FYUGP Students (Noor Hero)

Discrete Structures for Computer Applications

Module I - Mathematical Logic
Provider: Fyugp Students (Noor Hero)
Programme: BCA
Course Code: BCA1CJ103 / BCA1MN102
Subject: Discrete Structures for Computer Applications
Semester: I
Module: Module I - Mathematical Logic
Notes Created by: Noor Mohammed
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WhatsApp Channel: Fyugp Students (Noor Hero)
Syllabus Covered in This Module

Unit Syllabus Content Hours

1 Propositional logic: definition, logical operators and truth tables 2

2 Tautology, contradiction, contingency and logical equivalence 2
3 Algebra of propositions; solving with and without truth tables 2
4 Validity of arguments and logical implication 2
5 Universal and existential quantifiers 1

Relevant Course Outcomes

• CO1: Understand propositional logic and construct, interpret and use truth tables correctly.
• CO6: Represent logical problems through systematic and algorithmic reasoning.

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Module Learning Roadmap

• Distinguish propositions from commands, questions and open sentences.
• Translate ordinary statements into symbolic form using standard logical operators.
• Construct truth tables with the correct number and order of rows.
• Recognise tautologies, contradictions, contingencies and logically equivalent expressions.
• Simplify compound propositions by logical laws and verify results by truth tables when needed.
• Test validity of arguments using truth tables and standard rules of inference.
• Work with predicates, domains and universal or existential quantifiers.

How to Study This Module

• Assign a short symbol such as 𝑝, 𝑞 or 𝑟 to each simple proposition before forming a compound expression.
• Write parentheses clearly; the meaning of a logical expression depends on grouping.
• In a truth table with 𝑛 variables, prepare exactly 2𝑛 rows.
• When proving equivalence without a truth table, name the law used at every important step.
• For arguments, separate premises from the conclusion and test only the rows in which all premises are true.

Unit 1 - Propositional Logic

1.1 Proposition and Truth Value
• A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both at the same time.
• The value true is represented by T or 1; false is represented by F or 0.
• A proposition must have a definite truth value in the stated context.
• Questions, commands, exclamations and open sentences containing an unspecified variable are not proposi-
tions.

Sentence Status Reason

7 is a prime number. Proposition It has the truth value T.

9 < 4. Proposition It has the truth value F.
Close the window. Not a proposition It is a command.
What is your name? Not a proposition It is a question.
𝑥 + 2 = 7. Open sentence Its truth depends on the
value of 𝑥.

Question
Decide whether each sentence is a proposition. If it is, state its truth value.

1. Kerala is a state of India.

2. Please submit the assignment.
3. 25 = 32.
4. 𝑛 is an even number.

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Answer

1. It is a proposition and is true.

2. It is not a proposition because it is a command.
3. It is a proposition and is true because 25 = 32.
4. It is an open sentence because the value of 𝑛 is unspecified.

1.2 Simple and Compound Propositions

• A simple proposition expresses one complete idea and contains no logical connective.
• A compound proposition is formed by joining or modifying one or more propositions using logical operators.
• If 𝑝 denotes “The server is active” and 𝑞 denotes “The network is available”, then 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 means both conditions
hold.

1.3 Logical Operators

Name Symbol Read as Truth condition

Negation ¬𝑝 not 𝑝 Reverses the truth value of 𝑝.

Conjunction 𝑝∧𝑞 𝑝 and 𝑞 True only when both are true.
Disjunction 𝑝∨𝑞 𝑝 or 𝑞 False only when both are false.
Implication 𝑝→𝑞 if 𝑝, then 𝑞 False only when 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is false.
Biconditional 𝑝↔𝑞 𝑝 iff 𝑞 True when both have the same truth value.

1.3.1 Negation
• The negation ¬𝑝 states that proposition 𝑝 is not true.
• Negation is a unary operator because it acts on one proposition.

𝑝 ¬𝑝

T F
F T

Question
Let 𝑝 be “The file is encrypted.” Write the negation in words.
Answer
The negation is “The file is not encrypted.”

1.3.2 Conjunction and Disjunction

• 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 requires both component propositions to be true.
• The inclusive disjunction 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 allows one or both propositions to be true.
• In ordinary English, “or” may sometimes be exclusive, but in basic propositional logic it is normally inclusive
unless stated otherwise.

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𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∧𝑞 𝑝∨𝑞

T T T T
T F F T
F T F T
F F F F

Question
Let 𝑝: “A student has valid login credentials” and 𝑞: “The student has network access.” Express the following
symbolically.

1. The student has valid credentials and network access.

2. The student does not have valid credentials or has network access.

Answer

1. 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞.
2. ¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑞.

1.3.3 Implication
• In 𝑝 → 𝑞, 𝑝 is the antecedent or hypothesis and 𝑞 is the consequent or conclusion.
• The implication is false only when the hypothesis is true but the promised conclusion is false.
• When 𝑝 is false, the implication is considered true in classical logic because it has not been violated by a true
counterexample.

