LECTURE – 1 OCEANOGRAPHY

BOTTOM TOPOGRAPHY OF OCEANS:

Bathymetry Techniques –
 These are used to ascertain the depth of oceans.
(1) Direct Method -
 Way of ascertaining depth by physical means such as by lowering of rope/chains or by divers.
Limitations:
o Gives an idea only up to limited depths.
o Only very limited part of the ocean can be mapped.
o With depth, pressure increases thousand times, therefore need of sophisticated instruments to
withstand this pressure,
o Sea water is corrosive in nature (may cause short circuits, fouled by marine organisms.
(2) SONAR Technology
 Sound waves are sent to the ocean floor which are reflected back after hitting the floor. Total distance
travelled by them is calculated from the travel time of these sound waves. Thus, theoretical depth can be
ascertained (Depth = Total distance travelled/2).
Limitations:
 Limited part of ocean can be mapped (later multi beam sonar was used, however, it could just increase the
area covered but could not eliminate other problems: as sound waves disturb marine ecology etc.)
(3) Satellite Imagery -
 Gravity attracts water towards the regions occupied by massive features. Thus, the mountains and the
ridges produce elevated areas on the ocean surface while the trenches and the deeps cause slight
depression in the ocean surface. These differences over sea surface can be mapped over satellite imagery.
This method is advantageous as large parts of oceans can be mapped without having any impact on the
ocean ecosystem. Thus, it has emerged as the most important technique of bathymetry. The only
disadvantage is that it excludes the role of oceanic movement which cause differences over sea/ocean
surface.
MAJOR FEATURES OF BOTTOM TOPOGRAPHY OF OCEANS
(I) CONTINENTAL SHELVES:
 These are gently sloping submerged surface of the continents extending seaward from the shoreline. It is
found up to 100 fathoms and covers 8.6% of total oceanic area.
o Atlantic Ocean: 13.3% of total area (Causes: Surrounded by passive margins and glacial deposits etc.)
o Pacific Ocean: 5.7% of total area (because of the presence of back arc basins)
o Indian Ocean: 4.2% of total area (presence of large plateaus and deserts)
 Width: (is variable) – It is narrow along the coast encircled by high mountains or high edges of plateau.
E.g. western South America: Width is 16 km (Andes), African plateau, and along western North America,
much of Indian Ocean (narrow).
 However, it is broader along the coast of river deposits. E.g. Ganga – Brahmaputra delta, Irrawaddy River,
St. Lawrence River (North-America), Back Arc Basin in the Pacific Ocean.
 India – western shelf is wider than the eastern shelf.
 Diagram: Fracturing along the west coast of India.
 Reason – There was subsidence of continental crust due to normal faulting. In future, eastern coast may
become wider.

ORIGIN of Continental Shelf:

1. Tectonic Causes: - faulting & subsidence of continental crust. E.g. – western shelf of India, Labrador shelf,
shelf of North Sea, shelf of the coast of Patagonia, Mozambique shelf. Also occurs, if tilting of the
continental land is occurred.
2. Exogenetic causes – deposition by large rivers (terrigenous –fluvial deposit), glacial central deposition
(deposition done by glaciers & icebergs due to climate change and change in the size of glacial cover).
Diagram: Shelf formed due to Sea level changes, Wave-cut platform etc.
(II) CONTINENTAL SLOPES:
 Slope is characterized by steeper gradient and it varies between 5 0 to 600 from place to place. It is
extended up to the depth of 2000 fathoms (3600m) and covers 8.5% of the total area of ocean basins.
 ORIGIN:
1. Glacially eroded – Valley cut land forms formed by glaciers which have been submerged by sea level rise
(E.g. Pleistocene Period). Canyons of high latitude are hence easy to be explained.
2. Non-glacial origin – For Canyons of lower latitude, different theories were propounded:
Diagrams:
o Diastrophic Theory – slow tectonic process (faulting). But it should be perpendicular.
o Sub-Aerial erosion theory – submarine canyons are submerged river valleys.
o Sub-marine density current Theory –
Excessive evaporation → high salinity → high density of sea water → it’s sinking → it causes erosion in shelves
& slopes. It occurs only in specific areas (polar areas, partially enclosed seas).
o Turbidity current theory – Erosion caused by high velocity turbidity currents due to slope failure.
