronounced and
the valley begins to widen, transitioning toward a more U-shaped profile as lateral
erosion becomes dominant. In the lower course, approaching the swampy margins
near Tiko at 53 metres above sea level, the relief flattens considerably into a wide,
low-lying floodplain subject to periodic inundation. The total elevation drop of
approximately 397 metres across the 16-kilometre transect gives the Ndongo River a
significant erosive capacity in its upper reaches.

II.2.3 Vegetation
The natural vegetation of the Ndongo River valley belongs to the lowland tropical
rainforest biome, which dominates the South West Region of Cameroon. In its
natural, undisturbed state, this vegetation type is characterised by a multi-layered
canopy structure with tall emergent trees, a dense sub-canopy, a shrub layer, and a
ground layer of herbaceous plants and ferns (Fonge et al., 2012). However, the
vegetation of the Ndongo valley has been profoundly altered by centuries of human
occupation and, more recently, by rapid urbanisation associated with the growth of
Buea.

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In the upper course, some remnant riparian vegetation was observed along the
immediate river margins. The two Black Gome trees observed in this zone were
among the most ecologically significant specimens encountered during the field trip,
valued for their size, maturity, fruit production, wildlife support, and remarkable survival
of a past fire. In the middle course, vegetation was more sparse and fragmented, with
agricultural plots, construction sites, and waste areas dominating alongside patches of
secondary scrub. The lower course was characterised by active cultivation of
plantains, maize, and bananas, with bananas deliberately planted along certain bank
sections as a riparian buffer strategy. The UB Nursing Ground in the lower zone
represented a positive exception — a site of deliberate, managed vegetation
cultivation contributing meaningfully to plant propagation and biodiversity.

II.2.4 Soils
The soils of the Ndongo River valley are derived primarily from the weathering of
volcanic basaltic rocks associated with the geological formation of Mount
Cameroon, as well as from alluvial material deposited by the river over successive
flood cycles. The volcanic origin of the parent material gives the soils of the upper and
middle valley a generally dark, nutrient-rich character that is highly suited to
agricultural production under natural conditions. However, the intensity of land use and
the extent of erosion in the valley have significantly degraded soil quality in many
areas (Yerima and Van Ranst, 2005).

During the field exercise, we conducted a detailed soil profile analysis beneath the
third bridge near the University of Buea main gate, where four distinct horizons were
identified and described, as presented in the table below.

Table 1: Soil Profile Analysis – Third Bridge, UB Main Gate

Horizon Thickness Composition Moisture Notes
Condition

A (Topsoil) 8 cm Clay and sand Moderately humid Thin; topsoil loss

mixture from erosion

B (Subsoil) 20 cm Clay and sand Humid Stable subsoil

layer

C (Regolith) 20 cm Pebbles, gravel, Dry to semi-dry Coarse; fines

fine particles removed by
erosion

D (Parent 12 cm Predominantly Humidity < 5 cm Mineral

Material) clay colouration;
volcanic origin

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The thin topsoil layer (Horizon A, 8 cm) is indicative of significant topsoil loss through
erosion. The presence of coarse pebbles and gravel in Horizon C, lying directly
beneath a relatively shallow subsoil, suggests that finer material has been
progressively removed by water erosion. The predominantly clay composition of the
deepest horizon (D) reflects the underlying geological parent material from which the
valley soils have been derived over long periods of weathering.

II.2.5 Drainage
The Ndongo River is the primary drainage feature of the study area, functioning as
the main channel through which surface water and groundwater from the surrounding
catchment is conveyed toward the coast. The drainage pattern of the Ndongo valley is
broadly dendritic in character, with the main river channel receiving contributions from
several smaller tributary streams that drain the adjacent valley sides. Several of these
tributaries had been severed or disrupted by gully erosion and by construction across
natural drainage lines, contributing to localised flooding in affected communities.