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝→𝑞

T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

1.3.4 Converse, Inverse and Contrapositive

For the implication 𝑝 → 𝑞:

• Converse: 𝑞 → 𝑝.
• Inverse: ¬𝑝 → ¬𝑞.
• Contrapositive: ¬𝑞 → ¬𝑝.
• An implication is logically equivalent to its contrapositive, not generally to its converse or inverse.

Question
For the statement “If a number is divisible by 4, then it is even”, write the converse, inverse and contrapositive.
Answer
Let 𝑝: “The number is divisible by 4” and 𝑞: “The number is even.”

• Converse 𝑞 → 𝑝: If a number is even, then it is divisible by 4.

• Inverse ¬𝑝 → ¬𝑞: If a number is not divisible by 4, then it is not even.

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• Contrapositive ¬𝑞 → ¬𝑝: If a number is not even, then it is not divisible by 4.

The converse and inverse are false, while the original implication and contrapositive are true.

1.3.5 Biconditional
• 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 means both 𝑝 → 𝑞 and 𝑞 → 𝑝 hold.
• It is true when 𝑝 and 𝑞 have equal truth values.

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝↔𝑞

T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

1.4 Operator Precedence and Truth-Table Construction

• Unless parentheses change the order, a common precedence is ¬, then ∧, then ∨, then →, then ↔.
• For 𝑛 variables, the truth table contains 2𝑛 rows.
• Write intermediate columns for inner expressions before evaluating the final column.

Question
Construct the truth table for (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) → ¬𝑝.
Answer

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∨𝑞 ¬𝑝 (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) → ¬𝑝

T T T F F
T F T F F
F T T T T
F F F T T
Final answer: The compound proposition is true exactly when 𝑝 is false.

1.4 Precedence and Parentheses in Logical Expressions

• When parentheses are absent, the usual precedence is ¬, then ∧, then ∨, then →, and finally ↔.
• Parentheses should nevertheless be written whenever an expression may be misunderstood.
• The expressions 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) and (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ 𝑟 are not generally equivalent because the grouping is different.
• A compound proposition should be evaluated from the innermost parentheses outward.

Question
Translate the statement “The file is encrypted and it is not corrupted” into symbolic form.
Answer
Let 𝑝 mean “The file is encrypted” and 𝑞 mean “The file is corrupted.” The word “and” gives conjunction, while
“not corrupted” gives ¬𝑞. Hence the symbolic form is

𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞.

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Question
Let 𝑝: “The user enters the correct password” and 𝑞: “Access is granted.” Write the symbolic form of “Access is
granted only if the user enters the correct password.”
Answer
The phrase “𝑞 only if 𝑝” means that 𝑝 is necessary for 𝑞. Therefore

𝑞 → 𝑝.

A common error is to reverse the implication and write 𝑝 → 𝑞.

Question
Construct the truth table of ¬(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) and interpret its false case.
Answer

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∧𝑞 ¬(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)

T T T F
T F F T
F T F T
F F F T
The expression is false only when both 𝑝 and 𝑞 are true. This is consistent with De Morgan’s law, ¬(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ≡
¬𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞.

1.5 Building a Truth Table Systematically

1. Count the distinct variables. With 𝑛 variables, prepare 2𝑛 rows.
2. Fill the first variable with equal blocks of true and false values.
3. Halve the block size for each following variable.
4. Create a separate column for every intermediate subexpression.
5. Evaluate the main connective last.

Question
Find the truth value of (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ ¬𝑟 when 𝑝 = T, 𝑞 = F and 𝑟 = F.
Answer
First, 𝑝 → 𝑞 is false because its antecedent is true and consequent is false. Next, ¬𝑟 is true. Therefore

(𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ ¬𝑟 = F ∧ T = F.

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1.6 Translating Common English Patterns

English form Symbolic form Important reading

𝑝 is sufficient for 𝑞 𝑝→𝑞 Whenever 𝑝 holds, 𝑞 must hold.

𝑝 is necessary for 𝑞 𝑞→𝑝 𝑞 cannot hold without 𝑝.
𝑝 only if 𝑞 𝑝→𝑞 “Only if” introduces the conse-
quent.
𝑝 if 𝑞 𝑞→𝑝 The condition after “if” is an-
tecedent.
𝑝 unless 𝑞 ¬𝑞 → 𝑝 Equivalent to 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞.
𝑝 iff 𝑞 𝑝↔𝑞 Both implications are required.

Question
Translate “A user can download the file only if the user is authenticated.”
Answer
Let 𝑑 mean “The user can download the file” and 𝑎 mean “The user is authenticated.” Authentication is necessary
for downloading, so
𝑑 → 𝑎.

It does not claim that every authenticated user must download the file.

Question
Translate “The backup runs unless the battery is low.”
Answer
Let 𝑏 mean “The backup runs” and 𝑙 mean “The battery is low.” The statement means that if the battery is not low,
the backup runs:
¬𝑙 → 𝑏.

Using implication equivalence, this is also 𝑙 ∨ 𝑏.