(Turbidity currents can be set into motion when mud and sand on the continental shelf are loosened by
earthquakes, collapsing slopes, and other geological disturbances. The turbid water then rushes downward
like an avalanche, picking up sediment and increasing in speed as it flows). This is a density current. The
presence of deep marine fans at the end of continental margins strengthens this view.
None of these viewpoints can individually account for the formation of sub marine canyons. As evidences
suggest, a composite explanation should involve all the views to explain the formation of variety of sub-marine
canyons.
(IV) CONTINENTAL RISE:
 It is a gently sloping part of the ocean floor which represents a transition zone between the continental
margin and the abyssal floor. It is formed as a result of coalescence of several deep sea fans and is found
along the passive continental margins. Thus, they are extensively found in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans.
The general slope of the continental rise is between 0.5 degrees and 1 degrees.
 Average width – 300km. –Depth – depend upon where it is formed, (1.5-5 km on very gently sloping
surfaces).
(V) ABYSSAL PLAINS:
 Generally, it is located below the depth of 4000m. They are extensive flat terrains with a slope gradient
which is less than 0.50 and cover about 75.9% of the total oceanic area.
 Maximum area in the Pacific Ocean, while limited area in the Atlantic Ocean (because Mid Oceanic ridges
& wide continental margins).
 They are uniquely flat surfaces and the flattest plains on earth. Reason – irregular topography is buried
under thick mantle of sediments brought by turbidity currents. Also, the presence of passive margins
allows more sediment to enter in deep sea zone from land regions. Thus, much more flat surfaces are
found.
 In the Pacific Ocean, the presence of active margins does not allow much of the terrigenous sediments to
reach in the abyssal plains. Thus, a rougher topography is found in the abyssal plains of the Pacific. Their
monotonous nature can be broken by the presence of abyssal hills and sea mounds. (Abyssal hills are less
than 1000m height and Sea mounts > 1000m.)
Diagram:
 Abyssal hills & sea mounts are of volcanic origin & many of them are the result of hotspot volcanism.
Diagram:
E.g. Pacific abyssal plains is full of such abyssal hills and sea mounts
(VI) MID OCEANIC RIDGES:
Diagram:
 Mid Oceanic ridges are the elevated sea floor/broad linear swells found along the divergent boundaries
located over the ocean floor. It is associated with faulting, volcanism and high heat flow. They are the
longest mountain chains on earth. These are formed when large continents are broken into fragments
leading to the opening up of new ocean basins. In the middle of the ridge, there is the presence of a rift
valley. Both the Indian and the Atlantic Oceans have the presence of Mid Oceanic ridges. In the Pacific,
there is no such central ridge. Ridge in Pacific Ocean is found only in its south-eastern region.
(VII) OCEANIC DEEPS and TRENCHES:
 TRENCH: Generally found at the depths > 5500m, they represent elongated narrow deep valleys/
depression on the sea floor. They are found along the active margins, generally located parallel to the
coast facing mountain & island.
 Deeps – are deepest portion of trenches, less extensive depressions which can be even found in isolation
from the trenches.
 Trenches are formed due to bending & subduction of dense oceanic lithosphere into the mantle.
 In general, colder the oceanic lithosphere, greater the chance of subduction & associated formation of
trenches. Thus, Pacific Ocean that represents the remnant of a very old ocean i.e. panthalsa is surrounded
by numerous trenches. However, Atlantic & Indian ocean have a few trenches due to their comparatively
younger age.
Diagram:
(VII) Banks & Shoals:
 These are depositional features on the continental shelves formed by the deposition of sand and
calcareous materials. They are not rocky structures. Banks- are found at comparatively deeper waters
while the shoals-are shallow water features & thus can present navigational hazards. These are very high
 bio-productivity zones and receive high insolation. They also form the major fishing grounds e.g. Grand
Banks of New found lands, Dogger Bank-North Sea.

BOTTOM TOPOGRAPHY:
(1) ATLANTIC OCEAN:
 In general, bottom topography is a function of the interplay between the endogenetic (tectonic) and the
exogenetic forces. Thus, the presence of passive margins with parallel coastline along with a central ridge
indicates that the Atlantic Ocean was formed due to the breaking up of Pangaea. The passive margins
surrounding it along with the Mid Oceanic ridges thus, have strong influence on the bottom relief of
Atlantic Ocean. In general, the continental margins and the Mid Oceanic ridges occupy significant portion
of the total ocean basin of Atlantic Ocean which is not the case in the Pacific and Indian Oceans.