The river transitions through three distinct hydrological regimes: a fast, energetic
upper course dominated by vertical erosion; a meandering middle course with
reduced velocity and increasing lateral movement; and a slow, depositional lower
course spreading across a wider floodplain feeding into the swampy creek systems of
Tiko. Human interference with the drainage system has been extensive, including
channel constriction by buildings, waste-induced blockages, sand extraction, and
pump installations, all of which have collectively compromised the natural functioning
of the river as a drainage system.

II.3 Human Settings

II.3.1 Population
The communities living along the Ndongo River valley form part of the broader
population of Buea, which has grown rapidly in recent decades to become one of the
most populous urban centres in the South West Region of Cameroon. The growth of
the University of Buea, established in 1993, has been the single most significant
driver of population increase in the area, attracting tens of thousands of students, staff,
and service workers to the communities surrounding the campus. The communities
most directly associated with the Ndongo valley — Bokwai, Molyko, Mile 14, and
Bulu — are among the most densely populated quarters of Buea. According to the
2005 General Population and Housing Census, Buea Sub-Division had

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approximately 90,000 inhabitants, a figure estimated to have grown to over 200,000 by

the time of our field exercise (BUCREP, 2010).

II.3.2 Demography
The demographic profile of communities along the Ndongo River valley reflects
broader patterns of urban migration in Cameroon, with a predominantly young
population that includes a large proportion of students and recent graduates. This
youthful demographic generates high levels of demand for affordable housing —
driving encroachment onto marginal land including the riverbanks — and produces a
large volume of waste and domestic wastewater that frequently exceeds the capacity
of available infrastructure to manage.

The local indigenous population is predominantly Bakweri, a Bantu-speaking people

whose ancestral territory encompasses the slopes of Mount Cameroon, including the
area through which the Ndongo River flows. The Bakweri have traditionally maintained
a close relationship with the land and water resources of the area. Alongside this
indigenous population, the university has attracted a diverse mix of students and
workers from all regions of Cameroon and several other African countries, creating an
ethnically diverse but rapidly growing community along the valley.

II.3.3 Population Density

Population density along the Ndongo River valley increases significantly from the
upper to the lower course. In the upper course zone near the UB Parish, settlement is
relatively sparse, though even here housing has encroached to within 1 to 2 metres of
the riverbank. In the lower course, particularly around the public tap and waste
disposal sites, the population density was visibly very high — described during our
field visit as crowded, with a high concentration of residents, market traders, and
pedestrians at any given time. This density creates simultaneous environmental
pressure and social vulnerability, as large numbers of people are daily exposed to the
degraded conditions, contaminated water, and open waste pits documented during the
survey.

II.3.4 Habitat and Planning

The housing and settlement patterns along the Ndongo River valley are characterised
by informal and unplanned development that has proceeded largely without
reference to the topographical constraints of the valley environment or the legal
setback requirements prescribed by government policy. As documented during the
field exercise, buildings in both the upper and lower course zones have been

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constructed at distances of as little as 1 metre from the riverbank — a fraction of the

legally mandated minimum of 100 metres. This informal settlement pattern results from
the rapid growth of Buea’s population outpacing the availability of formal housing, the
absence of effective land use planning enforcement in peri-urban areas of Cameroon
(Fombe and Balgah, 2012), and the practical advantages offered by valley locations,
including proximity to water and access to fertile alluvial land.

The consequences are significant: structural vulnerability of buildings to flood and

subsidence; increased flash flood risk from constricted river channels; and accelerated
erosion from the removal of stabilising riparian vegetation.

II.3.5 Economic Activities

The Ndongo River valley supports a diverse range of economic activities directly
dependent on the river and its associated resources. Agriculture is widely practiced,
particularly in the lower course, with crops including plantains, maize, bananas,
oranges, pear, palm nuts, and mangoes grown for both subsistence and sale. The UB
Nursing Ground represents a more formalised commercial dimension of this activity.
Construction is another major economic activity, with sand extracted directly from the
riverbed and water pumped from the channel via motor pump — as observed with the
matto pome in the middle course. Water collection for household use is also critical,
with residents depending on both the public tap and direct river abstraction for
cooking, cleaning, and crop irrigation. All of these activities, while economically
essential, contribute to the physical degradation of the river and valley environment.