1.7 Converse, Inverse and Contrapositive

For an implication 𝑝 → 𝑞:
Converse: 𝑞 → 𝑝,
Inverse: ¬𝑝 → ¬𝑞,
Contrapositive: ¬𝑞 → ¬𝑝.

The original implication is logically equivalent to its contrapositive, while the converse is equivalent to the inverse.

Question
For “If a number is divisible by 6, then it is even,” write the converse, inverse and contrapositive and state which
are true.
Answer
Let 𝑝: divisible by 6, 𝑞: even.

• Converse 𝑞 → 𝑝: If a number is even, then it is divisible by 6 - false; 8 is a counterexample.

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• Inverse ¬𝑝 → ¬𝑞: If a number is not divisible by 6, then it is not even - false; 8 is a counterexample.
• Contrapositive ¬𝑞 → ¬𝑝: If a number is not even, then it is not divisible by 6 - true.

1.8 Three-Variable Truth Tables

With three independent propositions, there are 23 = 8 assignments. A stable row order prevents missing or
duplicated cases.

Question
Construct the main columns needed to evaluate (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → 𝑟.
Answer

𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 𝑝∧𝑞 (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → 𝑟

T T T T T
T T F T F
T F T F T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F T F F T
F F T F T
F F F F T
The expression is false only when both conditions 𝑝 and 𝑞 are true but result 𝑟 is false.

1.9 Common Errors in Basic Logic

• Treating inclusive “or” as exclusive “either-or.” In propositional logic, 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 is true when both are true.
• Reversing “only if” statements.
• Assuming a false antecedent makes an implication false; it actually makes the implication true.
• Omitting parentheses and changing the main connective.
• Mixing the truth of a proposition with whether the sentence is grammatically acceptable.

Unit Questions
1. Define proposition and truth value with two examples.
2. Distinguish a proposition from an open sentence.
3. Construct truth tables for 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞, 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, 𝑝 → 𝑞 and 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞.
4. Explain why an implication is false only in the case 𝑝 = T, 𝑞 = F.
5. Write the converse, inverse and contrapositive of a suitable implication.
6. Construct the truth table for ¬(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟.

Unit 2 - Laws of Logic

2.1 Tautology, Contradiction and Contingency
• A tautology is true for every assignment of truth values.

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• A contradiction is false for every assignment.

• A contingency is true for some assignments and false for others.

Question
Classify 𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑝.
Answer

𝑝 ¬𝑝 𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑝

T F T
F T T
The final column is always true; therefore 𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑝 is a tautology.

Question
Classify 𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑝.
Answer

𝑝 ¬𝑝 𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑝

T F F
F T F
The final column is always false; therefore it is a contradiction.

2.2 Logical Equivalence

• Propositions 𝑃 and 𝑄 are logically equivalent if they have identical truth values for every assignment.
• The notation is 𝑃 ≡ 𝑄.
• Equivalence may be shown by identical truth-table columns or by applying laws of logic.

Question
Verify 𝑝 → 𝑞 ≡ ¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑞.
Answer

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝→𝑞 ¬𝑝 ¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑞

T T T F T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T
The columns for 𝑝 → 𝑞 and ¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 are identical, so they are logically equivalent.

2.3 Important Logical Laws

Law Conjunction form Disjunction form

Identity 𝑝∧T≡𝑝 𝑝∨F≡𝑝

Domination 𝑝∧F≡F 𝑝∨T≡T

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Idempotent 𝑝∧𝑝 ≡𝑝 𝑝∨𝑝 ≡𝑝

Complement 𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑝 ≡ F 𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑝 ≡ T
Commutative 𝑝∧𝑞 ≡𝑞∧𝑝 𝑝∨𝑞 ≡𝑞∨𝑝
Associative (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ 𝑟 ≡ 𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟 ≡ 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟)
Distributive 𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑟) 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) ≡ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑟)
Absorption 𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ≡ 𝑝 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ≡ 𝑝
De Morgan ¬(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ≡ ¬𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞 ¬(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ≡ ¬𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞

2.4 Logical Equivalence as a Testable Relationship

• Two propositions 𝑃 and 𝑄 are logically equivalent when 𝑃 ↔ 𝑄 is a tautology.
• Equivalence is stronger than having the same truth value in one example; the final columns must agree for
every assignment.
• Equivalence permits one expression to replace another inside a larger expression without changing the result.

Question
Show by a truth table that ¬(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ≡ ¬𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞.
Answer

𝑝 𝑞 ¬𝑝 ¬𝑞 ¬(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ¬𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞

T T F F F F
T F F T F F
F T T F F F
F F T T T T
The final two columns are identical in all rows. Hence the propositions are logically equivalent.

Question
Classify (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∨ (𝑞 → 𝑝).
Answer
An implication is false only in the true-to-false case. For both implications to be false simultaneously, we would
need 𝑝 = T, 𝑞 = F and 𝑞 = T, 𝑝 = F at the same time, which is impossible. Therefore at least one implication is
always true, so the expression is a tautology.