(A) Continental margins:
 Most of Atlantic Ocean margin is a passive type of margin. Thus, there is the presence of Continental
shelves, slope & rise.
(1) Continental shelf:
Diagram:
 Areas, where the mountains & high plateaus reach near the coast, the shelf is narrower.
 E.g. Brazilian coast, Iberian coast, African coast, Appalachians coast.
 Wider in Gulf of Mexico (deposition by Mississippi river), coast of new found land.
 North-east Atlantic (Western Europe). [Reason is rifting & subsidence of land + deposition (fluvial &
glacial)], south of La Plata (Patagonia shelf).
(2) Continental slope:
 Atlantic Ocean has a wide continental slope which is comparatively gentle. It becomes steep and narrow at
places where the mountain & the slopes reach near the coast.
(B) Mid-Atlantic Ridge -
 General features: It is a continuous feature, extending from Iceland in the North to Bouvet Island in the
South. It is comparatively narrow with high elevation which represents slow sea-floor spreading rates. Its
S-shaped nature along with the parallelism with the coastline shows that it was formed by the breaking up
of Pangaea & the opening up of Atlantic Ocean. The Ridge is divided into 2 parts:
 Northern Branch – Dolphin Rise.
 Southern Branch – Challenger’s Rise. They are separated by the Romanche deep, almost at the equator.
Specific Features:
 Extends from Iceland as Wyville Thompson ridge & becomes wider & known as Telegraphic plateau. From
here at 500 north, it throws a branch in North-West direction which is called as the New Found Land Rise.
At 400 north, it throws other branch towards the Iberian Peninsula & is known as the Azores Rise. Further
south, the ridge continues in south-west direction. It takes a South-Easterly turn at around 150 north. Near
the equator, 2 branches are thrown off:
One is towards Brazil-Para Rise; the other is towards Africa – Sierra Leone Rise. Further south of the equator, it
continues as the Challenger Rise in Southerly direction. One branch is thrown out towards Africa – the Guinea
rise. At 300 south, the ridge becomes wider and 2 branches are thrown off. One towards Brazil-Rio-Granded
Rise & the other towards Africa-Walvis ridge. Further south, it takes a South-Easterly bend & Continues as
Atlantic-Indian Ridge.
Basin:
 The presence of a single ridge divides Atlantic into 2 halves. Branches of the ridge further divide ocean into
number of basins. Western basins are deeper than the eastern basins.
o New Found Land Rise separates the Labrador Basin from the North American basin.
o Northern part of eastern Atlantic Ocean – Spanish/Canary Basin is separated from the Cape Verde basin by
the Azores Rise.
o Sierra Leone Rise separates the Cape Verde basin from the Guinea basin.
In South Atlantic Ocean,
o Angola basin and Cape basin are separated by the Walvis Ridge.
o Western-south Atlantic is divided into Brazil & Argentine basins by the Rio-Grande rise.
Deeps & Trenches – Puerto Rico, Cayman, South Sanwich.

(2) PACIFIC OCEAN:

It resembles a ‘Bi-Concave’ shape, and has large number of islands.
1. Continental margins: Narrow along the coast of North-America and wide along the coast of Eurasia. Along
the coast of Asia, due to the presence of island arcs and the back arc basins, here it is moderately wide.
Continental slope is generally steeper than that of the Atlantic.
2. Oceanic Ridge & swells:
 Absence of a central ridge. Ridge is found only in its south-eastern part. It is called as the East Pacific Rise.
It extends from New Zealand to the Californian coast. It is a very broad ridge & has several branches. One
branch to the North-East towards the Californian coast – Juan De Fuca ridge, while the other towards
Columbia – Galapagos ridge & then the Chile Rise.
 Besides this main ridge, there are individual swells e.g. Central pacific Hawaiian Island. This continues
towards north as a chain of swells – the Emperor Sea mount chain which joins the Aleutian Islands. Off the
coast of New Zealand – the Lord Howe Rise & the Norfolk Rise are present as Individual swells.
3. Trenches and Deeps
 Pacific Ocean is surrounded by large number of Trenches: Important trenches are
 North – Aleutian Trench, Kuril Trench, Japan Trench, Mariana Trench, Philippines Trench, Karma & Tonga
Trench, Peru-Chile Trench, Central American Trench.
