CHAPTER 3

DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE
Newton‟s Second Law: It is an experimentally
derived law, valid in a reference frame –
Inertial reference frame. Z
XYZ - inertial path en
reference frame P F
eb
Let m be mass,
O rOP et
rOP- position vector.
Then X
Y
F F ( r , r , t ), and F ( r , r , t ) d (mr P ) dt ma P
1
 3.1 Direct Integration of Equations of Motion
Newton‟s Law gives: F ( r , r , t ) ma P
This needs to be solved, subject to
initial conditions: r (t t0 ) r 0 ; r (t t0 ) r 0
Case 1: The external force is a constant.
In Cartesian coordinate system
mx Fx , my Fy , mz Fz
Consider thesystem in x-direction :
x Fx / m constant (say 'a') d ( x ) dt a
2
Integrating first by “separation of variables”:
v t
d ( x ) ad v(t ) v0 at
v0 t 0

or, v(t ) v0 at (speed vs. time)

x t
Integrating again: d (u ) (v0 a )d
x0 t 0

or x(t ) x0 v0t at 2 / 2 (position vs. time)

One can also approach the integration with

position as the independent variable:
3
Let
d 
d ( x) d ( x)   2
d ( x) d ( x / 2)
( x ) (chain rule) x
dt dx dt dx dx
 2
d ( x / 2)
Then, Newton's 2nd Law a
dx
v x
Separation of variables d ( x 2 / 2) adu
v0 x0

2 2
or , v v
0 2a ( x x0 ) (position vs. speed)
Reading Assignment: Motion of a particle in a
uniform gravitational field.
4
Case 2: The external force is a function of time.
Then, in Cartesian coordinates,
mx Fx (t ), my
 Fy (t ), mz Fz (t ).
v t t
d ( x ) ( Fx ( ) / m) d v (t ) v0 ( Fx ( ) / m) d
v0 t0 0 t0 0

t
Similarly, d ( x) {v0 ( Fx ( ) / m) d }d
t0 0

t
x(t ) x0 v0t ( ( Fx ( s ) / m) ds ) d
0 t0 0

5
 Case 3: The force is a function of position.
Special case: F ( r ) Fx ( x) i Fy ( y) j Fz ( z ) k
e.g. (example 3.3) Fx kx
(linear,separable function) x
Equation of motion : k
m
mx kx
v x
Integration : m d ( x 2 / 2) kudu
v0 x0

m(v 2 v02 ) / 2 k ( x2 x02 ) / 2

6
 or v2 v02 k ( x 2 x02 ) / m (position vs. speed)
Then, to integrate again, we write as
dx dt [v02 k ( x 2 x02 ) / m]1/ 2
t x
or d [v02 k (u 2 x02 ) / m]1/ 2 du
0 x0

1 x 1 x0
t k / m [sin sin ]
(m / k )v02 x02 (m / k )v02 x02

or x(t ) (m / k )v02 x02 sin( k / m t )

where =sin -1 ( x0 / (m / k )v02 x02 )

(position vs. time)
7
 Case 4: The force is a function of velocity.
Special case: F ( r ) Fx ( x ) i Fy ( y ) j Fz ( z) k
Ex. 3.4: Projectile with air drag

Y vP
P drag force ~ velocity
-cv
mg F mg j cv
where v x i 
yj
O X

i: cx mx (1) j: cy mg my (2)

8
 x-motion: cx mx
initial conditions: x(t 0) x0 , x(t 0) x0
Integrating:
d ( x ) dt (c / m) x
x t
d (u ) / u (c / m ) d (c / m)t
x0 0

ln( x / x0 ) (c / m)t x (t ) x0e (c / m)t

x t
Integrating again : du x0 e (c / m)
d
x0 0
9
 ( c / m )t t
or x(t ) x0 (m / c) x0e (m / c) x0 [1 e ( c / m )t
]
0

x(t ) x0 (m / c) x0 [1 e ( c / m )t
]
 cy
y-motion: my mg
initial conditions: y(t 0) y0 , y (t 0) y0
y
Integrating: md (u )
t
d t
y 0
cu mg 0
y
d (u ) y (mg / c)
or t (m / c) (m / c) ln[ ]
y 0
u (mg / c) y 0 (mg / c)

