Biology For Engineers

BIOMOLECULES
Department of Biotechnology and Chemical Engineering
Manipal University Jaipur
Introduction
➢ Carbohydrates are the sugars, starches and fibers found in fruits, grains, vegetables
and milk products.
➢ Carbohydrates are the body's main source of energy.
➢ They are called carbohydrates because, at the chemical level, they majorly contains
Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen.
➢ Carbohydrates are
▪ polyhydroxy aldehydes or
▪ ketones or
▪ compounds which yield these derivatives on hydrolysis.
➢ Carbohydrates are formed in the plants by photosynthesis from carbon dioxide and
water in the presence of sunlight. They are primarily produced by plants and form a
very large group of naturally occurring organic substances. Some common examples
are cane sugar, glucose, starch, etc.
➢ They have general molecular formulas Cn(H2O)n.
CLASSIFICATION of carbohydrates
These are further classified on the basis of their behaviour on hydrolysis
Monosaccharides
The simplest form of carbohydrates is the monosaccharide. 'Mono' means 'one'
and 'saccharide' means 'sugar'. Monosaccharides are polyhydroxy aldehyde or
ketone that cannot be hydrolyzed further to give simpler sugar. They may again
be classified on the basis of the nature of carbonyl group.
• Polyhydroxy aldehydes are called aldoses. Example: Glucose
• Polyhydroxy ketones are called ketoses. Example: Fructose
Oligosaccharides
Carbohydrates that produce two to ten monosaccharide units during the
hydrolysis are called oligosaccharides. They can be further classified based on the
number of monosaccharide units formed on hydrolysis.
Disaccharides:
They give two monosaccharide units on hydrolysis, which may be the same or
different. For example, sucrose on hydrolysis gives one molecule each of glucose and
fructose, whereas maltose gives two molecules of glucose.
Oligosaccharides
These carbohydrates yield three or more molecules of monosaccharide units on
Hydrolysis.
Polysaccharides
➢These carbohydrates give a large number of monosaccharide units on hydrolysis.
➢These monosaccharide units are joined together by oxide bridges.
➢These linkages are called glycosidic linkages.
➢The common and widely distributed polysaccharides correspond to the general
formula (C6H10O5)n.
➢Polysaccharides are not sweet in taste, so they are called non-sugars.
Some common examples are starch, cellulose, glycogen, etc
CLASSIFICATION of carbohydrates

Monosaccharides

Disaccharides

Oligosaccharides

Polysaccharides
Structural formula of glucose
Branched structure of Glycogen
Ring structural formula and line structural formula of
starch
Figure: Ring structural formula and line structural
formula of cellulose
Industrial Applications of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates have a wide range of applications in

various industries, including:
•Food and Beverage: Carbohydrates are widely used as

sweeteners, thickeners, and stabilisers in food and

beverage products. They are also used as energy sources
in sports drinks and energy bars.

•Pharmaceuticals: Carbohydrates are used as excipients

in pharmaceutical formulations to improve the stability,
solubility, and bioavailability of drugs. They are also
used as a source of energy in medical nutrition products.
Contd
Cosmetics: Carbohydrates are used in cosmetic products,
such as moisturizers, shampoos, and conditioners, to
provide hydration and improve skin and hair health.

Biotechnology: Carbohydrates are widely used in the

production of biodegradable plastics, biofuels, and other
renewable energy sources.

Research: Carbohydrates are widely used as research

tools in the fields of immunology, virology, and cellular
biology. They are used as ligands in protein-carbohydrate
interactions and as probes to study cellular signalling
pathways.
Cellulose-Based Water Filters
▪ Cellulose-based water filters are filters made from cellulose, a carbohydrate polymer
found in plant cell walls.
▪ The high mechanical strength and hydrophilic properties of cellulose make it an ideal
material for water filtration.
▪ Cellulose-based water filters are widely used in both developed and developing
countries for household, industrial, and agricultural applications.
▪ They are also an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional filters, as they are
biodegradable and can be produced from renewable resources.
▪ They are used to remove impurities and contaminants from water and are an
alternative to traditional synthetic polymer filters. Cellulose filters can effectively
remove particles, pathogens, and other contaminants from water, making it safer and
more potable.
Construction of cellulose-based water filters
▪ Construction of cellulose-based water filters involves the following steps:
▪ Cellulose Material Selection: The type of cellulose material used in the water
filter will depend on the desired properties such as strength, porosity, and
chemical resistance. Common cellulose materials include paper, cotton, and
wood fibers.
▪ Cellulose Preparation: The cellulose material is prepared by cutting it into
small pieces, washing it to remove impurities, and drying it for use.
▪ Cellulose Layer Formation: The cellulose material is formed into a layer by
either stacking it or compacting it using heat and pressure.
▪ Filter Medium Attachment: The cellulose layer is attached to a filter medium
such as a mesh or a support structure to provide stability and increase the filter
surface area.
Construction of cellulose-based water filters
▪ Construction of cellulose-based water filters involves the following steps:
▪ Chemical Treatment: The cellulose layer may be chemically treated to
modify its properties, such as increasing its hydrophilicity or adding
antimicrobial agents.
▪ Housing Assembly: The filter medium is assembled into a housing that
provides a means to attach it to a water source and to collect the filtered water
▪ Filter Testing: The completed filter is tested to ensure that it meets the desired
specifications, such as filtration efficiency and flow rate

▪ Note: This is a general outline, the exact process may vary depending on the
specific requirements of the water filter and the type of cellulose material used.
Cellulose material used in house hold water filters

▪ Cellulose material commonly used in household water filters is cellulose acetate

▪ Cellulose acetate is a synthetic form of cellulose that has properties such as good
chemical resistance, high porosity, and high flow rate, making it suitable for use in
household water filters
▪ Additionally, cellulose acetate is also a low-cost material, making it accessible for
use in household applications.

