Computers in Human Behavior 24 (2008) 2830–2847

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Computers in Human Behavior

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The effect of innovativeness on the adoption of B2C

e-commerce: A model based on the Theory of Planned
Behaviour
Ángel Herrero Crespo *, Ignacio Rodríguez del Bosque 1
Department of Business Administration, Faculty of Economics, University of Cantabria, Avda. de los Castros, s/n, 39005,
Santander, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper analyses the factors that lead Internet users to becom-
Available online 11 June 2008 ing online shoppers. In particular, assuming that Internet is an
innovation affecting the way individuals shop, a model of elec-
Keywords: tronic commerce adoption is proposed that adds personal innova-
Internet tiveness to the traditional formulation of the Theory of Planned
Electronic commerce Behaviour. The theoretical model proposed is tested on a sample
Theory of planned behaviour
of Web users with no experience in online shopping. The results
Innovativeness
Attitude
denote that electronic commerce acceptance is determined by atti-
Subjective norm tudes to the system, subjective norm and personal innovativeness
in the domain of information technology. Moreover, we find that
personal innovativeness has a moderating effect on the acceptance
of electronic commerce.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The Internet’s capacity to access, organize and communicate information in a more efficient way pro-
vides new formulas for the relationship between consumers and firms leading to the emergence of new
types of economic agents and new business models. In this way, the development of e-commerce offers
great opportunities for both manufacturers and retailers, but it also presents important challenges
for organizations, demanding an in-depth review of marketing strategies and consumer knowledge
(Goldsmith & Bridges, 2000; Jones & Vijayasarathy, 1998; Rowley & Slack, 2001).

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 942 20 16 61; fax: +34 942 20 18 90.
E-mail addresses: herreroa@[Link] (Á. Herrero Crespo), rbosquei@[Link] (I. Rodríguez del Bosque).
1
Tel.: +34 942 20 16 38; fax: +34 942 20 18 90.

0747-5632/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/[Link].2008.04.008
 Á. Herrero Crespo, I. Rodríguez del Bosque / Computers in Human Behavior 24 (2008) 2830–2847 2831

In this context, the present study attempts to analyse the factors that determine consumers’ inten-
tion to shop online, and that lead Internet users to become buyers on the Net. In particular, since the
Internet constitutes a new way of shopping (Dahlén, 1999, chap. 12; Hoffman, Novak, & Chaterjee,
2001; Hoffman et al., 1996; Kau, Tang, & Ghose, 1998; Kau et al., 2003; Peterson, Balasubramanian,
& Bronnenberg, 2001; Peterson et al., 1997; Spiller & Lohse, 1997/1998; Vijayasarathy & Jones,
2000), we especially aim at analysing the effects of individual innovativeness on acceptance of e-com-
merce. The Theory of Planned Behaviour (Schifter & Ajzen, 1985) will be used as the framework for our
project. The reasons for our choice of this model are the following: (1) It is an established and exten-
sively tested theory; (2) its parsimony, in contrast to other models used to explain consumer behav-
iour and information technology adoption; (3) the wide range of variables included in the model
(attitudes, social influence and individuals’ perceived control to behave in a certain way); (4) the fact
that it introduces the effect of social influence, a variable traditionally related to the diffusion of
innovations.
Regarding the first point, the Theory of Planned Behaviour has proven to be a successful model in a
wide range of behavioural disciplines to empirically predict and understand behaviour in a variety of
situations (Bansal & Taylor, 2002; Barnett & Presley, 2004; Kang, Hahn, Fortin, Hyun, & Eom, 2006;
Werner, 2004). Thus, although the TPB has some recognized limitations (e.g. Bagozzi, 1992; Eagly &
Chaiken, 1993) and has been criticised heavily over the years, particularly with the enunciation of
new behavioural and IT adoption models (e.g. Bagozzi & Warshaw, 1990; Bandura, 1986; Davis,
1989; Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw, 1989; Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw, 1992; Fazio, 1986; Taylor & Todd,
1995; Thompson, Higgins, & Howell, 1991; Venkatesh & Davis, 2000; Venkatesh, Morris, Davis, & Da-
vis, 2003), it is still extensively used nowadays. Moreover, it needs to be pointed out that none of these
alternative models have achieved universal acceptance, as each one presents particular strengths and
weaknesses (see Ajzen, 1991; Bosnjak, Obermeier, & Tuten, 2006; Gentry & Calantone, 2002; Mathie-
son, 1991; Venkatesh et al.,2003). In this sense, many of the alternative models which have been devel-
oped include variables taken from the Theory of Planned Behaviour in their structure (Bosnjak, Tuten,
& Wittmann, 2005; Hsu, Yen, Chiu, & Chang, 2006; Mannetti, Pierro, & Livi, 2002; Perugini & Bagozzi,
2001; Taylor & Todd, 1995; Venkatesh et al., 2003). Following these approaches, the Theory of Planned
Behaviour seems to be particularly well fitted to be used as the theoretical base for studying the influ-
ence of additional variables (e.g. innovativeness).
Among the advantages of the TPB over other competing models, its great parsimony can be pointed
out, together with the wide conceptual range of variables included in the model. Thus, the Theory of
Planned Behaviour is quite a simple model, but has shown a great deal of explanatory power (Armit-
age & Conner, 2001; Hagger, Chatzisarantis, & Biddle, 2002; Venkatesh et al., 2003). Moreover, the
explanatory variables included in the model have a very different conceptual focus, covering attitudes
about behaviour and its consequences, social influence, and perceived control over the development of
the conduct. Thus, the TPB is superior with respect to other competing models because it supplies
more information to explain behaviour (Mathieson, 1991; Taylor & Todd, 1995). Therefore, following
Taylor and Todd (1995) we consider that the Theory of Planned Behaviour is an adequate model for
our study, as it provides good prediction while using few predictors, and it provides a complete under-
standing of the phenomena as it includes variables with very different conceptual scope.
Finally, the selection of the Theory of Planned Behaviour as the theoretical base of our study is jus-
tified by the fact that it introduces the effect of social influence: a variable traditionally related to the
diffusion of innovation (Bass, 1969; Gatignon & Robertson, 1985; Mahajan, Muller, & Bass, 1990;
Moore & Benbasat, 1991; Rogers, 1983, 1995). Thus, in contrast with other competing models, the
TPB allows us to study the effect that consumers’ innovativeness has on their sensibility with respect
to social influences when deciding to shop online.