II.4 Surveys Carried Out

II.4.1 Valley and River

The survey of the valley and river was conducted along the full 16-kilometre transect,
with systematic measurements taken at the upper, middle, and lower course stages.
The key hydrological and morphological parameters recorded are summarised in
Table 2 below.

Table 2: River Morphology Measurements Along the Transect

Parameter Upper Course Middle Course Lower Course

River Width 3 metres — 1.4 metres

River Depth 25 centimetres 1 metre 60 cm 80 – 90 centimetres

Right Bank to Structure 180 centimetres — —

Left Bank to Structure 1 metre — —

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Parameter Upper Course Middle Course Lower Course

Depth Beneath Bridge — — 340 centimetres

Flow Character Fast and straight Meandering, slower Slow, depositional

Elevation 450 metres Intermediate 53 metres

The reduction in depth from the middle course (1m 60cm) to the lower course (80–
90cm) reflects the transition from an erosional to a depositional regime, where
sediment accumulation raises the bed level relative to the surrounding terrain. The
exceptional depth of 340 centimetres recorded beneath the bridge reflects localised
scour erosion caused by constricted flow through the bridge opening, compounded by
waste accumulation narrowing the effective channel width.

River flow velocity was calculated using the formula V = D ÷ T, where D = 8.5 metres
and T = 13.4 seconds, giving:

V = 8.5 ÷ 13.4 = 0.63 m/s

This average velocity of 0.63 metres per second is consistent with the moderate flow
conditions of the middle to lower course transition zone.

II.4.2 Vegetation
The vegetation survey documented significant spatial variation in plant cover from the
upper to the lower course. Table 3 below summarises the key vegetation findings by
location.

Table 3: Vegetation Observed Along the Transect

Location Vegetation Type Ecological Function Condition

Upper course (UB Riparian trees including Habitat, shade, fruit for Partially intact; fire
Parish) Black Gome wildlife damage noted

Middle course Secondary scrub; Wildlife habitat; bank Disturbed and

epiphytic trees near stabilisation fragmented
bridges

Lower course (Mile 14 / Plantain, maize, Agriculture; bank Highly modified; no

Bulu) banana (cultivated) protection (banana) protected species

UB Nursing Ground Oranges, plantain, Commercial Well maintained;

pear, mango, palm nuts propagation; actively managed
biodiversity

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II.4.3 Water Quality

Although a full laboratory analysis of water samples was beyond the scope of the
present field exercise, qualitative observations made during the transect provided
useful indicators of water quality along the Ndongo River. In the upper course, the
water appeared relatively clear and fast-moving, though the proximity of buildings as
close as 1 metre to the bank created conditions conducive to direct entry of domestic
wastewater and runoff into the channel during rainfall. In the middle course, the
presence of the matto pome within the river channel and evidence of construction
activities nearby indicated that untreated river water was being used directly for both
construction and household purposes. The slower flow velocity in this zone reduced
the river’s self-purification capacity. In the lower course, water quality was most
visibly compromised, with two large waste disposal pits (measuring approximately 20–
21 metres wide and 4 metres long) positioned in very close proximity to the river,
creating significant leachate contamination risk for both surface water and
groundwater.

II.4.4 Interviews Conducted

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with local residents, farmers, and
construction workers at multiple points along the transect. Table 4 presents a full
summary of the interviews and responses recorded.

Table 4: Summary of Community Interviews Conducted During the Field Excursion

No. Location Question Response

1 Upper course – Why build so close to Lack of space; the

housing area the river despite riverbank was the only
knowing the damage? available option for
construction.