10
or y (t ) (mg / c) [ y0 (mg / c)]e ( c / m)t

Integrating again
y (t ) y0 (mg / c)t
(m / c){ y 0 (mg / c)}[1 e (c / m)t
]
Summarizing:x(t ) x0 (m / c) x0[1 e ( c / m)t
]
x (t ) x0 e (c / m)t

as t , x (t ) 0, x(t ) x0 mx0 / c
(limiting x-displacement )
of c 0, x (t ) x0 (remains cons tan t )
11
x(t) as t (unbounded x-displacement)
y (t ) (mg / c) [ y0 (mg / c)]e ( c / m)t

y (t ) y0 (mg / c)t
(m / c){ y 0 (mg / c)}[1 e ( c / m )t
]
as t , y (t ) (mg / c) (terminal speed)

y(t ) (unbounded)

if c=0, y (t ) , y(t ) .(both unbounded)

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 3.2 Work and Kinetic Energy
Imp: for a particle, the work-energy approach
is derivable from Newton‟s law for the particle,
and gives no new information; it provides
further insight. z B
Consider a particle
P‟
moving along a path, F
starts at A, goes to B. et
O rOP
Let, when at position P
P, a force Fact on
x
the particle. A y13
 dr - small change in position;
F mr Newton‟s 2nd Law
Defn: Work done by the force acting on the
particle in a small (infinitesimal) displacement
is: dW=F dr. rB

Dot product with Newton‟s law F dr

rA

B B B
mr dr m [d ( r r ) 2dt ]dt 2
m d (v ) 2
Ar A A
B B
F dr WA B m d (v 2 ) 2 m(vB2 v A2 ) / 2
rA A 14
Let T mv2 / 2 mv v / 2 - kinetic energy of
the particle
2 2
WA BTB TA m(v B v A) / 2 principle of
work and kinetic energy
3.3 Conservative Forces:
Suppose that the force F acting is such that
1) it is a single-valued function only of
position, that is, F does not explicitly
depend on t;

z
B
2) the line integral F dr only depends on
end points A
15
 z
F dr 0
B
One then says that:
The force is
P
conservative or the O F
mechanical process A
is reversible y x

• dW F dr must be an exact differential

d (V ) (- ve sign is for convenience)
V - potential energy associated with the force.
B B B
Then,
WA B dW F dr dV VA VB
A A A
16
• Decrease in potential energy in moving the
particle from A to B equals the work done on
the particle.
Let E = T + V; it is called the total energy.
If the only force acting on the particle is a
conservative force: WA B VA VB TB TA

TA VA TB VB principle of
conservation of
mechanical energy
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 3.4 Potential Energy
Recall: for a force dependent only on position,
if a potential function exists: V depends only on
position - V = V(x, y, z) (in Cartesian system)
dV ( V x)dx ( V y)dy ( V z )dz
For the work done by the force:
F Fx i Fy j Fz k , dr dx i dyj dzk
V V V
dW F dr dV Fx , Fy , Fz
x y z
V V V
F i j k V ( gradient of V )
x y z
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 Ex: Inverse-square law of attraction:
The force exerted by the attracting field is
radial: V K
F r
r r2
K
V C (may choose C 0)
r
gravitational potential energy: m
r F
Fr K r2 ; r Re r
O h
2
weight w mg0 K r
Re earth
19
 2
2 mg o R
K mg o R Fr 2
( r R)
2 r
V mgo R / r (r R)
(potential energy due to the gravitational field)
Now, r = R+h V=-mgo R/{1+(h/R)}
• Near earth‟s surface h < < R h/R < < 1.
V  - mgo R{1- (h/R)}
• If we choose constant C (reference) so that
the potential energy at the surface is
zero V ~ mgo h.
20
Ex: Potential energy of a linear spring:
The force in the spring is
Fs Fs e r k ( r l0 ) e r B
The distance moved by the
particle is : O r
dr dre r rd e e
k Fs
The work done is :
dW Fs dr k (r l0 )dr A
er
B
WA B k (r l0 )dr [k (rA l0 ) 2 k (rB l0 ) 2 ] / 2
A 21
• V = elastic energy or spring potential energy
1 2
k , ( r l o ) - stretch in the
2 spring