2. Literature review and research hypotheses

A description of the Theory of Planned Behaviour and an analysis of the main research carried out
on e-commerce or within this theoretical framework are set out below, followed by an analysis of the
concept of innovativeness and a review of empirical evidence supporting its influence on the adoption
2832 Á. Herrero Crespo, I. Rodríguez del Bosque / Computers in Human Behavior 24 (2008) 2830–2847

Normative Subjective
Beliefs Norm

Beliefs about
Attitude Intention Behaviour
the Behaviour

Perceived
Beliefs about Behavioral
Control Control

Source: Schifter and Ajzen (1985)

Fig. 1. Theory of planned behaviour.

of online shopping. Finally, the corresponding research hypotheses are presented according to our re-
view of relevant literature.

2.1. The Theory of Planned Behaviour

The Theory of Planned Behaviour (Schifter & Ajzen, 1985) constitutes a general model for explaining
users’ behaviour according to the relationship between beliefs, attitude, intention and behaviour. In
particular, it is an extension of the Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) which focuses
on those cases where users have no complete control over their choice but are somehow conditioned by
non-motivating factors related to the availability of certain requirements and resources.2 Just like its
predecessor, the Theory of Planned Behaviour considers intention as the best behaviour indicator, or fore-
sight, since it shows the efforts that users are willing to go to carry out a specific action (Ajzen, 1991). This
model identifies three kinds of variables determining or explaining behavioural intention: attitude to-
wards behaviour, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control (see Fig. 1).
Attitude towards behaviour refers to global predisposition, for or against, developing such behav-
iour. According to the expectations-value model proposed by Fishbein and Ajzen (1975), attitude is
considered to result from individual beliefs regarding behaviour and their consequences, and the
importance these beliefs are given. On the other hand, subjective norm reflects how the consumer is
affected by the perception of some significant referents – e.g., relatives, friends or colleagues, among
others – of his/her behaviour (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1973; Schofield, 1974; Warner & DeFleur, 1969). Sub-
jective norm arises from two basic underlying factors: the normative beliefs the consumer associates
with significant referents, and the motivation to behave according to these people’s wishes. Finally,
perceived behavioural control represents individual perception of the availability or lack of the neces-
sary resources and opportunities to develop this behaviour (Ajzen & Madden, 1986). Thus, perceived
control results from both individual beliefs regarding the factors determining behaviour and from con-
trol over such factors.
According to this model, attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control are the ele-
ments that help to understand the reasons or factors explaining individual actions, although intention
is considered to be the best behavioural indicator.
The Theory of Planned Behaviour also raises the fact that perceived control has a direct effect on
individuals’ effective behaviour. Thus, this variable can be considered to indicate individual effective
capacity to undertake a certain action as far as individual beliefs represent the real limitations it has to
face.

2
Thus, the Theory of Planned Behaviour provides the final word for a number of authors who had previously pointed out that
individuals’ behaviour is frequently determined by some factors beyond their own control ( Bandura, 1977, 1982; Liska, 1984;
Sarver, 1983; Triandis, 1977).
 Á. Herrero Crespo, I. Rodríguez del Bosque / Computers in Human Behavior 24 (2008) 2830–2847 2833

The Theory of Planned Behaviour has been used in Internet research to analyse different behaviour
such as the acceptance of the World Wide Web (Klobas & Clyde, 2000), the adoption of mobile tech-
nology (Lu, Liu, Yu, & Yao, 2001; Luarn & Lin, 2005; Pedersen & Nysveen, 2002) or the use of online
services (Agarwal, Ahuja, Carter, & Gans, 1998;Bosnjak et al., 2006; Hsu & Chiu, 2004; Lau, Yen, & Chau,
2001; Lee, Kang, & Kim, 2007; Liao, Chen, & Yen, 2007; Liao, Shao, Wang, & Chen, 1999). Likewise, a
number of authors have considered this approach to explain online shopping behaviour.
Limayem, Khalifa, and Frini (2000) observed in their study on the adoption of e-commerce, that
purchase intention and perceived control directly influenced effective behaviour. Such authors also
found attitude and subjective norm, as well as perceived control, to be the direct determinants of on-
line shopping intention. Later on, Gentry and Calantone (2002) and Khalifa and Cheng (2002) con-
firmed these results when researching the use of a shopping robot, and the acceptance of t-mobile
shopping, respectively. Finally, Keen, Wetzels, De Ruyter, and Feinberg (2004) observed that the choice
of the Internet over other business formats is conditioned by individuals’ attitude towards the chan-
nel, the subjective norm and the amount of control perceived during the purchasing process.
Some authors have analysed online shopping behaviour from a narrower perspective by using the
Theory of Reasoned Action as their conceptual framework. As an example, Shim and Drake (1990)
found that acceptance of an e-commerce system is determined by individuals’ attitude and by norma-
tive influence. On the other hand, empirical evidence obtained by Fitzgerald and Kiel (2001) supports
that attitude has a direct impact on online shopping intention, but failed to confirm the influence of
subjective norm.
Following the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Schifter & Ajzen, 1985) and a review of other existing
literature, the following research hypotheses are considered:

H1: Individual attitude towards e-commerce positively affects online shopping intention.
H2: Subjective norm positively affects online shopping intention.
H3: Perceived behavioural control positively affects online shopping intention.