4. Basin – Due to less branching of the ridge, there is a general scarcity of basins. Most of the basins in the
Pacific are political in nature. Eg: Philippine Basin.
(3) INDIAN OCEAN:
 Formed in the manner similar to the case of Atlantic, i.e. breaking of Gondwana Land. Thus, it is mostly
surrounded by passive margins. There is the presence of Mid-Indian Ocean ridge.
 It is surrounded by high plateaus; therefore, there is limited number of islands & partially enclosed seas.
1. Continental margins:
(a) Shelf – On an average, it is narrower & forms 4.6% of the ocean floor. It is because of the presence of high
plateaus & mountains. Wider shelves are found between the Coast of Africa & Madagascar, Makran coast of
Pakistan, and Western coast of India: these are due to the result of subsidence.
 Moderately wide shelf: Ganga – Brahmaputra delta region.
 Widest shelf: Mouth of Irrawaddy. It narrows around the Indonesian islands & Australia.
(b) Continental slope – It is steeper than that of the Atlantic.
(c) Continental Rise – Indian Ocean is surrounded by continental rise due to passive margins.
2. Mid-Indian Ridge:
It is of moderate width which becomes very wide at certain places.
 Like the case of Atlantic, there is a central continuous ridge. However, there is the presence of another
parallel ridge in the east which extends towards Andaman. It is called 90 0 East Rise & it divides the Eastern
section of Indian Ocean into roughly 2 equal halves.
 It extends from the tip of Indian Peninsula & is known as Chagos ridge. One Branch towards Lakshadweep
– Laccadive Chagos. It moves south & one branch is thrown towards Somalia – Socotra – Chagos ridge.
Further south, the ridge broadens & is called Chagos-St. Paul ridge. A branch goes towards North-
Westward- Seychelles Ridge. Then, the ridge moves towards S-E’ly direction and becomes wide as:
Amsterdam-St. Paul ridge. Towards south, it becomes the Kerguelean-Gassberg ridge and other branch
continues to extend south-eastwards into the Indian Antarctic ridge. South of Madagascar, a swell called
Madagascar ridge is found.
Basin: the Oman Basin – Shallower & which is the continuation of Arabian Basin.
Trenches: Least number of trenches due to its younger age. Eg:Java- Sunda trench

OCENOGRAPHY – Lecture Note-2

OCEAN CURRENTS:
Channelized flow of water in a fairly defined direction over very large distances. Produced primarily on
account of temperature and salinity variations found in the sea water. Surface currents are primarily driven by
the prevailing winds while the deep sea currents are driven by the gravity.
Significance of ocean currents:
1) Climate:
Global: Heat budget, EI-Nina and La-Nina etc.
Regional: Coastal Areas: Effect of warm and cold currents on adjoining coastal areas
2) Bio-Productivity: Temperature and availability of nutrients determined by the currents can affect the
bio-productivity. Eg: Upwelling zones.
3) Economic: Navigation and Renewable energy.
4) Other: Mixing, upwelling, down welling etc. help in the heat budget and Salt budget.
ORIGIN OF OCEAN CURRENTS:
Types of producing forces:
1) Frictional drag exerted by the winds on the sea surface
2) Density variations.
3) Catastrophic activities
4) Gravitational pull of the Sun and the Moon.
Types of resisting forces:
1) Surface tension
 2) Gravity
Factors affecting origin of surface currents:
1) Primary Factor: Frictional drag on the ocean surface exerted by the prevailing winds.
2) Secondary Factors: Once currents are produced, they are affected by
a) Coriolis force
b) Ocean configuration (Coastline, Island arcs etc.)

Ekman Spiral and Pumping/Transport

Diagrams:
Surface currents are primarily produced due to frictional drag exerted by the prevailing winds on sea surface.
Once the movement of water is begun, it is affected by the Coriolis force and ocean configuration. It is also
important to note that the winds are not consistent but currents are consistent. This consistency of currents is
related with the creation of variations on the sea-surface which leads to the generation of hydraulic gradient.
This hydraulic gradient sustains the flow of currents.
On account of prevailing winds and the Coriolis force, Ekman transport begins to take place. In the tropical
zone, Ekman transport is towards the sub-tropic. The same is true in westerly winds zone i.e transport occurs
towards the sub-tropics. Thus, a high sea-surface is created in sub-tropics while a low sea-surface is formed in
equatorial & sub-polar zones.