Figure: Cellulose acetate material

Cellulose material used in house hold water filters

▪ Other cellulose materials such as paper, cotton, and wood fibers may also be used, but
cellulose acetate is the most commonly used due to its favorable properties for water
filtration applications
Properties of cellulose based water filter
▪ Cellulose-based water filters have several properties that make them an attractive
choice for water filtration:
▪ High Porosity: Cellulose-based water filters have a high porosity structure,
which allows them to efficiently remove impurities and contaminants from
water.
▪ Biodegradability: Cellulose-based water filters are made from a biodegradable
material, cellulose, which reduces their impact on the environment compared
to synthetic polymer filters.
▪ Cost-effective: Cellulose-based water filters are often more affordable than
traditional synthetic polymer filters, making them accessible to a wider range
of consumers and communities.
▪ Renewable resource: Cellulose-based water filters are made from a renewable
resource, cellulose, reducing the dependency on non-renewable resources.
Properties of cellulose based water filter
▪ Cellulose-based water filters have several properties that make them an attractive
choice for water filtration:
▪ Good mechanical strength: Cellulose-based water filters have good
mechanical strength, allowing them to maintain their structure and perform
effectively over time.
▪ Chemical resistance: Cellulose-based water filters are resistant to most
chemicals, including acids and bases, and can be used in a wide range of water
treatment applications.
▪ Large surface area: Cellulose-based water filters have a large surface area,
which enhances their filtration capabilities and reduces the frequency of filter
replacement.
Importance of cellulose based water filters
▪ Cellulose-based water filters are important for several reasons:
▪ Safe and clean water: Cellulose-based water filters effectively remove
impurities and contaminants from water, making it safer and more potable for
various applications, including household, industrial, and agricultural use.
▪ Sustainability: Cellulose-based water filters are made from a renewable
resource, cellulose, and are biodegradable, reducing their impact on the
environment and promoting sustainability in water treatment processes.
▪ Affordability: Cellulose-based water filters are often more affordable than
traditional synthetic polymer filters, making them accessible to a wider range
of consumers and communities, especially in developing countries.
▪ Versatility: Cellulose-based water filters can be used in various types of
filtration systems and can be produced in different sizes and shapes to fit
specific needs.
Importance of cellulose based water filters
▪ Cellulose-based water filters are important for several reasons:
▪ Alternative to synthetic filters: Cellulose-based water filters provide an
environmentally friendly alternative to traditional synthetic polymer filters,
reducing the dependency on non-renewable resources and reducing waste.
applications

▪ Home Water Filtration

▪ Drinking Water Purification
▪ Industrial Water Treatment
▪ Municipal Water Treatment
▪ Laboratory Filtration
▪ Beverage Industry
▪ Oil and Gas Filtration
▪ Agriculture Applications
Advantages of cellulose based water filters
▪ Cellulose-based water filters have several advantages that make them an attractive
option for water filtration:
▪ Environmentally friendly: Cellulose-based water filters are made from a
renewable resource, cellulose, and are biodegradable, reducing their impact on
the environment compared to synthetic polymer filters.
▪ Cost-effective: Cellulose-based water filters are often more affordable than
traditional synthetic polymer filters, making them accessible to a wider range
of consumers and communities.
▪ High porosity: Cellulose-based water filters have a high porosity structure,
which allows them to efficiently remove impurities and contaminants from
water.
Advantages of cellulose based water filters
▪ Cellulose-based water filters have several advantages that make them an attractive
option for water filtration:
▪ Versatile: Cellulose-based water filters can be used in various types of
filtration systems and can be produced in different sizes and shapes to fit
specific needs.
▪ Good mechanical strength: Cellulose-based water filters have good
mechanical strength, allowing them to maintain their structure and perform
effectively over time.
▪ Chemical resistance: Cellulose-based water filters are resistant to most
chemicals, including acids and bases, and can be used in a wide range of water
treatment applications.
▪ Large surface area: Cellulose-based water filters have a large surface area,
which enhances their filtration capabilities and reduces the frequency of filter
replacement.
Limitations of cellulose based water filters
▪ Cellulose-based water filters have some limitations that need to be considered when
choosing a water filtration solution:
▪ Low resistance to high temperature: Cellulose-based water filters have low
resistance to high temperature and can lose their structural integrity when
exposed to high temperatures.
▪ Low filtration efficiency for certain contaminants: Cellulose-based water
filters may not be efficient in removing certain contaminants, such as heavy
metals, from water.
▪ Limited lifespan: Cellulose-based water filters have a limited lifespan and
may need to be replaced more frequently compared to synthetic polymer filters.
▪ Difficult to sterilize: Cellulose-based water filters may be difficult to sterilize
effectively, increasing the risk of contamination.
Limitations of cellulose based water filters
▪ Cellulose-based water filters have some limitations that need to be considered when
choosing a water filtration solution:
▪ May clog easily: Cellulose-based water filters may clog easily when exposed
to high levels of contaminants, reducing their filtration efficiency and requiring
frequent replacement.
▪ May affect water taste: Cellulose-based water filters may affect the taste of
water by absorbing or releasing certain chemicals or minerals, reducing the
quality of the purified water.
Nucleic Acid
 introduction
▪ Nucleic acids are biopolymers that play a crucial role in the storage and transfer of
genetic information in all living organisms.
▪ There are two types of nucleic acids:
▪ Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): Genetic material that carries the instructions for
the development, functioning, and reproduction of all living organisms.
▪ DNA is a double stranded helix structure composed of nucleotides, which consist
of a sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (adenine,
guanine, cytosine, or thymine).
▪ Ribonucleic acid (RNA): RNA is involved in the expression of the genetic
information stored in DNA by carrying the message from the DNA to the
ribosome, where it is used to build proteins.
▪ RNA is a single-stranded molecule composed of nucleotides, which consist of a
sugar (ribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine,
cytosine, or uracil).
Structure of nucleic acids
 NUCLEIC ACIDS