2.2. Innovativeness and its effects on the adoption of e-commerce

Innovativeness has proven to be extremely relevant for explaining the adoption of new products
(Agarwal et al., 1998; Robertson & Kennedy, 1968) or shopping procedures (Citrin, Sprott, Silverman,
& Stem, 2000), thus, becoming a main concern for researchers on consumer behaviour (Agarwal & Pra-
sad, 1998; Hirschman, 1980a; Hurt, Joseph, & Cook, 1977; Midgley & Dowling, 1978; Robertson, 1971;
Rogers, 1983, among others).
Rogers and Shoemaker (1971) define this concept as the ‘‘degree to which an individual is relatively
‘‘more ready to adopt” an innovation than other members of his system”. According to Bass (1969) ap-
proach, Midgley and Dowling (1978) criticise such a temporary perspective, since it disregards the so-
cial and communication processes involved in the spread of innovations. They point out that this
concept is related to ‘‘individual attitude towards new ideas and innovative decisions regardless of
other people’s experience”.3 Innovativeness has generally been considered an inherent feature of all
individuals that can be more or less developed and is subject to a number of social parameters (Hirsch-
man, 1980a; Rogers, 1983, 1995).
Among the different typologies of innovativeness that have been suggested, authors mainly tend to
highlight the difference between open-processing or general and domain-specific innovativeness
(Bass, 1969; Craig & Ginter, 1975; Flynn & Goldsmith, 1993; Goldsmith & Flynn, 1995; Goldsmith &
Hofacker, 1991; Hirschman, 1980b; Joseph & Vyas, 1984; Rogers & Shoemaker, 1971).
Joseph and Vyas (1984) considered general willingness to innovate from a cognitive approach and
introduced individuals’ intellectual, perceptual and attitudinal characteristics. Hurt et al. (1977) also
defined this variable from a general perspective as an individual’s willingness to change. Thus, the
way individuals react to new sensations, experience, means of communication or products is af-
fected by cognitive style. However, as Gatignon and Robertson (1985) pointed out, innovativeness

3
The definition proposed by Midgley and Dowling (1978) implies an attitudinal perspective in the same line proposed by
Feaster (1968), which considers that innovativeness involves a positive attitude towards change.
2834 Á. Herrero Crespo, I. Rodríguez del Bosque / Computers in Human Behavior 24 (2008) 2830–2847

can be product or domain-specific, rather than a general feature, yet, Goldsmith and Hofacker
(1991) insist on the fact that innovativeness must be considered domain-specific, although related
to broader innovative traits. They also point out that it is a more efficient variable to predict shop-
ping behaviour concerning one particular product. A number of authors support such a hypothesis,
stressing the relevance of domain-specific innovativeness as a variable determining the adoption of
new shopping procedures or behaviour (Agarwal & Prasad, 1998; Goldsmith & Flynn, 1995; Hirsch-
man, 1980b).
Existing literature also shows these two main tendencies among researchers on e-commerce. Thus,
some support the fact that innovativeness constitutes a general individual feature (Donthu & García,
1999; Eastlick & Lotz, 1999; Fenech & O’Cass, 2001; Limayem et al., 2000) while others think it is
rather a domain-specific element (Citrin et al., 2000; Goldsmith, 2000; Goldsmith, 2002; Goldsmith
& Lafferty, 2001; Park & Jun, 2003). In an effort to unify both perspectives, Citrin et al. (2000) studied
general and specific innovativeness and found domain-specific category to significantly affect behav-
iour. However, they failed to find the same effects for general innovativeness. Such results can be ex-
plained according to the empirical evidence found by Goldsmith (2002), who observed that
innovativeness in e-commerce was affected by general willingness to innovate. Thus, if the two vari-
ables are considered together, then the effects of the general category will be mediated by domain-
specific innovativeness. Therefore, the following research hypothesis is considered according to these
authors:
H4: General innovativeness positively affects domain-specific innovativeness in new technology.
As far as the effects of innovativeness are concerned, a number of remarkable projects support the
fact that this variable has a direct impact on the adoption of online shopping. Thus, available empirical
evidence backs the influence of innovativeness on both online shopping (Citrin et al., 2000; Donthu &
García, 1999; Eastlick & Lotz, 1999; Goldsmith, 2000) and the frequency to shop online (Goldsmith,
2000; Goldsmith & Lafferty, 2001), as well as on future intention to shop online (Goldsmith, 2002;
Goldsmith & Lafferty, 2001; Park & Jun, 2003). According to such results, and assuming that intention
constitutes the best element to predict behaviour (Ajzen, 1991; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975; Schifter & Aj-
zen, 1985), the following hypothesis is considered:
H5: Innovativeness in new technology positively affects online shopping intention.
According to previous literature on the diffusion of innovation (Gatignon & Robertson, 1985),
Eastlick and Lotz (1999) believe that innovativeness also affects an individual’s attitude. Many e-
commerce and Internet researchers support this approach. For instance, Limayem et al. (2000)
and Fenech and O’Cass (2001) observed that general innovativeness affects attitude towards online
shopping. Goldsmith (2000) and Goldsmith and Lafferty (2001) found domain-specific Internet
innovativeness to positively affect an individual’s attitude towards e-commerce. According to such
empirical evidence, and also to Goldsmith (2002), who found the indirect influence of general
innovativeness to occur throughout the domain-specific level, the following hypothesis is
considered:
H6: Innovativeness of new technology positively affects attitude towards online shopping.
Finally, the relationship existing between innovativeness and social influence constitutes one of the
main foundations for the diffusion of the innovation theory. The models proposed by Bass (1969) and
Rogers (1983, 1995) consider that a new product or specific behaviour starts to spread following a
communication process taking place within a particular social system (Gatignon & Robertson, 1985)
where personal relationships have essential effects (Mahajan et al., 1990). In the same way, Midgley
and Dowling (1978) defined innovativeness as ‘‘individual receptiveness to new ideas and ability to
take innovative decisions regardless of other people’s experience”. According to this approach, the
more innovative individuals are, the less their decision to adopt a new product or behaviour will be
affected by the opinions of third parties. Thus, the following research hypothesis is considered accord-
ing to this perspective:
H7: Innovativeness in new technology moderates the impact of the subjective norm on online
shopping intention.
The research hypotheses proposed bring about the online shopping behavioural model described
in Fig. 2. In the next section there is a summary of the methodology used to test out these
hypotheses.
 Á. Herrero Crespo, I. Rodríguez del Bosque / Computers in Human Behavior 24 (2008) 2830–2847 2835

Innovativeness
General

H4

H6 Innovativeness H5
New
Technologies

Attitude
H1
H7
Subjective
Intention
Norm H2

Perceived
Behavioral H3
Control

Fig. 2. B2C e-commerce adoption model.