2 Lower course – public How does the tap water Used for cooking,
tap help the local cleaning, and watering
population? crops in the
surrounding area.

3 Lower course – public Is the public tap here a Yes; it serves people
tap good idea? from near and far in
their daily activities.

4 Middle course – What is the river water For construction

construction site used for? purposes and general
household use.

5 Lower course – waste Why deposit waste No functioning waste

site here rather than disposal system;
digging a pit? municipal collectors

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No. Location Question Response

rarely come to the

area.

6 Lower course – waste How does the waste Causes many

site affect the local sicknesses; children
population? and young people are
the most affected.

7 Bridge site How do the bridges They are used for

help the community? transporting agricultural
products across the
river.

8 Bridge site What challenges do the Cannot support

bridges present? vehicles or bulky
goods; constructed
only from planks and
tree branches.

The interviews confirmed several recurring themes: population pressure as a driver of

environmental non-compliance; the critical importance of river infrastructure for daily
livelihoods; the absence of adequate public waste management services; and the
direct health consequences of environmental degradation for the most exposed
communities.

II.4.5 Soils
Soil samples were collected and analysed in the field at several points along the
transect. The most detailed profile was recorded beneath the third bridge near the UB
main gate, as presented in Table 1 (Section II.2.4). The thin topsoil (Horizon A, 8 cm)
and coarse gravelly Horizon C are indicative of active erosion and loss of fine particles
through water action. In the lower course, alluvial soils were finer-textured and more
moisture-retentive, supporting active crop cultivation. However, proximity to the waste
disposal pits raised concerns about leachate infiltration and long-term contamination of
these agricultural soils.

II.4.6 Climate
Meteorological observations were supplemented by the visit to the University of Buea
Weather Station, where Dr. Randy guided groups of ten students through the
station’s instruments, including the rain gauge (precipitation measurement), the
barometer (atmospheric pressure), and the anemometer (wind speed and direction).
Rainfall intensity and seasonal patterns are the primary drivers of river flow volume

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and flood risk in the Ndongo valley. The overcast and mild conditions on the day of the
field visit provided direct experiential evidence of the valley’s characteristic
microclimate.

II.5 State of Degradation of the Ndongo Valley

The cumulative evidence gathered during the field exercise painted a clear and
concerning picture of the Ndongo River valley’s environmental condition. Degradation
was observed at every stage of the transect and in every dimension of the valley’s
physical and ecological character. The causes are both natural and human-induced,
though the evidence strongly identifies human activities as the dominant driver of the
valley’s declining condition.

II.5.1 Findings on Natural Impacts

The natural processes operating within the Ndongo valley contribute to its physical
transformation, though in many cases their intensity has been significantly amplified by
human interference. Fluvial erosion was evident at all three course stages: as vertical
erosion cutting the channel deeper in the upper course; as lateral erosion widening the
channel in the middle course; and as deposition raising the valley floor in the lower
course. Gully erosion was documented in the lower course, where the historical river
channel had cut deeply into the valley floor, severing tributary streams and creating
pronounced erosion channels. Weathering of geological materials was observed
along the valley walls in the middle course, with both physical and chemical
weathering processes contributing to the production of fine-grained, clay-rich material.
The naturally high rainfall of the Buea region, while essential for soil and vegetation
productivity, generates significant hydrological risk during intense wet season events,
particularly given the channel constriction caused by encroaching buildings.