Hydraulic gradient is directed from the sub-tropics towards equator causing water to move in same direction.
In the process, Coriolis force makes the moving water to deflect cum sole
Thus, the moving water acquires an easterly direction. In other words an easterly geostrophic current is
formed in each of the tropical hemispheres. Thus two equatorial currents are formed, one in each
hemispheres. Similarly, another hydraulic gradient exists from the sub-tropic towards the sub-poles due to
which a westerly current is formed in each hemisphere which is called the West Wind Drift.
Thus, if earth was completely covered with water, there would have been the presence of four geostrophic
currents encircling the whole earth. However, the presence of continents prevents such phenomena. As the
continents produce obstruction in the path of these geostrophic currents, they are deflected according to the
orientation of the coastline. Ultimately they form circular gyres, circulating around the sub-tropical mounts.
As the Equatorial currents are obstructed by the continents, they begin to move poleward which leads to the
formation of West Boundary Currents. In the tropics, the Ekman transport causes the piling up of water along
the coast in western boundary. Thus, West Boundary Currents are warm currents within the tropics. As these
West Boundary Currents reach 400 latitude, they come under the influence of Westerlies. The Westerlies
along with high Coriolis force deflect the currents eastward and thus, they join the West Wind Drift. Before
they join the West Wind Drift, they mix with the West Boundary Cold Current along the coast.
The West wind Drifts transport waters from western sector to eastern sector in the sub-polar region.
However, as soon as they reach the central part, the Coriolis force deflects the waters equator wards. This
combined with obstruction posed by the continents leads to the formation of East Boundary Currents. In
extra-tropical regions, there is piling up of water towards coast due to which East Boundary Warm currents
are formed. But as soon as they enter the tropics, upwelling along the coast converts them into East Boundary
Cold Currents. Ultimately, the East Boundary Cold Currents join the Equatorial Currents to complete the gyre.
As the equator, the convergence of equatorial currents towards the western boundary of ocean leads to piling
up of water in the western sector. This cause high sea-surface in the western boundary while low sea-surface
in the eastern boundary. Thus, a compensatory flow of water takes place from western boundary towards
eastern boundary in sub-surface region. It is called the Counter Equatorial Current.
Climatic significance of surface ocean currents:
1) WBWC: In tropic, increase temperature and humidity along the eastern coast of continents leading to
the formation of humid climate e.g. Monsoon & China type e.g. Gulf Stream, Kuroshio, Agulhas and
Brazilian currents.
2) In temperate region, mixing of WBWC & WBCC causes frontogenesis and formation of fog, cloudiness,
and also conducive for fisheries.
3) EBWC – Causes moderation of climate in British type during the winters by creating positive
temperature anomaly.
4) EBCC - desiccating influence, increase aridity in tropical and sub-tropical deserts.

SURFACE CURRENTS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN

There are well developed networks of surface currents in the Atlantic Ocean. Two subtropical circulation gyres
have developed in the North and South Atlantic Ocean. Each circulation gyre is surrounded by four major
surface currents.
The following are the significant surface currents of the Atlantic Ocean:
1. North Equatorial Current (warm): Normally, the north equatorial current is formed between the equator
and 100N latitude. This current is generated because of up welling of cold water near the west coast of
Africa and movement of water due to wind drag and resultant friction by N.E. trade winds which drive the
surface water towards the west. Here Coriolis effect is almost zero. This is why this current is seldom
deflected and thus flow in westerly direction.
2. South Equatorial Current (warm): South equatorial current flows from western coast of Africa to the
eastern coast of South America between the equator and 200S latitude. This current is more constant,
stronger and of greater extent than the north equatorial current. In fact, this current is the continuation of
the Benguela current. This warm current is bifurcated into two branches due to obstruction of land barrier
in the form of the east coast of Brazil. The northward branch takes north-westerly course and merges with
the north equatorial current near Trinidad while the second branch turns southward and continues as
Brazil warm current parallel to the east of South America. This current is basically originated under the
stress of trade winds.
3. Counter-equatorial Current (warm): The counter equatorial current flows from west to east in between
the westward flowing strong north and south equatorial currents. The current is less developed in the west
due to stress of trade winds. According to prominent view, the counter equatorial current is originated due
to piling up of immense volume of water because of the convergence of the two great equatorial warm
currents near the coast of Brazil. The piling up of water raises the water level and hence water flows
eastward as compensation current up to the Gulf of Guinea.