3. Research methodology

In order to empirically test the E-commerce Adoption Model and hypotheses previously men-
tioned, research aimed at Internet users was developed. A qualitative study was carried out at a pre-
liminary research stage. This study consisted of a total of ten in-depth interviews, in which statements
from Internet experts, from both professional and academic environments, were shown. The inter-
views focused on the psychological process experienced by consumers who shop online, placing spe-
cial attention to the variables that determine Internet shopping intention and behaviour. Given the
scope of this paper, the experts were asked about the influence of personal innovativeness, both from
a general perspective and domain-specific innovativeness (e.g. new technology). The information ob-
tained from this qualitative research has been particularly useful to define the research universe, to
design the questionnaire used to collect quantitative data, and in the analysis and interpretation of
the final results.
Based on the results obtained from the preliminary research, quantitative research was performed
in order to determine the attitudes and beliefs of Internet users regarding e-commerce and their inno-
vativeness in the area of new technology. The method used for data collection was the personal sur-
vey. In the following section, there is a description of the survey structure which was developed, and a
detailed explanation of the research design and field research.

3.1. Structure of the survey and measurement scales

In order to test the objectives and the hypotheses which were raised, information was collected
using a structured survey with a set of multi-attribute scales referring to the different variables iden-
tified in the model proposed (see Appendix). According to the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Schifter &
Ajzen, 1985; Taylor & Todd, 1995) and to previous literature on the diffusion of innovation (Agarwal &
Prasad, 1998; Agarwal et al., 1998; Goldsmith & Hofacker, 1991; Hurt et al., 1977), the dimensions in-
cluded in the model were measured through composite scales. This methodology allowed us to gauge
psychological variables (Churchill & Iacobucci, 2002) that otherwise could not be directly observed nor
quantified. In particular, Likert scales with seven positions were used; number 1 meaning the user to-
tally disagrees with the statement and number 7 meaning he/she totally agrees. The instruments pro-
posed for each of the variables included in the model consisted of 4 items.
The scale used for the measurement of online shopping intention was developed from those
proposed in the research carried out by Taylor and Todd (1995), Gefen and Straub (2000) and Limayem
2836 Á. Herrero Crespo, I. Rodríguez del Bosque / Computers in Human Behavior 24 (2008) 2830–2847

Table 1
Sociodemographic profile of the population and sample

Variable Population – EGM (%) Total sample (%) Non-buyers sample (%)
Gender
Male 57.4 56.9 53.0
Female 42.6 43.1 47.0
Age
14–19 years 17.2 16.9 20.0
20–24 years 18.3 19.8 18.8
25–34 years 31.0 31.1 29.1
35–44 years 19.5 18.4 16.3
45–54 years 10.0 9.5 10.5
55 and over 4.0 4.3 5.3
Education level
Less than primary 0.5 0.6 0.8
Primary 25.2 12.8 16.7
Secondary 39.1 39.0 38.1
College 35.2 47.6 44.4
Marital status
Single 57.7 63.1 63.2
Married 39.9 34.9 34.5
Divorced 1.9 1.5 1.6
Widow/er 0.5 0.5 0.7
Occupation
Employed 61.0 52.0 48.3
Unemployed 39.0 48.0 51.7
Monthly family income
0–600 € – 4.2 4.2
601–900 € – 7.5 7.6
901–1.200 € – 13.8 14.6
1.201–1.500 € – 19.9 20.3
1.501–1.800 € – 20.4 20.6
1.801–2.400 € – 16.2 17.4
2.401–3.000 € – 7.5 6.3
3.001–5.000 € – 6.4 6.1
More than 5.000 € – 4.1 2.9

et al. (2000). Attitude to e-commerce was measured by means of an adaptation of the scale proposed
by Taylor and Todd (1995). Some items from the research carried out by Taylor and Todd (1995) and
Agarwal et al. (1998) were used for evaluation of the subjective norm and the perceived online shop-
ping control. Finally, scales adapted from those of Hurt et al. (1977) and Agarwal and Prasad (1998)
were used to measure general and domain-specific innovativeness in new technology respectively.
Fourteen university lecturers with wide research experience within the framework of Internet
users’ behaviour collaborated in the final survey definition. Thus, starting from an initial draft survey,
all the necessary changes were introduced according to the experts’ recommendations. Also, a preli-
minary survey was conducted in order to check adequate understanding of all questions.

3.2. Sample description

Information was collected through an individual survey of Internet users.4 The sample collection
procedure was non-probabilistic considering groups according to the characterisation of Internet users
periodically carried out by the Estudio General de Medios (Spanish for General Media Study) (AIMC,
2004). In particular, the sample is determined according to two social demographic factors: users’ age
and gender.