II.5.2 Findings on Human Impacts

Human impacts on the Ndongo River valley were extensive, varied, and observed at
every point along the transect. Housing encroachment onto the riverbanks — as
close as 1 metre from the channel edge — was the most visually striking impact,
constricting the river, removing stabilising vegetation, and exposing residents to flood
and erosion risk. Solid waste disposal in two large open pits in the lower course
threatened soil and water quality through leachate contamination, blocked drainage
pathways, and created conditions for disease vector breeding. Residents confirmed
that the absence of municipal waste collection services left open dumping as the only
available option. Agricultural encroachment along the riverbanks removed natural

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riparian vegetation and eliminated the filtration function that would otherwise intercept
runoff before it entered the river. Sand and water extraction from the river for
construction, as evidenced by the matto pome observed in the middle course,
disturbed the riverbed, altered the natural sediment budget, and accelerated bank
erosion. Finally, the inadequate bridge infrastructure, constructed from planks and
tree branches, limited the economic capacity of communities and created indirect
environmental pressures through the use of alternative, erosion-prone routes.

Together, these human impacts constitute a compounding cycle of degradation in

which each individual intervention weakens the resilience of the valley ecosystem and
makes it more vulnerable to further damage. Breaking this cycle will require
coordinated intervention at multiple levels, as will be discussed in Part III.

II.6 Conclusion

The field observations, surveys, and data collected during the excursion to the Ndongo
River valley on 6th June 2026 have provided a comprehensive and multi-dimensional
picture of the current environmental condition of this important geographical feature.
The physical settings of the valley — its tropical climate, steeply graded relief,
transformed vegetation cover, eroded soils, and increasingly compromised drainage
system — together tell the story of a natural environment under profound stress. The
human settings — its rapidly growing population, diverse economic activities, informal
housing, and inadequate public services — reveal the socio-economic context within
which this degradation is occurring.

The surveys produced concrete, measurable evidence of degradation at every level:

river channels constricted to within a metre of residential buildings; waste pits
spanning more than 20 metres adjacent to the river; soils stripped of topsoil by
erosion; bridges incapable of bearing the loads demanded of them; and water
resources shared between domestic, agricultural, and construction uses without
treatment or regulation. These findings collectively confirm that the Ndongo River
valley is in a state of significant and accelerating environmental degradation that
demands urgent and sustained management intervention. Part III of this report will
draw on these findings to propose specific, evidence-based recommendations for the
sustainable management of the valley.

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REFERENCES
BUCREP (Bureau Central des Recensements et des Études de Population) (2010).
Rapport de Présentation des Résultats Définitifs du 3ᵉ Recensement Général de la
Population et de l’Habitat du Cameroun. Yaoundé: BUCREP.

Fombe, L. F. and Balgah, S. N. (2012). Urbanisation Process in Cameroon: Patterns,

Implications and Prospects. New York: Nova Science Publishers.

Fonge, B. A., Tabot, P. T. and Bakia, M. A. (2012). ‘Vegetation structure and plant
species diversity in gazetted forest reserves in South West Cameroon’. Journal of
Ecology and the Natural Environment, 4(6), pp. 163–173.

Molua, E. L. and Lambi, C. M. (2006). ‘The economic impact of climate change on

agriculture in Cameroon’. CEEPA Discussion Paper No. 17. Pretoria: Centre for
Environmental Economics and Policy in Africa.

Neba, A. S. (1999). Modern Geography of the Republic of Cameroon, 3rd edn.

Bamenda: Neba Publishers.

Ngwa, N. E. (2002). ‘Urban growth and environmental degradation in Cameroon: the

case of Buea town’. GeoJournal, 56(2), pp. 103–111.

Tankou, C. M. and De Dapper, M. (2007). ‘Land degradation and soil erosion in the
highlands of West Cameroon’. In: Lambi, C. M. and Eze, B. E. (eds) Readings in
Geography. Bamenda: Unique Printers, pp. 45–68.

UNEP (2010). Africa Water Atlas. Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme.

Walling, D. E. (1999). ‘Linking land use, erosion and sediment yields in river basins’.
Hydrobiologia, 410, pp. 223–240.

Yerima, B. P. K. and Van Ranst, E. (2005). Major Soil Classification Systems Used in
the Tropics: Soils of Cameroon. Victoria, Canada: Trafford Publishing.