4. Gulf Stream System (warm): The Gulf Stream is a system of several currents moving in north-easterly
direction. This current system originates in the Gulf of Mexico around 20 0N latitude and moves in north-
easterly direction along the eastern coast of North America and reaches the western coasts of Europe near
 700N latitude. This system, named Gulf Stream because of its origin in the Mexican Gulf, consists of (i)
Florida current from the strait of Florida to Cape Hatteras, (ii) Gulf Stream from Cape Hatteras to the
Grand Bank, and (iii) North Atlantic Drift (current) from Grand Bank to the Western European coast.
5. Canary Current (cold): The Canary current, a cold current, flows along the western coast of North Africa
between Madeira and Cape Verde. In fact, this current is the continuation of North Atlantic Drift which
turns southward near the Spanish coast and flows to the south along the Coast of Canaries Island. This
current brings cold water of the high latitudes to the warm water of the low latitudes and finally merges
with the north equatorial current.
6. Labrador Current (cold): The Labrador current, an example of cold current, originates in the Baffin Bay and
Davis Strait and after flowing through the coastal waters of Newfoundland and Grand Bank merges with
the Gulf Stream around 500W longitude. This current brings with it a large, number of big icebergs as far
south as Newfoundland and Grand Bank. These icebergs present effective hindrances in the oceanic
navigation. Dense fogs are also produced due to the convergence of the Labrador cold current and the
Gulf Stream near Newfoundland.
7. Brazil Current (warm): The Brazil current is characterized by high temperature and high salinity. This
current is generated because of the bifurcation of the south equatorial current because of obstruction of
the Brazilian coast. The northern branch flows northward and merges with the north equatorial current
while the southern branch known as the Brazil current flows southward along the east coast of south
America up to 400S latitude. Thereafter it is deflected eastward due to the deflective force of the rotation
of the earth (Coriolis effect) and flows in easterly direction under the influence of the Westerlies. The
Falkland cold current coming from the south merges with the Brazil current near 40 0S latitude.
8. Falkland Current (cold): The cold water of the Antarctic Sea flows in the form of Falkland cold current from
south to north along the eastern coast of South America up to Argentina. This current becomes most
extensive and developed near 300S latitude. This current also brings numerous icebergs from the Antarctic
area to the South American coast.
9. South Atlantic Drift (cold): The eastward continuation of the Brazil current is called South Atlantic Drift.
This current is originated because of the deflection of the Brazil warm current eastward at 40 0S latitude
due to the Coriolis effect. The South Atlantic Drift, thus, flows eastward under the influence of the
Westerlies.
10. Benguela Current (cold): The Banguela current, a cold current, flows from south to north along the
western coast of South Africa. In fact, the South Atlantic Drift turns northward due to obstruction caused
by the southern tip of Africa. Further northward, this current merges with the South Equatorial Current.
This Current, also known as the eastern boundary current, forms the eastern limit of the southern
subtropical Atlantic Ocean gyre.
SURFACE CURRENTS OF PACIFIC OCEAN:
The Pacific Ocean, like the Atlantic Ocean, is also characterized by two well-developed circulation gyres in the
North and South Pacific Ocean in tropical and subtropical regions of the ocean. Each circulation gyre is
surrounded by four well developed surface ocean currents which move in clockwise direction in the North
Pacific Ocean and in anti-clockwise direction in the South Pacific Ocean.
The following are the significant surface currents of the Pacific Ocean:
1. North Equatorial Current (warm): The north equatorial current originates off the western coast of Mexico
and flows in westerly direction and reaches the Philippines coast after covering a distance of 7500 nautical
miles (13 830 km). This current is originated because of the Californian current and north-east monsoon.
The volume of water continuously increases westward because numerous minor branches join this current
from the north. A few branches also come out of the main current and turn towards north and south. One
branch emerges from the north equatorial current near Taiwan and flows northward to join Kuroshio
Current while the southern branch turns eastward to form counter equatorial current.
2. South Equatorial Current (warm): The south equatorial current is originated due to the influence of south-
east trade winds and flows from east to west. This current is stronger than the north equatorial current.
The current is bifurcated into northern and southern branches near New Guinea. The northern branch
turns eastward and flow as counter equatorial current while the southern branch moves towards the
northern and north-eastern coasts of Australia.