4
According to the results obtained in the qualitative phase, Internet users are described as those people who surf on the web for
at least half an hour on average per week.
 Á. Herrero Crespo, I. Rodríguez del Bosque / Computers in Human Behavior 24 (2008) 2830–2847 2837

Work on the personal interviews started in April 2004, and 1008 surveys were initially obtained.
However, 10 were incomplete or contained wrong answers and thus, were eliminated. Of the other
998 completed surveys, 675 (67.64%) were filled in by users who had never purchased online and
323 (32.36%) by users who had already purchased online before being surveyed. As our research pro-
ject intended to analyse the factors leading Internet users to become online shoppers, the group with
no previous experience was the only sample to be analysed. The sample has a margin of error of 3.85%
for an infinite population group with a confidence level of 95.5%, for the most unfavourable case
p = q = 0.5.
Table 1 shows the social demographic profile of Spanish Internet users (AIMC, 2004) and that of the
whole sample obtained. Features of those Internet users with no previous online shopping experience,
but whose future intention to purchase online was analysed, are also described.
Table 1 shows the sample obtained in this research was quite similar to the Internet users’ profile
as described by the EGM (AIMC, 2004). On the other hand, certain differences can be observed be-
tween those individuals who had never purchased online and the overall group of people surveyed.
For instance, a larger proportion of women was observed in the group with no e-commerce experience
(47% compared to 43.1% of the overall sample). Also, the percentage of students (44.4% compared to
47.6% of the overall sample) and employees (48.3% compared to 52.0%) appeared remarkably lower
among those users who had never purchased online.
Once individuals with no previous online shopping experience have been socially and demograph-
ically described, the methodology applied to meet the goals of our research project will be introduced.

4. Research results

Structural equations models (SEM) methodology was adopted in order to analyse the efficiency of
the model proposed so as to explain the impact of innovativeness on the adoption of online shopping.
First, a Confirmatory Factor Analysis was performed on the sample of Internet users with no previous
online shopping experience in order to test the psychometric characteristics of the measures used.
Then, the efficiency of the proposed model was analysed using structural equations. After that, a mul-
ti-sample analysis was performed in order to verify hypothesis H7, considering the moderating effects
of innovativeness on the relationship existing between intention and the subjective norm. Individuals
were classified according to their willingness to innovate. The software EQS 5.7b was used to perform
the model’s estimation.

4.1. Estimation of the online shopping model on the global sample

First, a Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) by the maximum likelihood estimation method was car-
ried out in order to analyse the efficiency of the proposed model. Such methodology allows the psy-
chometric properties of the scales used in our study to be contrasted, especially regarding reliability,
as well as convergent and discriminatory validity.
A first analysis highlighted the need to eliminate one of the items from the scale proposed for the
measurement of innovativeness within the framework of new technology (INN_NT3). This was due to
the fact that the standardised lambda coefficient was below the minimum required level of 0.5. Once
this was done, the results showed that the proposed factor structure was correctly determined (Table
2). Goodness of fit statistics such as BBNFI, BBNNFI, GFI and AGFI are above the minimum recom-
mended level of 0.9 or very close to it, while RMSEA is below the top limit of 0.08 (Hair, Anderson,
Tatham, & Black, 1998). On the other hand, the v2 coefficient, even though significant, cannot be con-
sidered to be a reliable indicator of adjusted goodness of fit of the confirmatory model, due to sensi-
tivity to samples larger than 200 registers (Bollen, 1989). Reliability of measurement scales is assessed
by means of Cronbach’s Alpha, composite reliability and AVE coefficients (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988). The fact
that the value of reliability statistics was found to be above the minimum recommended levels,5

5
According to Nunally (1978) and Hair et al. (1998), Cronbach’s Alphas and composite reliability statistics must be above 0.7
and AVE must be above 0.5 in order for the scale’s reliability to be established.
2838 Á. Herrero Crespo, I. Rodríguez del Bosque / Computers in Human Behavior 24 (2008) 2830–2847

Table 2
Confirmatory factor analysis

Factor Variable Standard R2 Cronbach’s Composite AVE Goodness of fit indices

lambda a reliability
Intention INTEN1 0.900 0.809 0.879 0.901 0.701 v2 (216) = 652.16 (p = 0.0000)
INTEN2 0.943 0.889 BBNFI = 0.922
INTEN3 0.879 0.772 BBNNFI = 0.931
INTEN4 0.577 0.332 GFI = 0.901
AGFI = 0.873
Attitude ATTIT1 0.807 0.651 0.943 0.944 0.807
RMSEA = 0.064
ATTIT2 0.908 0.825
ATTIT3 0.940 0.884
ATTIT4 0.933 0.870
Subjective norm SN1 0.795 0.632 0.831 0.835 0.560
SN2 0.755 0.570
SN3 0.622 0.387
SN4 0.808 0.653
Perceived control PBC1 0.670 0.449 0.820 0.834 0.568
PBC2 0.884 0.781
PBC3 0.884 0.782
PBC4 0.510 0.260
Innovativeness – INN_NT1 0.854 0.730 0.836 0.867 0.684
New technologies INN_NT2 0.802 0.643
INN_NT4 0.825 0.680
Innovativeness – General INN_GE1 0.576 0.331 0.866 0.841 0.573
INN_GE2 0.805 0.648
INN_GE3 0.814 0.663
INN_GE4 0.806 0.650

supports the internal consistency of the elements proposed. Also the convergent validity of the scales is
contrasted, since all items prove significant at 95% confidence level and standardised lambda coefficients
are above 0.5 (Steenkamp & Van Trijp, 1991).
Discriminant validity of the proposed scales is measured according to the procedure described by
Anderson and Gerbing (1988). Thus, confidence intervals for correlation between pairs of latent con-
structs (Table 3) are estimated and compared to the unit. The fact that intervals never contain the unit
supports the discriminatory validity of the measurement model proposed.
A system of structural equations is considered for estimation of the online shopping acceptance
model. A first assessment of the structural model shows that the perceived control does not significantly

Table 3
Confidence interval for the correlations between pairs of latent variables