• Function:
• genetic material
1. stores information
• genes
• blueprint for building proteins
• DNA → RNA → proteins

DNA 2. transfers information

• blueprint for new cells
• blueprint for next generation

proteins
 NUCLEIC ACIDS

• Examples:
• RNA (ribonucleic acid)
• single helix
• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
• double helix
• Structure:
• monomers = nucleotides

DNA RNA
 NUCLEOTIDES

• 3 parts
• nitrogen base (C-N ring) Nitrogen base
I’m the
• pentose sugar (5C) A,T,C,G or U
part!
• ribose in RNA
• deoxyribose in DNA
• phosphate (PO4) group
 TYPES OF NUCLEOTIDES

• 2 types [have different N bases]

1. purines
• double ring N base
• adenine (A)
• guanine (G)

2. pyrimidines
• single ring N base
• cytosine (C)
• thymine (T)
• uracil (U)
 NUCLEIC POLYMER

• Backbone
• sugar to PO4 bond
• phosphodiester bond
• new base added to sugar of previous
base
• polymer grows in one direction
• N bases hang off the
sugar-phosphate backbone

Dangling bases?
Why is this important?
 THE DNA BACKBONE 5
PO4
• Putting the DNA backbone
together 5CH2
base
• refer to the 3 and 5 ends of the O
DNA 4
C
1

3
• the last trailing carbon O
2

–O P O

Sounds trivial, but…

O base
this will be 5 CH2
IMPORTANT!! O
4 1

3 2
OH
3
 BONDING IN DNA

hydrogen
bonds
5 3
covalent
phosphodiester
bonds

3
5

….strong or weak bonds? Why?

Remember Hydrogen Bonds A-T (2) and C-G (3)
 DNA MOLECULE

• Shape:
• Double helix
• H bonds between bases join the 2 strands

• A :: T
• C :: G

H bonds?
Why is this important?
 3 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
DNA AND RNA

DNA structure RNA structure

• Has deoxyribose as a • Has ribose as a sugar
sugar instead of deoxyribose
• Double strand – • Is generally single-
double helix stranded
• Has thymine as a base • Has uracil instead of
thymine
Central dogma
• Both DNA and RNA play essential roles in the functioning of cells and
organisms, and their structures and interactions with other molecules are
the basis for many biological processes such as replication,
transcription, and translation.
Dna vaccine
• A DNA vaccine is a type of vaccine that uses a piece of viral or bacterial DNA
to stimulate an immune response against the pathogen.

• The vaccine works by introducing the pathogen's DNA into the body, where it
is taken up by cells and used to produce viral or bacterial proteins.

• These proteins are then displayed on the surface of the cells, which triggers an
immune response and the production of antibodies against the pathogen.

• DNA vaccines are being actively researched and scientist either developed or
trying to develop for a range of diseases, including cancer, rabies, influenza,
and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

• While the technology is still in its early stages, it has the potential to
revolutionize the field of vaccine development and provide new treatment
options for a range of diseases.
DNA Vaccine for Rabies
• A DNA vaccine for rabies is a type of vaccine that uses a piece
of rabies virus DNA to stimulate an immune response against
the virus.

• The vaccine works by introducing the rabies virus DNA into

the body, where it is taken up by cells and used to produce
viral proteins.

• These viral proteins are then displayed on the surface of the

cells, which triggers an immune response and the production
of antibodies against the rabies virus.
advantages of DNA vaccines over traditional vaccines

• Ability to stimulate a strong and long-lasting immune

response.
• Fewer doses required
• Ease of manufacture and storage.