3. Counter Equatorial Current (warm): The current flowing west to east between the north and south
equatorial currents is termed counter equatorial current. Because of trade winds immense volume of
water is piled up in the western coast with the result that there is general slope gradient of water surface
from west to east. This gradient causes flow of water in easterly direction in the name of counter
equatorial current which is the most developed counter current in the Pacific Ocean.
4. Kuroshio System (warm): The Kuroshio system comprised of several currents and is similar to the Gulf
Stream system of the Atlantic Ocean. This system runs from Taiwan to the Bering Strait and consists of the
Kuroshio Current, the Kuroshio extension, the north Pacific Drift, the Tsushima current and the counter
Kuroshio current.
5. Oyashio Current (cold): The Oyashio cold current is also known as the Kurile cold current. This cold current
flows through the Bering Strait in southernly direction and thus transports cold water of the Arctic Sea into
the Pacific Ocean. Near 500N latitude this current is bifurcated into two branches. One branch turns
eastward and merges with the Aleutian and Kuroshio currents. The second branch moves up to the
Japanese coasts. This current is comparable to the cold Labrador Current of the North Atlantic Ocean. The
convergence of cold Oyashio (Kurile) and warm Kuroshio Current causes dense fogs which become
potential hazards for navigation.
6. California Current (cold): The California current, an example of cold current, is similar to the Canary cold
current of the Atlantic Ocean in most of its characteristics. In fact, this current is the eastward extension of
the North Pacific Drift. This current after reaching the Mexican coast turns westward and merges with the
north equatorial current.
7. Peru Current (cold): The cold flowing along the western coast of South America from south to north is
called Peru Current or Humboldt Current. The current is known as Peru coastal current near the coast
while: It is called Peru oceanic current of the coast.
8. El Nino or Counter Current (warm): A subsurface warm current, known as EI Nino Current, flows from
north to south between 30S and 360 S latitudes at a distance of about 180 km from the Peruvian coast. The
southward shifting of the counter equatorial warm current during southern winter gives birth to EI Nino
current.
9. East Australia Current (warm): South equatorial current is bifurcated near the Australian coast into
northern and southern branches. The southern branch flows as east Australian current from north to south
 along the eastern coasts of Australia. New Zealand is surrounded by this current. It is deflected eastward
near 400S latitude due to Coriolis force. It raise the temperature of east Australian coast for considerable
distance southward.
10. West Wind Drift (cold): A strong ocean current, known as west wind-drift, flows from west to east under
the influence of the Westerlies between Tasmania and South American coast in the zone of 40 0 – 500 S
latitudes. This current becomes much stronger because of immense volume of water mass and high
velocity winds called as roaring forties and thus the current flows with great velocity. In the Far East the
current is bifurcated into two branches. One branch enters the Atlantic Ocean through Cape Horn while
the second branch turns northward and joins the Peru Current.
SURFACE CURRENTS OF INDIAN OCEAN
The current systems of the Indian Ocean are largely controlled and modified by landmasses and monsoon
winds. Indian Ocean being surrounded by the Indian subcontinent, Africa and Australia does not present most
favourable conditions for the development of permanent and consistent system of ocean currents. The
currents in the northern Indian Ocean change their direction of flow twice a year due to north-east and south-
west monsoon winds. Unlike Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, Indian Ocean has only one subtropical circulation
gyre which is formed by the south equatorial current in the north, Mozambique current-a western boundary
current in the west, west wind drift in the south, and west Australia current, an eastern boundary current, in
the east. The major surface currents on Indian Ocean are:
1. North-east Monsoon Current (warm): North-east monsoon winds blow from land to the ocean during
the winter season in the northern hemisphere and thus westward flowing north-east monsoon
currents are produced between Andaman and Somali. This current flows to the south of 5 0N latitude.
2. Indian Counter Current (warm): Indian counter current is originated during the winter season
(northern hemisphere). This current flows in easterly direction between 20 – 80S latitudes from
Zanzibar to Sumatra.
3. S.W. Monsoon Current (warm): There is complete reversal in the direction of monsoon winds during
the summer season. In other words, north-easterly direction of winter monsoon winds becomes south-
westerly during summer season in the northern hemisphere. This reversal in direction of monsoon
winds also reverses the direction of ocean currents of Indian Ocean during summer season. North-east
monsoon ocean currents disappear and south-west monsoon ocean currents are developed. The
general direction of monsoon currents is from south-west to north-east but several minor branches
emerge from the main branch and move in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea. The counter Current
developed during winter season disappears due to this current.