Intention Attitude Subjective Perceived Innovativeness –

norm control New Technologies
Attitude 0.612a
(0.550; 0.674)b
Subjective norm 0.529 0.570
(0.457; 0.601) (0.500; 0.640)
Perceived control 0.134 0.225 0.299
(0.050; 0.218) (0.145; 0.305) (0.215; 0.383)
Innovativeness – 0.325 0.312 0.252 0.395
New technologies (0.241; 0.409) (0.226; 0.398) (0.156; 0.348) (0.317; 0.473)
Innovativeness – General 0.130 0.126 0.119 0.230 0.499
(0.038; 0.222) (0.036; 0.216) (0.023; 0.215) (0.136; 0.324) (0.413; 0.585)
a
Correlation between variables.
b
Confidence interval for the correlation.
 Á. Herrero Crespo, I. Rodríguez del Bosque / Computers in Human Behavior 24 (2008) 2830–2847 2839

affect the online shopping intention. Hypothesis H3 is therefore rejected. As a consequence, a re-spec-
ification of the structural model must be performed according to these results, thus eliminating the cor-
responding relationships (Fig. 3). Adjusted goodness of fit indexes show an appropriate specification of
the new model, with statistics values being higher than the minimum referent value or very close to
them in all cases. Likewise, the values of R2 coefficients provide an appropriate level of explanation of
variations of online shopping intention and domain-specific innovativeness in the area of new technol-
ogy, since they are remarkably higher than the minimum value of 0.2. However, the fact that R2 was
found below such level in the case of attitude towards e-commerce, implied the need to consider other
explanatory variables for this perspective.
The results presented in Fig. 3 support hypotheses H1, H2, H4, H5 and H6. Thus, among the differ-
ent explanatory variables the Theory of Planned Behaviour includes only attitudes, and subjective
norm affects the future intention to purchase online. On the contrary, perceived behavioural control
has no relevant effects on adoption intention. This fact could be due to the high average control per-
ceived in online shopping (Average = 5.62). Thus, even though Internet users think they are able to
deal with e-commerce transactions, this does not necessarily mean that they want to shop online.
As long as the effects of innovativeness on the acceptance of e-commerce are concerned, general
willingness to innovate was found to affect domain-specific innovativeness positively. This means that
generally, those individuals willing to accept new products or behaviour, also show greater innova-
tiveness in the area of new technology. Likewise, the empirical evidence obtained, confirms the impact
of innovativeness on both online shopping intention and on attitude towards such behaviour. Thus,
willingness to accept new technological systems has a double effect on the adoption process; it does
not only affect online shopping intention directly, but also indirectly through its positive impact on
individuals’ global evaluation of e-commerce.

4.2. Study of the moderating effects of innovativeness – multi-sample analysis

An evaluation of the causal model on the whole sample of Internet users with no previous online
shopping experience only allowed us to contrast the significance of the direct relationships considered

Innovativeness
General
0.677***
(10.302)
0.320*** 0.135***
(6.592) Innovativeness (3.178)
New Tech.
(R2=0.247)
Attitude
(R2=0.096)
0.495***
(13.095)
Subjective Intention
Norm 0.443*** (R2=0.378)
(8.331)
Perceived
Behavioral n.s.
Control
χ2 (147) = 541.92 (p=0.0000) GFI = 0.912
BBNFI = 0.925 AGFI = 0.886
BBNNFI = 0.931 RMSEA = 0.073

*** p< 0.01

Fig. 3. Structural model estimation.

2840 Á. Herrero Crespo, I. Rodríguez del Bosque / Computers in Human Behavior 24 (2008) 2830–2847

Table 4
Multisample structural model results

Standardised b low Standardised b high LM test

innovativeness – NT innovativeness – NT v2 (1 df.)
Attitude ? Intention 0.454 0.475 12.083*
Subjective norm ? Intention 0.339 0.303 1.995
Perceived control ? Intention 0.080 -0.071 3.623
Innovativeness NT ? Intention 0.056 0.059 0.181
Innovativeness NT ? Attitude 0.218 0.223 5.337*
General Innovativeness ? Innov. NT 0.390 0.325 3.508
v2 (472) = 1308.90 (p = 0.0000) GFI = 0.858
BBNFI = 0.862 AGFI = 0.834
BBNNFI = 0.900 RMSEA = 0.051
*
p < 0.05.

in hypotheses H1 to H6. A multi-sample model was considered through statistical software EQS 5.7b
in order to analyse the moderating effects of innovativeness on the relationship existing between the
subjective norm and intention – H7 –. The sample was divided into two groups according to their
innovativeness regarding new technology. In order to do so, the average of the three items which
proved to affect this construct significantly at the previous validation stage was used to calculate
the level of domain-specific innovativeness. Once this variable had been obtained, its median was con-
sidered as the basis for segmentation since it was the value used for dividing the sample into two sim-
ilar-sized groups.
Multi-sample models allow us to compare the adequacy of a factor structure between different
groups by statistically analysing the equality of the parameters considered by the structural model be-
tween the groups proposed (Byrne, 1994; Bentler, 1995). Thus, multi-sample models allow not only an
evaluation of the structural parameters for each sub-sample, but also a comparison between the val-
ues obtained from the LM Test for each of them. Such a statistic requires the causal model to include a
set of restrictions to equal the structural parameters of all groups being analysed. Then, an analysis of
v2 differences with a degree of freedom of 1 comparing the restricted and unrestricted models was
performed.
The current study only considers the moderating effects on the relationship between subjective
norm and intention. However, an exploratory approach including all the causal relationships of the
original model is adopted for the development of the multi-sample model. This is due to the fact that
we intended to analyse whether innovativeness in the area of new technology can have other moder-
ating effects different from those considered in hypothesis H7.
Table 4 shows the results obtained from the multi-sample model analysing the moderating effects
of innovativeness on the adoption of online shopping. Fit indexes of the multi-sample model proved to
be above the recommended levels or very close to them, thus confirming the adequacy of the proposed
structure to collect data for the two samples analysed. Once the adjusted goodness of fit of the model
was confirmed, an analysis of the moderating influence of domain-specific innovativeness on the
adoption of e-commerce was performed. Thus, the structural coefficients obtained for the two groups
identified – high or low innovativeness – were compared. Likewise, the results of the LM Test were
analysed for all causal relationships by considering the equality restriction among the parameters ap-
plied to each group.
Empirical evidence obtained from the multi-sample analysis highlights the fact that no significant
differences exist on the effects of the subjective norm on online shopping intention between the two
samples considered (Table 4). Thus, hypothesis H7, considering innovativeness in the area of new
technology to moderate third parties’ influence on the acceptance of e-commerce, must be rejected.
As a result, the decision of innovative individuals to purchase online was not found to be less affected
by the opinion of third parties, but turned out to be affected in the same degree as the decision of less
innovative Internet users. Nevertheless, these results could be due to the choice for the variables and
scales involved in the model. For instance, the subjective norm only considers third parties’ normative
 Á. Herrero Crespo, I. Rodríguez del Bosque / Computers in Human Behavior 24 (2008) 2830–2847 2841