Question
Classify (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ ¬𝑞 without constructing a complete truth table.
Answer
The expression requires 𝑞 and ¬𝑞 to be true simultaneously. This cannot happen. By association,

(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ ¬𝑞 ≡ 𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∧ ¬𝑞) ≡ 𝑝 ∧ F ≡ F.

Therefore it is a contradiction.

2.5 Why Classification Matters in Computing

• A tautological condition is always satisfied and may indicate a redundant program test.

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• A contradictory condition can never be satisfied and may make a branch unreachable.
• A contingency depends on input values and is the normal form of a useful decision condition.
• Logical equivalence supports safe simplification of Boolean conditions in programs and digital circuits.

2.6 Complete Classification through the Final Column

Question
Classify (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ ¬(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞).
Answer

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∨𝑞 𝑝∧𝑞 (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ ¬(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)

T T T T F
T F T F T
F T T F T
F F F F F
The final column has both true and false values, so it is a contingency. It represents exclusive OR: exactly one of
𝑝 and 𝑞 is true.

Question
Classify [(𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ 𝑝] → 𝑞.
Answer
The antecedent states that 𝑝 → 𝑞 and 𝑝 are both true. By Modus Ponens this forces 𝑞 to be true. Therefore the
implication can never have a true antecedent and false consequent, so it is a tautology.

2.7 Equivalence by a Biconditional

To verify 𝑃 ≡ 𝑄, form 𝑃 ↔ 𝑄. If this biconditional is a tautology, the equivalence is proved.

Question
Show that 𝑝 → 𝑞 is not equivalent to 𝑞 → 𝑝.
Answer
Take 𝑝 = F, 𝑞 = T. Then 𝑝 → 𝑞 = T, while 𝑞 → 𝑝 = F. A single differing assignment disproves equivalence.

Question
Prove that 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 ≡ (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝).
Answer
The biconditional requires 𝑝 and 𝑞 to have the same truth value. If both are true, both implications are true. If
both are false, both implications are also true. If their values differ, one direction is false. Thus the two sides have
identical truth conditions.

2.8 Tautologies as Valid Rule Templates

• [(𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ 𝑝] → 𝑞 represents Modus Ponens.
• [(𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ ¬𝑞] → ¬𝑝 represents Modus Tollens.
• [𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 → 𝑞)] → 𝑞 can be used as a reliable reasoning template in proof and program verification.
• A tautological specification expresses a condition that holds for every input assignment.

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Question
Explain why 𝑝 → (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) is a tautology without a full truth table.
Answer
When 𝑝 is false, the implication is true because its antecedent is false. When 𝑝 is true, the disjunction 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 is true.
Therefore the implication is true in every case.

Unit Questions
1. Define tautology, contradiction and contingency.
2. Use a truth table to verify a De Morgan law.
3. Prove 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 ≡ (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝).
4. Determine whether (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → 𝑝 is a tautology.
5. Explain logical equivalence and its significance in simplification.

Unit 3 - Algebra of Propositions

3.1 Simplification by Laws
• Algebra of propositions treats logical expressions using equivalence laws in a manner similar to algebraic
simplification.
• Each transformation must preserve logical equivalence.
• A law-based proof is often shorter than a full truth table when many variables are present.

Question
Simplify ¬(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑝.
Answer

¬(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑝 ≡ (¬𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞) ∨ 𝑝 De Morgan law

≡ 𝑝 ∨ (¬𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞) Commutative law
≡ (𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑝) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞) Distributive law
≡ T ∧ (𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞) Complement law
≡ 𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞 Identity law.

Final answer: 𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞.

Question
Show without a truth table that (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 → 𝑟) ≡ 𝑝 → (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟).
Answer

(𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 → 𝑟) ≡ (¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑟)
≡ ¬𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) Distributive law
≡ 𝑝 → (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟).

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3.2 Normal Forms - Introductory View

• A conjunction of literals is a term such as 𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞 ∧ 𝑟.
• A disjunction of literals is a clause such as 𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞 ∨ 𝑟.
• Disjunctive normal form expresses a proposition as an OR of AND terms.
• Conjunctive normal form expresses a proposition as an AND of OR clauses.
• At this level, the purpose is to recognise and form simple normal expressions, not to study advanced Boolean
minimisation.

Question
Write 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 using only ¬, ∧ and ∨.
Answer

𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 ≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (¬𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞).

The proposition is true exactly when both have the same truth value.

3.4 A Structured Method for Algebraic Simplification

1. Remove implications and biconditionals first.
2. Push negations inward using De Morgan’s laws and double negation.
3. Apply identity, domination and complement laws.
4. Use absorption to remove redundant terms.
5. Use distributive laws only when they make the expression shorter or expose a complement.

Question
Simplify ¬(𝑝 → 𝑞) ∨ 𝑞.
Answer
Step 1. Remove the implication.
¬(𝑝 → 𝑞) ∨ 𝑞 ≡ ¬(¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑞.

Step 2. Apply De Morgan’s law and double negation.

(𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞) ∨ 𝑞.

Step 3. Distribute 𝑞 over the conjunction.

(𝑞 ∨ 𝑝) ∧ (𝑞 ∨ ¬𝑞).