Reading Assignment Ex: 3.6

General form of work-energy principle:

nc
WA B VA VB WA B TB TA
or
TA +VA +WAnc B =TB +VB
22
 3.5 Linear Impulse and Momentum:
Newton‟s second law d d
F (mv P ) ( p)
dt dt
where p mv P linear momentum of the particle
Newton‟s law used the velocity is
measured relative to an inertial frame.
Suppose that F is given as a function of time.
t 2 t 2
Integrating: F ( )d d ( p ( )) p (t ) p (t )
2 1
t1 t1

t2

Fˆ F ( )d p (t2 ) p (t1 )
t1
23
F - impulse of the force F over the time
interval (t1 t 2 ).
• The change in linear momentum of a
particle during a given time interval equals
the total impulse (linear) of the forces
acting on the particle.

• When the time interval of action is very

small, the force is called an impulsive force.
Then F
z t2
t1
F( t )dt is finite even though
(t 2 t1 ) 0. Ex. Forces during impact.
24
 Ex: (Example 4.5)
m v0 e=0.9 y

x
h

smooth floor
Find: Total horizontal distance xtot till the ball
continues to bounce; Also, the total time taken.
• Key - consideration of the impact with the
floor and the impulsive action. It needs to be
used repeatedly.
25
FBD during an impact:
y
v1 v1x i v1 y j v1
v2
(velocity just before impact).
v2 v2 x i v2 y j x
Ry
(velocity just after impact).
Impact t 0.
Applying Impulse-momentum principle:
Fx 0 mv2 x mv1x v2 x v1x v0
Fy Ry 0 mv1x Ry d mv2 x
t 26
• Nature of the impulsive force Ry not known
Ry(t) Ry ( ) d area under
t thecurve

t
O
t
• coefficient of restitution
v2 y
e v2 y e v1 y relates velocities in
v1 y direction of impact
In general : v( n 1) y e vny during nth impact
27
Schematic representation of motion:
v1y v2y v3y
v2y v3y v4y
V1y= (2gh) v4y v4y v5y

t1 t2 t3 t4
Now,
v2 y ev1 y , v3 y ev2 y e 2 v1 y e 2 2 gh
v4 y ev3 y e3 2 gh ,.........
th th
Time of flight: t n= time between n and (n 1)
tn 2v( n 1) y / g 2evny / g bounce
t0 time to hit the floor1st time 2 gh
28
Total time it takes before ball stop bouncing:
T t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 ...........
t0 2ev1 y / g 2ev2 y / g 2ev3 y / g 2ev4 y / g ...
2 3
2h / g 2e 2 h / g 2e 2h / g 2e 2h / g ...
2h / g {1 2e 2e 2 2e3 ........}
1 e
T 2h / g { } finite time (for e 1)
1 e
xtot v0T

29
3.6 Angular Momentum and Angular Impulse
Recall the definition of linear momentum w.r.t.
Z
an inertial frame:
path en
p mv P
P F
Moment of linear eb
O rOP et
momentum about
a point O: X
Y
HO rOP p rOP mv P

(angular momentum about O). Its rate of


change is O d ( HO ) dt rOP mv P rOP mv P
H
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• Now, H O rOP mv P
d ( HO ) dt
• Newton‟s Second law: F mv P
H r F M
O OP O
•  moment of the net force about a
MO HO
fixed point equals the time rate of
change of angular momentum
t2
about the same fixed point.
• M O ( )d Mˆ - angular impulse
t1