influence but does not involve other elements such as the influence of information or identification.6
On the other hand, the scale used to measure innovativeness in new technology does not specifically re-
fer to receptiveness to the opinions of third parties.
As for the moderating effects of domain-specific innovativeness which are not considered in re-
search hypotheses, the results obtained in Table 4 highlight the fact that this variable does affect
the relationship between attitude and intention and between innovativeness and attitude at a 95%
confidence level. In particular, the more innovative individuals are in the area of new technology,
the more likely they are to have a positive attitude towards e-commerce, which will imply their future
intention to purchase online. On the contrary, a favourable evaluation of e-commerce does not have
such remarkable effects on future online shopping intention for those individuals who prove less
innovative.
The definition of the multi-sample model also leads to an observation of the moderating effects
that domain-specific innovativeness has on the relationship existing between innovativeness and
attitude. So, in the case of more innovative individuals, such innovativeness implies an evaluation
of e-commerce which proves proportionally more favourable. This means that the more innovative
Internet users are, the deeper the relative impact of domain-specific innovativeness will be on the atti-
tude of users towards online shopping.
On the other hand, such a variable is found to stop directly affecting behavioural intention if the
sample is divided into two different groups according to their domain-specific innovativeness. Such
results can be explained because of the limited effects of this variable on the global model. Such effects
even disappear if more radical individuals are gathered into each of the two groups.

5. Conclusions, limitations and future lines of research

The most relevant conclusions from our research project as well as the main implications of our
results for the management of e-commerce companies are presented below. Finally, limitations to
our study and future lines of research are also described.

5.1. Conclusions

In this study, we intended to analyse the factors that determine consumers’ intention to shop on-
line, and that lead Internet users to become buyers on the Net. Since the Internet constitutes a new
way of shopping, we especially aimed at analysing the effects of individual innovativeness, both gen-
eral and domain-specific in new technology, on the acceptance of e-commerce. In order to do so, we
considered the Theory of Planned Behaviour as the basis for our model of adoption of e-commerce by
individuals with no previous online shopping experience. Likewise, literature on the diffusion of inno-
vations is considered as the basis for an analysis of the moderating effects of innovativeness on the
relationship existing between social impact and behavioural intention.
As far as the theoretical model proposed to explain future intention to shop online is concerned, the
empirical evidence obtained confirms the efficiency of the Theory of Planned Behaviour’s approach. In
particular, general attitude to the system is found to be the main factor determining the future inten-
tion to purchase online. Likewise, the subjective norm – showing the influence of third parties – was
also found to have a significant effect on the decision to shop online. However, the results obtained
highlight the fact that perceived behavioural control has no significant effects on the adoption of on-
line shopping. On the one hand, this could be due to the fact that, while low control perceived could be
an obstacle to online purchasing, high control perceived – as happens in this case – does not appear to
encourage online purchasing. Likewise, the fact that this variable lacks influence on online shopping

6
Behavioural and attitudinal changes arising from social influence can be explained according to three different effects:
information, normative or identification (Blackwell, Miniard, & Engel, 2001). Normative influence implies an adaptation of the
preferences of the people involved in the individual’s social system and could be represented through the subjective norm. On the
other hand, information influence arises from the role that friends, relatives and other referents have as a source of information.
Finally, identification influence leads individuals to adopt the particular behaviour identifying the community that the individual
wishes to belong to or be similar to.
2842 Á. Herrero Crespo, I. Rodríguez del Bosque / Computers in Human Behavior 24 (2008) 2830–2847

intention can be explained according to the flow theory. As Hoffman and Novak (1996) noted, individ-
ual abilities and challenges perceived must be balanced and exceed the minimum limit in order to
produce a feeling of flow. Thus, a high level of ability at or control over online purchasing can lead
the user to feel bored or unmotivated, since no challenge is perceived.
As for the impact of users’ innovativeness, this variable was found to have a significant effect on
initial acceptance of e-commerce. In particular, innovativeness in the area of new technology is found
to positively affect both future intention to purchase online and general attitude towards such behav-
iour. Likewise, general innovativeness is confirmed to have a positive effect on users’ willingness to try
new technological systems. Thus, individuals more willing to adopt new products or behaviour are
found to be more likely to accept the use of new technology.
Regarding the moderating effects of innovativeness on the relationship between subjective norm
and shopping intention, our results failed to confirm the existence of significant differences between
those individuals who proved more innovative in new technology and those who proved more
reluctant to accept new kinds of behaviour. Thus, the future decision of more innovative individuals
to purchase online is also affected by the opinions of third parties. In fact, these individuals proved
to be just as affected by social influence as less innovative Internet users. However, the fact that the
normative influence of social referents is the only kind of influence to be analysed could contribute
to determine these results, since other factors such as information or identification influence are not
considered.
On the other hand, individuals’ innovativeness was found to have a moderating effect on other rela-
tionships considered in the proposed model. In particular, both relationships involving attitude-pur-
chase intention and innovativeness-attitude proved stronger in more innovative individuals than in
less innovative individuals. As a result, the greater the domain-specific innovativeness in the area of
new technology, the more likely it is that positive attitudes towards e-commerce will imply their fu-
ture intention to purchase online. Likewise, innovativeness implies a more positive perception of e-
commerce in the case of innovative individuals.