These advantages make DNA vaccines particularly

useful for preventing the spread of infectious diseases
like rabies.
advantage of DNA vaccine for rabies
• Efficacy: DNA vaccines have been shown to be highly effective
in preventing rabies infection in both animal and human trials. In
one study, a DNA vaccine was found to be as effective as a
traditional vaccine in protecting dogs against rabies.
• Long-lasting protection: DNA vaccines can stimulate a strong
and long-lasting immune response, which means that they can
provide protection against rabies for extended periods of time.
• Ease of administration: DNA vaccines are easy to administer, as
they can be given via injection or even delivered orally, which
can be particularly useful in areas where access to medical
facilities is limited.
• Cost-effective: DNA vaccines are relatively inexpensive to
produce compared to traditional vaccines, which can make them
more accessible in areas where resources are limited.

• Reduced risk of side effects: DNA vaccines do not contain live

virus particles, which means that they are generally safer and
have a lower risk of side effects compared to traditional
vaccines.
RNA vaccine
• RNA vaccines are a type of vaccine that use genetic material
from a pathogen in the form of RNA, to stimulate an immune
response against the disease.

• The vaccine works by introducing the pathogen's RNA into the

body, where it is taken up by cells and used to produce viral or
bacterial proteins.

• These proteins are then displayed on the surface of the cells,

which triggers an immune response and the production of
antibodies against the pathogen.
advantage over traditional vaccines
• RNA vaccines have several advantages over traditional
vaccines, including faster production time and the ability to
target multiple antigens.

• RNA vaccines can be manufactured quickly, making them a

good option for emergency situations where large numbers of
people need to be vaccinated quickly.

• RNA vaccines are also thought to be safer than traditional

vaccines, as they do not contain any live virus or bacteria that
could cause disease.

• RNA vaccines are currently being developed and tested for a

range of diseases, including COVID 19, influenza, and cancer.
RNA Vaccines for Covid19
▪ RNA vaccines for COVID-19 are a type of vaccine that uses
genetic material from the SARS-CoV-2 virus, in the form of
RNA, to stimulate an immune response against the virus.
▪ The vaccine works by introducing the virus's RNA into the body,
where it is taken up by cells and used to produce viral proteins.
▪ These proteins are then displayed on the surface of the cells,
which triggers an immune response and the production of
antibodies against the virus.
▪ The first RNA vaccine for COVID-19, the Pfizer-BioNTech
vaccine, was authorized for emergency use in December 2020
and has been administered to millions of people worldwide.
▪ Another RNA vaccine, the Moderna vaccine, was also authorized
for emergency use in December 2020.
Importance of RNA vaccine for Covid 19
• Main reasons why RNA vaccines are important in the fight against
COVID-19:
• High efficacy: RNA vaccines have been shown to be highly
effective at preventing COVID-19 infection. The Pfizer-BioNTech
and Moderna mRNA vaccines, for example, have reported
efficacy rates of around 95% in clinical trials.
• Rapid development: RNA vaccines can be rapidly developed and
manufactured, making them particularly useful in the context of a
pandemic. The Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine, for instance, was
developed in under a year, and went from the initial discovery of
the viral genome to emergency use authorization in less than 11
months.
• Easy to modify: RNA vaccines can be easily modified to target new
strains or variants of the virus. This means that if a new variant
emerges that is resistant to the existing vaccines, it is possible to
quickly modify the vaccine to provide protection against the new
strain.

• Safe: RNA vaccines are generally considered safe, as they do not

contain any live virus particles. They work by instructing cells to
produce a harmless piece of the virus (in this case, the spike protein),
which triggers an immune response that provides protection against
the virus.

• Potential for broader use: RNA vaccines have the potential to be

used in the prevention of other infectious diseases, such as influenza,
HIV, and Zika, as well as in the treatment of cancer.
 Molecular cloning
To clone means to make identical copies. DNA cloning involves
separating a specific gene or DNA segment from a larger
chromosome, attaching it to a small carrier DNA. The resultant
hybrid DNA is called recombinant DNA, which is transferred to a
proper host (bacteria, virus or yeast) and replicated to make
multiple copy of the selected gene.

When cloned under an appropriate expression vector, a gene can be

expressed (I.e. transcribed and translated), at desired level to
produce recombinant proteins.

This technology has made it possible to isolate, clone and produce

DNA for all the genes in an appropriate quantity to be sequenced
and characterised.
Five steps of cloning:
[Link] the DNA to be cloned from the chromosomal using
sequence specific Restriction Endonuclease.

[Link] a cloning vector (a small molecule capable of self-

replicating inside host cells), and cutting the cloning vector with the
same restriction endonuclease producing the cohessive ends.

[Link] the vector and subject DNA togather to aneal and then
joining them using DNA ligase. The resultant DNA is called
recombinant DNA.

[Link] the reconbinant DNA to an appropriate host such as

bacteria, virus or yeast which will provide necessory biomachinary
for DNA replication.

[Link] the host cells that contain the recombinant DNA.

Gene cloning overview
Applications of Gene Cloning

1. A particular gene can be isolated and its nucleotide sequence

determined

2. Control sequences of DNA can be identified & analysed

3. Protein/enzyme/RNA function can be investigated

4. Mutations can be identified, e.g. gene defects related to specific

diseases. Organisms can be ‘engineered’ for specific purposes,

e.g. insulin production, insect resistance, etc.