Step 4. Use the complement and identity laws.

(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ T ≡ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞.

Final answer: 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞.

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FYUGP STUDENTS Discrete Structures for Computer Applications Module I

Question
Simplify (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞).
Answer
Use the distributive form (𝑥 ∨ 𝑦) ∧ (𝑥 ∨ 𝑧) ≡ 𝑥 ∨ (𝑦 ∧ 𝑧):

(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞) ≡ 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ ¬𝑞) ≡ 𝑝 ∨ F ≡ 𝑝.

Final answer: 𝑝.

Question
Prove without a truth table that 𝑝 → (𝑞 → 𝑟) ≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → 𝑟.
Answer

𝑝 → (𝑞 → 𝑟) ≡ ¬𝑝 ∨ (¬𝑞 ∨ 𝑟)
≡ (¬𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞) ∨ 𝑟
≡ ¬(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟
≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → 𝑟.
Each step uses implication, associativity and De Morgan’s law, so the expressions are equivalent.

3.5 Checking an Algebraic Answer

• Substitute a few carefully chosen truth assignments to detect obvious errors.
• If the expression is short, compare final truth-table columns.
• Verify that no law has been applied in the wrong direction; for example, 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) is not equal to (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ 𝑟.
• Keep each equality on a new line and state the law whenever the transformation is not immediate.

3.6 Additional Laws and the Principle of Duality

• Replacing ∧ with ∨, ∨ with ∧, T with F, and F with T gives the dual of many propositional identities.
• The dual of 𝑝 ∧ T ≡ 𝑝 is 𝑝 ∨ F ≡ 𝑝.
• Duality helps organise laws but does not replace a proof.

Question
Simplify [𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 → 𝑞)] ∨ (𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞).
Answer
Remove the implication:
[𝑝 ∧ (¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)] ∨ (𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞).

Distribute the first conjunction:

[(𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑝) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)] ∨ (𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞) ≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞).

Factor 𝑝:
𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ ¬𝑞) = 𝑝 ∧ T = 𝑝.

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FYUGP STUDENTS Discrete Structures for Computer Applications Module I

Question
Simplify (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 → ¬𝑞).
Answer

(¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (¬𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞) ≡ ¬𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ ¬𝑞) ≡ ¬𝑝.

The two implications can both hold only when 𝑝 is false.

Question
Simplify ¬[𝑝 ∨ (¬𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)].
Answer
First apply absorption inside:

𝑝 ∨ (¬𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ≡ (𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑝) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ≡ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞.

Therefore
¬[𝑝 ∨ (¬𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)] ≡ ¬(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ≡ ¬𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞.

3.7 Choosing Between Truth Tables and Algebra

Situation Truth table preferred Algebra preferred

Few variables Direct and complete verification Also possible

Many nested connectives Table may become long Laws often shorter
Need classification Final column gives answer Simplify to T, F or variable form
Need formal derivation Less explanatory Each law can be named
Need error checking Reliable exhaustive test Requires careful law use

3.8 Logic Simplification in Program Conditions

Suppose a program condition is

(loggedIn ∧ admin) ∨ (loggedIn ∧ ¬admin).

Factoring loggedIn gives

loggedIn ∧ (admin ∨ ¬admin) ≡ loggedIn.

The simplified test is easier to read and avoids redundant checking.

Unit Questions
1. Simplify 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞).
2. Prove ¬(𝑝 → 𝑞) ≡ 𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞.
3. Simplify (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞).
4. Express 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 without using ↔.
5. Verify one simplification both by laws and by a truth table.

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FYUGP STUDENTS Discrete Structures for Computer Applications Module I

Unit 4 - Validity of Arguments and Logical Implication

4.1 Arguments, Premises and Conclusion
• An argument consists of premises followed by a conclusion.
• An argument is valid when it is impossible for all premises to be true while the conclusion is false.
• Validity depends on logical form, not on whether the individual statements happen to be true in the real world.

4.2 Common Rules of Inference

Rule Symbolic form Reading

Modus Ponens 𝑝, 𝑝 → 𝑞 ∴𝑞 Affirm the antecedent.

Modus Tollens ¬𝑞, 𝑝 → 𝑞 ∴¬𝑝 Deny the consequent.
Hypothetical Syllogism 𝑝 → 𝑞, 𝑞 → 𝑟 ∴𝑝 → 𝑟 Chain implications.
Disjunctive Syllogism 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, ¬𝑝 ∴𝑞 Eliminate a false alternative.
Simplification 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∴𝑝 Take either component.
Conjunction 𝑝, 𝑞 ∴𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 Combine known statements.
Resolution 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, ¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑟 ∴𝑞 ∨ 𝑟 Eliminate complementary literals.

Question
Test the argument: “If the database is connected, the application loads. The database is connected. Therefore, the
application loads.”
Answer
Let 𝑝: the database is connected; 𝑞: the application loads.

𝑝 → 𝑞, 𝑝 ∴𝑞

This is Modus Ponens, so the argument is valid.