Principle of angular
Mˆ H (t2 ) H (t1 )
impulse and momentum:
31
3.8 Coulomb Friction:
vr Consider a block A
A sliding on block B with a
velocity v r relative to B.
B
(i.e. v r v A v B )

• Classical Coulomb law: W

vr
when sliding, the friction A
force = (normal force)
f= N
N
32
 f=Fr
μN
vr
-μN

- coefficient of sliding friction (depends on the

materials and roughness of the sliding
surfaces).
• In reality, f also depends on the slip velocity v r .
• When v r 0 , the force f N , is
determined by Static Equilibrium.
33
Ex. (Ex. 3.11)
x
Consider a spring - mass k
system. There is coulomb m
friction between the block
and the horizontal surface.
Let, initial conditions:x (t = 0) = x o ,x (t 0) 0.
Find: x(t).
Consider the FBD. mg
y
Assume initial x o kx
such that x
k x o > f = N = mg f
N
block moves 34
 • When x 0, friction forceis to the right;
So, f mg and mx kx mg
• When x 0, friction forceis to the left;
So, f mg and mx kx mg
Note that both the equations are linear. The
overall system is nonlinear as the equation
used needs to be switched depending on the
choice of the sign of x .
Solution process: Consider x 0,
mx kx mg with I . Cs : x(0) x0 , x (0) 0.
35
 The solution is: x(t ) xh (t ) x p (t )
x p (t ) mg / k ; xh (t ) A cos n t B sin n t
where n k /m
Thus, x(t ) mg / k A cos n t B sin n t
x (t ) n A sin n t n B cos n t
Using initial conditions : x (0) 0 B 0
x(t ) mg / k A cos nt

Now x(0) x0 A x0 mg / k
Thus, x(t ) mg / k ( x0 mg / k ) cos n t for x 0
This solution is valid till velocity first becomes zero.
36
The velocity first becomes zero when:
x 0 n ( x0 mg / k )sin nt t1 / n

The time t1is period of ‘half cycle’.

Then, x(t1 ) x0 2 mg / k ; x (t1 ) 0.
Now consider x 0 : mx kx mg (t t1 )
The solution is : x(t ) xh (t ) x p (t )
or, x(t ) mg / k A cos n t B sin n t
x (t ) n ( A sin n t B cos n t)
Using initial conditions at t t1,
B 0, A x0 3 mg / k 37
 Thus, x(t ) ( x0 3 mg / k ) cos nt mg / k
for ( / n t 2 / n )
The velocity vanishes again when
x (t ) n ( x0 3 mg / k )sin nt 0
t2 2 / n x(t2 ) x0 4 mg / k
The period of „one cycle‟ T t1 t 2 t1 2 / n .
In this duration, the amplitude of oscillation
decreases by x0 ( x0 4 mg/k ) 4 mg/k.
• In same manner, one can find solutions for
succeeding half-cycles.
38
 In the n th half-cycle:
n 1
x(t ) ( 1) mg / k {x0 (2n 1) mg / k}cos n t
in the time interval {( n 1) / n t n / n }
Clearly, this motion exists provided the spring has
enough force to overcome friction.
For the first half-cycle: x0 mg / k .
For the second half-cycle: x0 2 mg / k mg / k
or x0 3 mg / k .

39
For the third half-cycle: x0 4 mg / k mg / k
or x0 5 mg / k .
For the nth half-cycle: x0 2(n 1) mg / k mg / k
or x0 (2n 1) mg / k .

40
• If the spring force is not sufficient, the motion
stops permanently at
n
x ( 1) {x0 (2n) mg / k}
at the time t n / n
where n is the total number of half-cycles.
x0
Linear decay

mg/k
/ t
0 2 /

41