ANNEXE

Annexe 1: Complete Field Measurement Data

Table A1: All Quantitative Measurements Recorded During the Field Transect

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Measurement Value Recorded Location / Course

River width 3 metres Upper course

River depth 25 centimetres Upper course

Right bank to structure 180 centimetres Upper course

Left bank to structure 1 metre Upper course

River depth 1 metre 60 centimetres Middle course

Flow descent 1.25 centimetres Middle course (second floor

level)

River flow velocity 0.63 m/s (V = 8.5 ÷ 13.4) Middle/lower transition

Upstream level 12.8 Lower course

River depth beneath bridge 340 centimetres Bridge site

Bridge size 180 centimetres Bridge site

Bridge width 1 metre Bridge site

Bridge structural depth 1.6 centimetres Bridge site

River depth 80–90 centimetres Lower course

River width 1 metre 40 centimetres Lower course

Channel length (measured) 140 centimetres Lower course

Waste pit 1 width 20–21 metres Lower course

Waste pit 1 length 4 metres Lower course

Elevation at start 450 metres UB Parish (upper course)

Elevation at end 53 metres Tiko lowlands (lower course)

Total transect distance 16 kilometres Full transect

Annexe 2: Soil Profile Data

Table A2: Detailed Soil Horizon Record – Third Bridge Site, UB Main Gate
Horizon Depth Texture Composition Moisture Observation

A (Topsoil) 8 cm Fine Clay and sand Moderate Thin topsoil;

evidence of
erosion loss

B (Subsoil) 20 cm Medium Clay and sand Humid Relatively

stable layer

C (Regolith) 20 cm Coarse Pebbles, Dry / semi-dry Fines removed

gravel, fine by water
particles erosion

D (Parent 12 cm Fine-clay Predominantly < 5 cm Volcanic

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Horizon Depth Texture Composition Moisture Observation

material) clay origin; mineral

colouration

Annexe 3: Full Interview Record

Table A3: Complete Record of Community Interviews
No. Location Respondent Question Response
Summary

1 Upper course – Local resident Why build so Lack of space;

housing area close to the river? riverbank was
only available
land

2 Lower course – Community How does the tap Cooking,

public tap member water help? cleaning, watering
crops

3 Lower course – Community Is the tap Yes; serves many

public tap member placement a good people from near
idea? and far

4 Middle course – Construction What is the water Construction work

construction site worker used for? and household
use

5 Lower course – Resident Why dump waste No waste

waste site openly? collection service;
municipality rarely
visits

6 Lower course – Resident How does waste Many illnesses;

waste site affect the children most
population? vulnerable

7 Bridge site Farmer / resident How do bridges Transportation of

help the agricultural
community? produce

8 Bridge site Farmer / resident What challenges Cannot carry

do bridges vehicles or bulky
present? goods; too weak

Annexe 4: Field Equipment List

Table A4: Research Tools and Equipment Used During the Field Exercise

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Equipment Category Function

GPS / GNSS Units Navigation Precise coordinate recording

and location mapping

Prismatic Compass (Ceg d’itua) Navigation Direction and bearing

determination

Measuring Tapes Distance measurement River width, depth, bank

distances, soil and bridge
measurements

Trundle Wheels Distance measurement Longer ground distance

measurement along transect

Rangefinder / Laser Distance Distance measurement Accurate measurement of long

Meter distances

Clinometer / Abney Level Elevation Slope angle measurement

along valley walls

Dumpy Level (Auto Level) Elevation Height difference calculation

between transect points

Buckets and Containers Sample collection Water and soil specimen

collection

Sample Bags Sample collection Storage of rock, sediment, and

soil samples

Rope Field demarcation Measurement area marking and

river reading assistance

Machetes Access Vegetation clearance to reach

measurement sites

Field Notebooks and Pens Data recording Real-time recording of

observations and
measurements

End of Part II — Field Observations, Survey and Presentation of Data Collected

Department of Geography, Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, University of Buea | Page 16