Proteins
proteins
• Proteins are large, complex molecules made up of chains of smaller
building blocks called amino acids.
• Amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds.
• There are 20 different types of amino acids, and the specific sequence of
amino acids in a protein determines its unique structure and function.
• The structure of a protein determines its function, and the sequence of
amino acids in a protein determines its structure.
• They play a vital role in the structure and function of cells, tissues, and
organs.
• Proteins are also involved in immune responses, hormone regulation,
and muscle contraction.

• 21st Amino Acid- Selenocysteine.

• 22nd Amino Acid- Pyrrolysin.
 STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS

• Made up of chains of amino acids; classified by the

number of amino acids in a chain
• Peptides: fewer than 50 amino acids
• Dipeptides: 2 amino acids
• Tripeptides: 3 amino acids
• Polypeptides: more than 10 amino acids
• Proteins: more than 50 amino acids
• Typically 100 to 10,000 amino acids linked together
• Chains are synthesised based on specific bodily DNA
• Amino acids are composed of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen
THE ANATOMY OF AN AMINO ACID

Figure 6.2b
 CONDENSATION AND
HYDROLYTIC REACTIONS

Figure 6.3
 ESSENTIAL, NONESSENTIAL, AND
CONDITIONAL

• Essential – must be consumed in the diet

• Nonessential – can be synthesised in the body
• Conditionally essential – cannot be synthesised
due to illness or lack of necessary precursors
• Premature infants lack sufficient enzymes needed to
create arginine
 STRUCTURE OF THE PROTEIN

• Four levels of structure

• Primary structure
• Secondary structure
• Tertiary structure
• Quaternary structure

Any alteration in the structure or

sequencing changes the shape and
function of the protein
Functions of proteins
• Proteins perform a wide range of functions in the body, including
1. Catalyzing chemical reactions
• Amylase: An enzyme that breaks down starch into simple
sugars like glucose and maltose. It is found in saliva and
pancreatic juice.
• Lipase: An enzyme that breaks down fats into fatty acids and
glycerol. It is found in the pancreas and small intestine.
• Catalase: An enzyme that converts hydrogen peroxide into
water and oxygen. It is found in most cells of the body.
• Trypsin: An enzyme that breaks down proteins into smaller
peptides. It is produced in the pancreas and released into the
small intestine.
• ATP synthase: An enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) from ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
and phosphate. It is found in the mitochondria of cells.
Functions of proteins
2. Transporting molecules
• Haemoglobin: Haemoglobin is a protein found in red blood cells
that transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues in the body.
• Albumin: Albumin is a protein found in blood plasma that helps
transport various substances such as hormones, fatty acids, and
drugs throughout the body.
• Transferrin: Transferrin is a protein that transports iron in the blood
from the site of absorption in the gut to the bone marrow, liver, and
other tissues that require it.
• Apolipoproteins: Apolipoproteins are a family of proteins that
transport lipids (fats) in the bloodstream. Examples include ApoA,
ApoB, and ApoE.
• Ferritin: Ferritin is a protein that stores iron in a non-toxic form in
the liver, spleen, and bone marrow.
• Glut transporters: Glut transporters are a family of proteins that
transport glucose and other sugars across cell membranes. Examples
include GLUT1 and GLUT4.
Functions of proteins
3. Providing mechanical support
• Collagen: Collagen is the main structural protein in the body and
provides support to tissues such as skin, tendons, cartilage, bone,
and teeth
• Elastin: Elastin is a protein that provides elasticity and stretchability
to tissues such as skin, lungs, arteries, and ligaments.
• Keratin: Keratin is a protein that forms the structural basis of hair,
nails, and the outer layer of skin.
• Actin and Myosin: Actin and myosin are proteins that are involved
in muscle contraction and provide the mechanical force required for
movement.
• Tubulin: Tubulin is a protein that forms the structural basis of
microtubules, which provide support to cells and are involved in
various cellular processes such as cell division and intracellular
transport.
• Laminin: Laminin is a protein that forms part of the extracellular
matrix and provides structural support to cells in tissues such as
skin, muscles, and organs.
Functions of proteins
4. Regulating cell behaviour
• Receptor proteins: Receptor proteins are proteins that are located on
the surface of cells and bind to specific signaling molecules such as
hormones, growth factors, and neurotransmitters. When these
molecules bind to the receptor, they trigger a cellular response, such
as a change in gene expression or the activation of an intracellular
signaling pathway.
• Enzymes: Enzymes are proteins that catalyze specific chemical
reactions in the body. Many enzymes are involved in regulating
cellular behaviour, such as kinases and phosphatases that regulate
protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation, respectively.
• Cytoskeleton proteins: Cytoskeleton proteins, such as actin and
tubulin, play a critical role in regulating cell shape, movement, and
division.
• Transcription factors: Transcription factors are proteins that bind to
DNA and regulate gene expression. They play a critical role in
regulating cellular differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis.
Functions of proteins
• Adhesion proteins: Adhesion proteins are proteins that are involved
in cell-to- cell and cell to-matrix adhesion. They play a critical role
in regulating cell behaviour such as cell migration, tissue
development, and wound healing.
• Ion channels: Ion channels are proteins that allow ions to move
across the cell membrane. They play a critical role in regulating
cellular excitability and communication.