Question
Determine the validity of 𝑝 → 𝑞, 𝑞 → 𝑟, ¬𝑟; therefore ¬𝑝.
Answer

• From 𝑞 → 𝑟 and ¬𝑟, Modus Tollens gives ¬𝑞.

• From 𝑝 → 𝑞 and ¬𝑞, Modus Tollens gives ¬𝑝.

Therefore the argument is valid.

4.3 Validity by Truth Table

• Form the conjunction of premises and compare it with the conclusion.
• The argument is valid if (𝑃1 ∧ 𝑃2 ∧ ⋯ ∧ 𝑃𝑛 ) → 𝐶 is a tautology.
• Equivalently, inspect only rows where all premises are true; the conclusion must also be true in each such row.

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FYUGP STUDENTS Discrete Structures for Computer Applications Module I

Question
Test whether 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, 𝑝 → 𝑟, 𝑞 → 𝑟 imply 𝑟.
Answer
If 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 is true, at least one of 𝑝 and 𝑞 is true. If 𝑝 is true, 𝑝 → 𝑟 forces 𝑟 to be true. If 𝑞 is true, 𝑞 → 𝑟 forces 𝑟 to
be true. Therefore no row has all premises true and 𝑟 false; the argument is valid.

4.4 Logical Implication

• 𝑃 logically implies 𝑄, written 𝑃 ⇒ 𝑄, when 𝑃 → 𝑄 is a tautology.
• Logical implication relates entire propositions or sets of premises.
• Logical equivalence requires implication in both directions.

4.4 Validity by the Truth-Table Method

• Form the conjunction of all premises and compare it with the conclusion.
• An argument is valid when (𝑃1 ∧ 𝑃2 ∧ ⋯ ∧ 𝑃𝑛 ) → 𝐶 is a tautology.
• Equivalently, inspect only the rows in which every premise is true; the conclusion must be true in all such
rows.

Question
Test the argument: 𝑝 → 𝑞, 𝑝; therefore 𝑞.
Answer
This is Modus Ponens. The premises can both be true only when 𝑝 = T and 𝑝 → 𝑞 = T. Since an implication
with true antecedent is true only when its consequent is true, 𝑞 = T. Hence no counterexample exists and the
argument is valid.

Question
Test the argument: 𝑝 → 𝑞, 𝑞; therefore 𝑝.
Answer
This has the form affirming the consequent. Choose 𝑝 = F and 𝑞 = T. Then 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true and 𝑞 is true, but the
conclusion 𝑝 is false. This row is a counterexample. Therefore the argument is invalid.

Question
Show that the following argument is valid: “If the network fails, the service stops. If the service stops, an alert is
generated. The network fails. Therefore an alert is generated.”
Answer
Let 𝑝 mean network fails, 𝑞 mean service stops and 𝑟 mean alert is generated. The premises are 𝑝 → 𝑞, 𝑞 → 𝑟
and 𝑝.

1. From 𝑝 → 𝑞 and 𝑝, Modus Ponens gives 𝑞.

2. From 𝑞 → 𝑟 and 𝑞, Modus Ponens gives 𝑟.

Therefore the argument is valid.

4.5 Common Invalid Patterns

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Pattern Symbolic form Reason invalid

Affirming the consequent 𝑝 → 𝑞, 𝑞 ∴𝑝 𝑞 may have another cause.

Denying the antecedent 𝑝 → 𝑞, ¬𝑝 ∴¬𝑞 𝑞 may still be true.
Reversing implication From 𝑝 → 𝑞 infer 𝑞 → 𝑝 Converse is not automatically
equivalent.

Question
Determine whether 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, 𝑝 → 𝑟, 𝑞 → 𝑟; therefore 𝑟 is valid.
Answer
If 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 is true, at least one of 𝑝 or 𝑞 is true. If 𝑝 is true, 𝑝 → 𝑟 gives 𝑟. If 𝑞 is true, 𝑞 → 𝑟 gives 𝑟. Thus every
case allowed by the premises leads to 𝑟, so the argument is valid by constructive dilemma.

4.6 Formal Argument Form

An argument can be written as
𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛 ∴𝐶.

The premises are assumptions; the conclusion is the statement claimed to follow. Validity concerns logical form,
not whether the premises are factually true in the real world.

Question
Determine validity: “All databases store data. MySQL is a database. Therefore MySQL stores data.”
Answer
Let 𝐷(𝑥) mean 𝑥 is a database and 𝑆(𝑥) mean 𝑥 stores data. The premises are ∀𝑥[𝐷(𝑥) → 𝑆(𝑥)] and 𝐷(MySQL).
Universal instantiation gives 𝐷(MySQL) → 𝑆(MySQL), and Modus Ponens gives 𝑆(MySQL). The argument
is valid.

Question
Test: 𝑝 → (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟), ¬𝑟; therefore ¬𝑝.
Answer
From 𝑝 → (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟), a true 𝑝 would imply 𝑟. Since ¬𝑟 is a premise, Modus Tollens yields ¬𝑝. More formally,
𝑝 → (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) implies 𝑝 → 𝑟, then 𝑝 → 𝑟 and ¬𝑟 give ¬𝑝. The argument is valid.