5.2. Implications for the management of retailers

The results obtained from our research project show some important implications for the manage-
ment of e-commerce companies. In particular, a deeper understanding of the online purchasing pro-
cess, and especially of the effects of innovativeness can be very useful to determine those strategies
and actions leading Internet users to become real online purchasers.
Thus, a remarkable effort must be made to improve users’ perception and their general opinion of
e-commerce and online shops. Therefore, marketing strategies of online companies must aim not only
at improving their own image and their volume of customers, but also at encouraging e-commerce in
general, since this is the only way to guarantee future business growth. Given the effects that social
influence can have on individual online purchasing behaviour, marketing strategies leading to the
spread of e-commerce must not be bound exclusively to potential users of online shops but they must
also reach the whole social system involving those users.
Likewise, given that individual innovativeness, in particular willingness to try new computing sys-
tems, affects individuals’ initial acceptance of online purchasing, it is essential to promote a techno-
logical culture within society. Accordingly, those actions educating customers in the use of
computing systems and contributing to the widespread access to basic facilities and tools prove espe-
cially important so that technology becomes a part of daily life. Also online companies should develop
further strategies promoting the use of this channel as a means of shopping, such as simulated trans-
actions or free trials in the case of electronic services and products. Thus, the more familiar individuals
feel with new technology and e-commerce procedures, the more willing they are to adopt more inno-
vative behaviour.

5.3. Limitations and future lines of research

In spite of the systematic methodology applied, our research also shows some limitations. First,
the definition of behaviour itself, since we analyse the beliefs and attitudes regarding the decision to
 Á. Herrero Crespo, I. Rodríguez del Bosque / Computers in Human Behavior 24 (2008) 2830–2847 2843

purchase any kind of product from online intermediaries. As we do not refer to any specific product
or service categories, the results of our research could be thus affected. However, our choice to con-
sider e-commerce from a general perspective implies the search for a global online purchasing pat-
tern not considering the effects of specific product categories. Nevertheless, the effects that both
specific product categories and their corresponding characteristics have on the online purchasing
decision would be interesting to study in future research projects. In particular, an analysis of the
differences in the procedures relating the online purchase of goods and services would be specially
relevant.
Likewise, from a methodological perspective, the dependent variable used also constitutes a limi-
tation to our study. The online shopping intention has been subjectively measured through users’ per-
ceptions of their own behaviour. Even though this method is frequently used in e-commerce research
(Taylor & Todd, 1995; Chau, 1996), other possible approaches have also been proposed. Some authors
suggest the use of objective measures such as actual behaviour (Szajna, 1996), whilst others (Thomp-
son et al., 1991) recommend the use of both kinds of measures so that the relationship existing be-
tween them could be compared. According to this limitation, future research analysing the
coincidence between the online purchase intention and users’ subsequent actual behaviour would
be interesting to conduct.
Finally, the conclusions reached in this paper in turn propose a number of questions or future re-
search lines related to online purchasing. For instance, as was previously remarked, an analysis of the
effects of specific product categories on the adoption of e-commerce should be performed. Thus, the
influence of individuals’ innovativeness, attitude and the subjective norm could vary from one product
to another (e.g. innovativeness could be more relevant for those products more technologically sophis-
ticated or involving higher risk perceptions). From the point of view of consumer behaviour, it would
be interesting to consider other variables for research on online shopping purchase, such as consum-
ers’ privacy concerns and trust in e-vendors, individuals’ social and demographical features, as well as
their lifestyle or their personal values, among others. In this sense it would be of interest to determine
the most innovative user profile as well as the cases where this variable shows the most relevant ef-
fects on future intention to purchase online.

Appendix. Measurement scales

Internet purchasing intention

INTEN1 I intend to use the Internet to purchase (in the next 6 months)
INTEN2 I expect to use the Internet to purchase (in the next 6 months)
INTEN3 It is likely that I will use the Internet to purchase (in the next 6 months)
INTEN4 I will not use the Internet to purchase (in the next 6 months)

Attitude towards Internet shopping/purchasing

ATTIT1 I like the idea of (. . .using the Internet to purchase in the next 6 months. . .)
ATTIT2 (Using the Internet to purchase in the next 6 months. . .) is a wise idea
ATTIT3 (Using the Internet to purchase in the next 6 months. . .) is a good idea
ATTIT4 (Using the Internet to purchase in the next 6 months. . .) is a positive idea

Subjective norm (SN)

SN1 People whose opinions I value would approve of me using the Internet to purchase
SN2 People who influence my behaviour would think that I should use the Internet to purchase
SN3 It is expected from me that I use the Internet to purchase
SN4 People who are important to me would agree if I used the Internet to purchase
2844 Á. Herrero Crespo, I. Rodríguez del Bosque / Computers in Human Behavior 24 (2008) 2830–2847

Perceived behavioural control (PBC)

PBC1 If I wanted to, I could use the Internet to purchase

PBC2 I have the resources and the knowledge and the ability to make use of the Internet to purchase
PBC3 I would be able to use the Internet to purchase
PBC4 It would be impossible for me to use the Internet to purchase Ò

Innovativeness in New Technology (INN_NT)

INN_NT1 If I heard about a new information technology, I would look for ways to experiment with it
INN_NT2 Among my peers, I am usually the first to try out new information technology
INN_NT3 In general, I am hesitant to try out new information technology Ò
INN_NT4 I like to experiment with new information technology

General innovativeness (INN_GE)

INN_GE1 I am generally cautious about accepting new ideas Ò

INN_GE2 I am aware that I am usually one of the last people in my group to accept something new Ò
INN_GE3 I am reluctant about adopting new ways of doing things until I see them working for
people around me Ò
INN_GE4 I often find myself sceptical about new ideas Ò

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