Figure: Cell to cell adhesion and cell to matrix adhesion

Proteins as Food

• Proteins are essential nutrients that provide the body with amino acids,
which are the building blocks of the body's tissues.
• Proteins are found in many different foods, including meat, poultry,
fish, dairy products, beans, lentils, tofu, and eggs.
• Proteins are a vital component of a healthy diet, as they help to build
and repair tissues, support immune function, and regulate various
metabolic processes.
• The body also uses proteins as a source of energy when carbohydrates
and fats are not available.
• It is important to consume a variety of protein-rich foods and to
include both complete and incomplete protein sources in the diet. It is
also important to consume sufficient amounts of other nutrients, such
as carbohydrates, fats, and vitamins and minerals, to support overall
health and well-being.
Whey protein as food
• Whey protein is a type of protein derived from the liquid that separates
from milk during the cheese-making process.
• It is a complete protein, meaning it contains all of the essential amino
acids the body needs to build and repair tissues.
• Whey protein is widely used as a dietary supplement, particularly by
athletes, bodybuilders, and people looking to increase their protein
intake.
• Compared to other types of protein, whey protein is rapidly absorbed
by the body and is high in branched-chain amino acids, which are
essential for muscle growth and repair.
• It is also a good source of essential nutrients, including calcium,
potassium, and vitamins B2 and B12.
Use of whey protein as food
• Whey protein is a type of protein derived from cow's milk and is
commonly used as a food supplement. There are several uses of whey
protein as food, including:
• Sports nutrition: Whey protein is often used by athletes and fitness
enthusiasts to help build and repair muscle tissue, support recovery
after intense exercise, and increase overall muscle mass.
• Weight management: Whey protein can be used to help manage weight
by increasing satiety and reducing appetite. It can also help with
weight loss by preserving muscle mass while reducing body fat.
• Health promotion: Whey protein is rich in essential amino acids and
has been shown to have various health benefits, including improved
immune function, lower blood pressure, and reduced risk of
cardiovascular disease.
• Meal replacement: Whey protein can be used as a meal replacement,
either as a drink or in a variety of food products. It provides a quick
and convenient source of protein, making it a popular option for
people with busy schedules or limited access to fresh foods.
taking Precaution while consuming Whey protein
• However, it is important to note that not all whey protein
products are equal in terms of quality, purity, and nutrient
content.

• Some whey protein supplements may contain added sugars,

artificial sweeteners, or other ingredients that can be harmful to
health.

• It is therefore important to choose a reputable brand and to

carefully read the ingredient list before purchasing.

• It is also important to talk to a healthcare professional before

starting to use whey protein, especially when one have any
medical conditions or allergies.
Meat analogues of protein
• Meat analogues, also known as meat substitutes or meat alternatives,
are plant-based foods designed to mimic the taste, texture, and
appearance of meat

• They are made from a variety of ingredients, including soy protein,

wheat protein, pea protein, and other plant-based ingredients, and are
often fortified with vitamins and minerals to provide a similar
nutritional profile to meat.
Meat analogues of protein
• Meat analogues are a popular alternative to meat for many people,
including vegetarians, vegans, and those who are looking to reduce
their meat consumption for health or ethical reasons.
• They can be a good source of protein and can help to meet the body's
protein needs. There are many different types of meat analogues
available, including burgers, sausages, meatballs, deli slices, and more
• Some are designed to mimic specific types of meat, such as chicken,
beef, or pork, while others are marketed as a more generic "meat-like"
product.
• When choosing meat analogues, it is important to look for products
that are high in protein and low in added sugars, fats, and other
ingredients that can be harmful to health.
• It is also important to consider the texture and taste, as some meat
analogues can be more appealing than others.
Plant Based Proteins
• Plant-based proteins are proteins derived from plant sources, such as
legumes, grains, nuts, and seeds. They are becoming increasingly
popular as an alternative to animal-based proteins, especially for those
following a vegetarian or vegan diet.
• Here are some benefits of plant-based proteins:
• Sustainable: Plant-based protein sources are more environmentally
sustainable than animal-based sources, as they require fewer
resources to produce and generate fewer greenhouse gas emissions.
Benefits of Plant Based Proteins
• Nutrient-rich: Many plant-based protein sources are also rich in other
essential nutrients, such as fiber, vitamins, and minerals.
• Versatile: Plant-based proteins can be used in a variety of ways,
including as a protein supplement, in smoothies, or as an ingredient in
various recipes.
• Hypoallergenic: Plant-based proteins are often better tolerated than
animal-based proteins, making them a good option for people with
food allergies or sensitivities.
• Cost-effective: Plant-based protein sources are often more affordable
than animal-based sources, making them a more accessible option for
many people.
• Examples of plant-based proteins include soy protein, pea protein,
lentil protein, chickpea protein, and hemp protein.
• It is important to choose a high-quality product that is free of artificial
additives and preservatives, and to consult a healthcare professional
before starting to use any new protein supplement.
Uses of plant based proteins
• Plant-based proteins are commonly used in a variety of ways,
including:
• Dietary supplements: Plant-based proteins are often sold as
powders, bars, and other supplements, making them a convenient
way to add protein to a diet.
• Food products: Plant-based proteins are used as ingredients in a
variety of food products, including plant-based meat analogs,
protein bars, and smoothies.
• Health and wellness: Plant-based proteins are often marketed as a
healthier alternative to animal-based proteins, due to their lower
saturated fat and cholesterol content.
• Vegetarian and vegan diets: Plant-based proteins are a popular
source of protein for people following a vegetarian or vegan diet,
as they do not contain animal products.
• Fitness and sports nutrition: Plant-based proteins are also used by
athletes and fitness enthusiasts to support muscle recovery and
growth.
Uses of plant based proteins
• It is important to choose a high-quality plant-based protein product,
and to consult a healthcare professional before starting to use any new
protein supplement.
• It is also important to remember that plant-based proteins may not
contain all of the essential amino acids found in animal-based proteins,
so it may be necessary to consume a variety of plant-based protein
sources to ensure adequate protein intake.
Enzymes
• Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts in biological reactions
• They speed up the rate of chemical reactions without being consumed
in the process.
• Enzymes are specific to the type of reaction they catalyze, and they
bind to specific substrates to facilitate the reaction.
• Enzymes play a crucial role in various metabolic pathways, digestion,
and cellular respiration.