Question
Test: 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, ¬𝑝; therefore 𝑞.
Answer
This is Disjunctive Syllogism. Since at least one of 𝑝, 𝑞 is true and 𝑝 is false, 𝑞 must be true. The argument is
valid.

4.7 Validity by Searching for a Counterexample

To disprove an argument, it is enough to find one assignment for which all premises are true and the conclusion
is false. This often avoids a full truth table.

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FYUGP STUDENTS Discrete Structures for Computer Applications Module I

Question
Show that 𝑝 → 𝑞, ¬𝑝; therefore ¬𝑞 is invalid.
Answer
Choose 𝑝 = F and 𝑞 = T. Then 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true and ¬𝑝 is true, but ¬𝑞 is false. Therefore the argument is invalid;
this is denying the antecedent.

4.8 Multi-Step Inference

Question
From 𝑝 → 𝑞, 𝑞 → 𝑟, 𝑟 → 𝑠 and 𝑝, derive 𝑠.
Answer

1. 𝑝 → 𝑞 and 𝑝 give 𝑞 by Modus Ponens.

2. 𝑞 → 𝑟 and 𝑞 give 𝑟.
3. 𝑟 → 𝑠 and 𝑟 give 𝑠.

The conclusion follows through a chain of valid inferences.

Unit Questions
1. Define a valid argument.
2. Explain Modus Ponens and Modus Tollens with examples.
3. Test the validity of 𝑝 → 𝑞, 𝑞 → 𝑟, 𝑝; therefore 𝑟.
4. Distinguish validity from truth of premises.
5. Explain logical implication and its relation to tautology.

Unit 5 - Quantifiers
5.1 Predicates and Domains
• A predicate is an open statement containing one or more variables, such as 𝑃 (𝑥) ∶ 𝑥 > 5.
• A domain specifies the set of values from which the variable may be chosen.
• After assigning a value or applying a quantifier, the predicate becomes a proposition.

5.2 Universal Quantifier

• ∀𝑥 𝑃 (𝑥) means “for every 𝑥 in the domain, 𝑃 (𝑥) is true.”
• A universal statement is false if a single counterexample exists.

5.3 Existential Quantifier

• ∃𝑥 𝑃 (𝑥) means “there exists at least one 𝑥 in the domain for which 𝑃 (𝑥) is true.”
• An existential statement is proved by exhibiting one valid example.

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Question
Let the domain be the integers. State the truth value of:

1. ∀𝑥 (𝑥2 ≥ 0).
2. ∃𝑥 (𝑥2 = 2).

Answer

1. True, because the square of every integer is non-negative.

2. False over the integers, because no integer has square 2.

5.4 Negation of Quantified Statements

¬∀𝑥 𝑃 (𝑥) ≡ ∃𝑥 ¬𝑃 (𝑥)

¬∃𝑥 𝑃 (𝑥) ≡ ∀𝑥 ¬𝑃 (𝑥)

• “Not every” becomes “there exists at least one that does not.”
• “There does not exist” becomes “every element fails the property.”

Question
Negate: “Every student submitted the assignment.”
Answer
Let 𝑃 (𝑥) mean “student 𝑥 submitted the assignment.” The statement is ∀𝑥 𝑃 (𝑥). Its negation is ∃𝑥 ¬𝑃 (𝑥): “At
least one student did not submit the assignment.”

Question
Translate into symbols: “There exists a natural number that is both even and prime.”
Answer
If 𝐸(𝑥) means “𝑥 is even” and 𝑃 (𝑥) means “𝑥 is prime”, then

∃𝑥 ∈ ℕ [𝐸(𝑥) ∧ 𝑃 (𝑥)].

The statement is true because 𝑥 = 2 satisfies it.

5.4 Predicates, Domains and Bound Variables

• A predicate such as 𝑃 (𝑥) contains a variable and becomes a proposition only after a value is substituted or a
quantifier binds the variable.
• The domain must be stated because the truth of a quantified statement may change with the domain.
• In ∀𝑥 𝑃 (𝑥), the variable 𝑥 is bound by the quantifier.
• A variable occurrence not controlled by a quantifier is free.

Question
Determine the truth of ∀𝑥 (𝑥 + 1 > 𝑥) over the integers.
Answer
For every integer 𝑥, adding 1 produces the next larger integer. Hence 𝑥 + 1 > 𝑥 is true for all integers, so the
universal statement is true.

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FYUGP STUDENTS Discrete Structures for Computer Applications Module I

Question
Determine the truth of ∃𝑥 ∈ ℤ (𝑥2 = 3).
Answer
No integer has square 3. Therefore no witness exists in the integer domain, and the existential statement is false.
√
Over the real numbers the statement would be true because 𝑥 = 3 is a witness.

5.5 Negation of Statements with More Than One Quantifier

• Negate from the outside inward.
• Replace every ∀ by ∃ and every ∃ by ∀.
• Negate the final predicate.