Figure: Schematic representation of working of enzyme as catalyst

Properties of Enzymes for Engineering Applications
• Specificity: Enzymes have a high level of specificity for the substrates
they bind and the reactions they catalyze, making them highly efficient
at performing specific tasks.
• Reactivity: Enzymes increase the rate of chemical reactions without
being consumed in the process, allowing them to perform multiple
cycles of the same reaction.
• Stability: Enzymes are generally stable at a wide range of temperatures
and pH values, making them useful in a variety of industrial processes.
• Renewability: Enzymes are biodegradable and can be produced from
renewable resources, making them an environmentally friendly
alternative to traditional chemical catalysts.
• Cost-effectiveness: Enzymes can be produced in large quantities
through fermentation, making them a cost-effective alternative to
synthetic catalysts in many applications.
Engineering Applications of Enzymes
• Bioremediation: Enzymes are used to break down pollutants in the
environment, such as oils, pesticides, and toxic waste.
• Biofuel production: Enzymes are used to convert plant material into
biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel.
• Food and beverage production: Enzymes are widely used in the food
and beverage industry for processes such as baking, brewing, cheese
making, and juice production.
• Textile production: Enzymes are used to remove stains, whiten fabrics,
and improve the softness of textiles.
• Detergents: Enzymes are used in laundry detergents to break down
protein, starch, and lipid stains.
• Pharmaceuticals: Enzymes are used in the production of various
pharmaceutical products, such as antibiotics and vaccines.
• Research and biotechnology: Enzymes are used as tools in genetic
engineering, protein engineering, and molecular biology.
Biosensors
• Biosensors are analytical devices that combine a biological recognition
element with a transducer to detect and quantify target analytes.
• The biological recognition element can be an enzyme, antibody,
nucleic acid, or other biological molecule that specifically interacts
with the target analyte.
• The transducer converts the biological response into an electrical
signal that can be quantified and interpreted.
• Biosensors have a wide range of applications in the fields of medicine,
environmental monitoring, and food safety. For example,
• used to monitor blood glucose levels in patients with diabetes.
• detect contaminants in water and food.
• monitor environmental pollutants.
• Biosensors have several advantages over traditional analytical
methods, including rapid response time, high sensitivity, specificity,
and portability.
• Additionally, they can be designed to be disposable and cost-effective,
making them a useful tool in various industries and applications.
MAIN COMPONENTS OF BIO-
SENSOR
Hemoglobinometer Electronic Smart
Sphygmomanometer watch
Enzymes Used in Biosensors
Enzymes detect and quantify a wide range of target analytes
• Glucose oxidase (GOx): Used in blood glucose monitoring for people with
diabetes. The enzyme oxidizes glucose to gluconic acid and hydrogen
peroxide, which is then detected by a transducer to quantify glucose levels in
the blood.
• Lactate oxidase (LOx): Used in the determination of lactate levels in
biological fluids, such as blood and urine. LOx oxidizes lactate to pyruvate,
which is then detected by a transducer.
• Cholinesterase (ChE): Used in the detection of organophosphorus pesticides
and nerve agents. ChE hydrolyzes acetylcholine, and the decrease in
acetylcholine levels is detected by a transducer to quantify the presence of the
toxic substances.
• Alkaline phosphatase (ALP): Used in the detection of inorganic phosphates,
such as those found in wastewater and fertilizers. ALP catalyzes the
hydrolysis of phosphates to produce a signal that can be quantified.
• Urease: Used in the detection of urea levels in biological fluids, such as urine.
Urease catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea to produce ammonium and carbon
dioxide, which can be quantified by a transducer.
Glucose-Oxidase in Biosensors
• Glucose oxidase (GOx) is an enzyme commonly used in biosensors for
the detection of glucose levels in biological fluids, such as blood and
urine. The enzyme catalyzes the oxidation of glucose to
gluconolactone and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which can be easily
detected and quantified by a transducer.