Question
Negate ∀𝑥 ∃𝑦 𝑃 (𝑥, 𝑦).
Answer

¬∀𝑥 ∃𝑦 𝑃 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≡ ∃𝑥 ¬∃𝑦 𝑃 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≡ ∃𝑥 ∀𝑦 ¬𝑃 (𝑥, 𝑦).

In words: “There exists at least one 𝑥 for which no 𝑦 satisfies 𝑃 (𝑥, 𝑦).”

Question
Translate “Every student has submitted at least one assignment” into symbols and negate it.
Answer
Let 𝑆(𝑥) mean 𝑥 is a student, 𝐴(𝑦) mean 𝑦 is an assignment and 𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦) mean 𝑥 submitted 𝑦. A suitable symbolic
form is
∀𝑥 [𝑆(𝑥) → ∃𝑦 (𝐴(𝑦) ∧ 𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦))].

Its meaningful negation is: “There exists a student who has submitted no assignment.” Symbolically,

∃𝑥 [𝑆(𝑥) ∧ ∀𝑦 (𝐴(𝑦) → ¬𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦))].

5.6 Quantifiers in Program Specification

• “Every input satisfies the precondition” is universal.
• “There exists a test case that exposes the error” is existential.
• A universal claim can be disproved by one counterexample.
• An existential claim is proved by presenting one valid witness.

5.7 Order of Quantifiers

The statements ∀𝑥∃𝑦 𝑃 (𝑥, 𝑦) and ∃𝑦∀𝑥 𝑃 (𝑥, 𝑦) generally have different meanings.

• ∀𝑥∃𝑦 permits the witness 𝑦 to depend on 𝑥.

• ∃𝑦∀𝑥 requires one fixed 𝑦 to work for every 𝑥.

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FYUGP STUDENTS Discrete Structures for Computer Applications Module I

Question
Over the integers, compare:
∀𝑥∃𝑦 (𝑦 > 𝑥), ∃𝑦∀𝑥 (𝑦 > 𝑥).

Answer
The first is true: for any integer 𝑥, choose 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1. The second is false: no single integer is greater than every
integer. Thus changing quantifier order changes truth.

Question
Over real numbers, determine the truth of ∀𝑥∃𝑦 (𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0).
Answer
For each real 𝑥, choose 𝑦 = −𝑥. Hence the statement is true. The witness depends on 𝑥.

5.8 Restricted Quantifiers

A statement such as ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑃 (𝑥) is shorthand for

∀𝑥 [𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 → 𝑃 (𝑥)].

Similarly, ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑃 (𝑥) means

∃𝑥 [𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∧ 𝑃 (𝑥)].

Question
Write “Every even integer has an even square” using predicates.
Answer
Let 𝐸(𝑥) mean 𝑥 is even. Over integers,
∀𝑥 [𝐸(𝑥) → 𝐸(𝑥2 )].

5.9 Negation Practice

Question
Negate “Every file is readable or encrypted.”
Answer
Let 𝑅(𝑥) mean readable and 𝐸(𝑥) mean encrypted. The statement is

∀𝑥 [𝑅(𝑥) ∨ 𝐸(𝑥)].

Its negation is
∃𝑥 ¬[𝑅(𝑥) ∨ 𝐸(𝑥)] ≡ ∃𝑥 [¬𝑅(𝑥) ∧ ¬𝐸(𝑥)].

In words: “There exists a file that is neither readable nor encrypted.”

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FYUGP STUDENTS Discrete Structures for Computer Applications Module I

Question
Negate “There is a server that responds to every request.”
Answer
The symbolic form is ∃𝑠∀𝑟 𝑅(𝑠, 𝑟). Its negation is

∀𝑠∃𝑟 ¬𝑅(𝑠, 𝑟).

In words: “For every server, there is at least one request to which it does not respond.”

5.10 Quantified Statements and Counterexamples

• To prove ∃𝑥𝑃 (𝑥), provide a witness.
• To disprove ∀𝑥𝑃 (𝑥), provide a counterexample.
• To prove ∀𝑥𝑃 (𝑥), an arbitrary element must be handled, not merely several examples.
• To disprove ∃𝑥𝑃 (𝑥), show 𝑃 (𝑥) fails for every element of the domain.

Unit Questions
1. Define predicate and domain.
2. Explain universal and existential quantifiers.
3. Negate “Some files are corrupted.”
4. Negate “Every process terminates.”
5. Translate two ordinary-language statements into quantified symbolic form.

Module I Consolidated Revision Points

• A proposition has a definite truth value; a predicate becomes a proposition only after assigning a value or
quantifier.
• Truth tables contain 2𝑛 rows for 𝑛 independent variables.
• Implication is false only in the true-to-false case, and is equivalent to ¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑞.
• Logical laws simplify expressions without changing truth values.
• An argument is valid when no assignment makes all premises true and the conclusion false.
• Negating a quantifier changes ∀ to ∃ or ∃ to ∀ and negates the predicate.

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