Figure: Schematic representation of GOx

• In glucose biosensors, GOx is typically immobilized on a substrate,
such as a polymeric film, to ensure stability and specificity. The
transducer in the biosensor can be an electrode, a fluorescence-based
system, or other type of sensor, depending on the desired level of
sensitivity and specificity.
Advantages of Biosensors
• Sensitivity: Biosensors are highly sensitive and can detect target
analytes at low concentrations, making them useful in
applications that require precise quantification.
• Specificity: Biosensors can be designed to specifically recognize
a target analyte, which minimizes interference from other
substances in the sample.
• Rapid response time: Biosensors can provide results in real-time,
making them useful in situations where quick results are
required.
• Portability: Biosensors can be designed to be small and portable,
making them useful in field applications and remote locations.
• Cost-effectiveness: Biosensors can be manufactured at a low
cost, making them an attractive alternative to more expensive
analytical methods in some applications.
Limitations of Biosensors
• Stability: Biosensors can be affected by environmental conditions,
such as temperature and pH, which can lead to degradation of the
biological recognition element and loss of sensitivity.
• Interferences: Biosensors can be affected by other substances in the
sample, which can interfere with the performance of the biosensor.
• Calibration: Biosensors may require frequent calibration to ensure
accuracy, which can increase the time and cost associated with using
the biosensor.
• Limited shelf-life: Biosensors have a limited shelf-life, and the
biological recognition element may degrade over time, leading to
decreased sensitivity and specificity.
• Complexity: Biosensors can be complex to manufacture and use,
requiring specialized equipment and expertise to operate effectively.

Note: Despite these limitations, biosensors have proven to be a valuable tool in various
industries and applications, and research is ongoing to improve their performance and
reduce limitations.
lipids
Definition of LIPIDS
• Lipids are
• organic substances.

• relatively insoluble in water.

• soluble in non-polar organic solvents (alcohol, ether

benzene, chloroform etc.)

• actually or potentially related to fatty acids and

• utilized by the living cells.

Classification of LIPIDS

Figure: Schematic representation of lipid molecule, bilayer formation, and micelle formation.

Micelles are tiny spherical structures that can surround and trap dirt particles,
making it easier to remove them.
 MELTING POINTS OF
FATS AND OILS

A fat
• is solid at room temperature.
• is prevalent in meats, whole milk, butter, and cheese.
An oil
• is liquid at room temperature.
• is prevalent in plants such as olive and safflower.

94
Role of Lipids
• Energy storage: Lipids are a major source of stored energy in the body,
and they can be broken down to release energy when it is needed.
• Insulation: Lipids help to insulate the body, helping to regulate
temperature and protect against heat loss.
• Cell membrane structure: Lipids are a major component of cell
membranes, helping to maintain their fluidity and stability.
• Hormone synthesis: Some lipids, such as cholesterol, are precursors to
hormones, and are necessary for their production.
• Transport: Lipids are soluble in fat, but not in water. This makes them
ideal for carrying fat soluble vitamins and other lipophilic compounds
through the bloodstream.
• There are several types of lipids, including saturated and unsaturated
fats, phospholipids, and steroids. It is important to have a balanced diet
that includes a moderate amount of healthy lipids, such as
monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, while limiting the intake of
saturated and trans fats. This can help to maintain overall health and
reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease and stroke.
Engineering Applications of Lipids
• Cosmetics: Lipids are commonly used in cosmetics, such as
moisturizers, to improve skin hydration and texture.
• Food industry: Lipids are used as ingredients in food products, such as
margarine and frying oils, to improve texture, flavor, and shelf life.
• Medical devices: Lipids are used in medical devices, such as lipid-
based drug delivery systems, to improve the delivery and efficacy of
drugs.
• Biofuels: Lipids, such as vegetable oils and animal fats, can be
converted into biofuels, such as biodiesel and bioethanol, to provide a
renewable source of energy.
• Surface modification: Lipids can be used to modify the surface
properties of materials, such as metals and polymers, to improve their
performance and biocompatibility.
• Surfactants: Lipids are used as surfactants, which are compounds that
reduce surface tension and improve the mixing of oil and water-based
substances.
Note: The properties and applications of lipids can vary depending on the
specific type of lipid and the processing method used.
Lipids as Biodiesel
• Lipids can be converted into biodiesel, which is a renewable source of
energy.

Biodiesel is typically produced by trans-esterifying vegetable

oils or animal fats with an alcohol, such as methanol, to form
methyl esters.

The resulting biodiesel can be used as a drop-in replacement

for traditional diesel fuel in internal combustion engines.

Transesterification is the process where free fatty acids reacts with

alcohol in the presence of a catalyst for biodiesel production.
Advantages
• Renewability: Lipids are a renewable resource, and
they can be produced from a variety of sources, such as
vegetable oils, animal fats, and microalgae.
• Reduced emissions: Biodiesel produces fewer
emissions compared to traditional diesel fuel, reducing
the impact on the environment and public health.
• Improved performance: Biodiesel can improve engine
performance, increasing fuel efficiency and reducing
engine wear and tear.
• Biodegradability: Biodiesel is biodegradable, which
reduces the risk of environmental contamination in the
event of a spill.
Limitation of lipid as biodiesel
• Higher production costs compared to traditional diesel fuel.

• Need for more efficient and cost-effective processing methods.

 Thank
You
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