4. Indian Equatorial Current (warm): The currents of the southern Indian Ocean are least affected by
seasonal change in the direction of monsoon winds. The Indian Ocean equatorial current flows from
east to west between 100S and 150S latitudes from Australian coast to African coast.
5. Mozambique Current (warm): One branch of the southern Indian Ocean equatorial current moves
southward through Mozambique Channel known as Mozambique current. This current joins the
Agulhas current near 300 latitude and moves up to the southern tip of Africa and is ultimately diverted
eastward.
6. West Wind Drift (cold) Like Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, an eastward flowing current known as west
wind drift, is also generated in the Indian Ocean. This current bifurcates into two branches near 110 0E
 longitude. One branch turns northward and flows as West Australia cold current along the western
coast of Australia and near the Tropic of Capricorn turns towards west and north-west and ultimately
merges with the south equatorial current near 1000E longitude.

TEMPERATURE OF OCEANS:
Factors responsible for distribution of temperature:
Factors causing heating:
1) Availability of insolation which is a function of latitude.
2) Conduction of heat from continents.
Factors causing cooling:
1) Evaporation.
2) Radiation cooling.
3) Convection and conduction.
Mixing:
1) Oceanic currents.
2) Configuration of the Sea.
(A) Horizontal Distribution:
1. Latitudinal Distribution:
Diagram: Showing latitudinal distribution of temperature in N.H. & S.H.
 Highest temperature – Tropical-Sub-tropical oceans; average annual temperature may reach 270c. This is
because greater insolation and comparatively less effect of mixing (centres of circular gyres).
 Towards the equator, temperature declines slightly as slightly as equator is characterized by greater
cloudiness.
 From tropic-subtropics, temperature continuously declines towards the poles – due to decrease in
insolation received. 00c temperature is found in polar- sub polar latitudes.
 On an average southern hemisphere is cooler than the northern hemisphere. Northern hemisphere has
greater continentality & hence greater conduction of heat from the continents. In southern hemisphere,
Antarctica acts as a cold pole, as a result, colder water is added throughout the year and also southern
oceans are characterized by greater evaporation due to higher velocity of winds.
2. Individual oceans:
- Pacific Ocean > Indian Ocean > Atlantic Ocean Compared with the average temperature of 17.10c oceans,
Atlantic registers slightly lower temperature of 16.90c while the Pacific registers highest- 17.30c. This is the
result of their configuration & amount of insolation received.
Pacific: Bi-convex shape & Atlantic: - Bi-concave shape. Former receives higher insolation than latter as
more of its area lies in Sub-tropics & tropics.
It is important to understand that the distribution of temperature is much more complex. This complexity is
created by the factor of mixing facilitated by the ocean currents and sea configuration. Complexity is further
magnified by seasonal changes in the availability of insolation. This complexity can be analysed from
Isothermal maps of February & August.
(B) Vertical Distribution:
Diagram: Showing Thermocline Trends in Tropical and Polar-Sub-polar Areas.
There is a gradual decrease of temperature with increasing descent. Normally, 90 per cent of the solar heat is
absorbed in the topmost 15.6 m (60 feet) of water. The sea water temperature corresponds to the surface
temperature only up to a depth of about 100 m and with further descent, temperature generally decreases. In
tropical oceans and seas, three layers can be recognized from the surface to bottom. The first layer is about
500 m thick with temperature varying between 200 and 250C. In mid-latitude regions this top layer is found
only during the summer.
The thermocline layer is found just below the first layer. It is characterized by rapid decrease of temperature
with increasing depth. The third layer is very cold and is extended up to the ocean floor.
In contrast to the tropical oceans, in Polar Regions only one layer of cold water is identified. It extends from
the surface to the bottom.
As the temperature decreases with increasing depth, some scientists have divided the oceans into two broad
zones: (i) photic or aphotic zone which extends from the upper surface to 200 m; the photic zone receives
adequate solar insolation; and (ii) aphotic zone extending from 200m to the ocean bottom; this zone does not
receive adequate insolation. [Elaboration to be discussed in the class.]
(C) Range and Variation of Temperature:
There are three aspects under this topic as given below:
(a) Range of sea temperature: In general, the range of temperature (difference between maximum and
minimum temperature) in oceans is less than that of the land because of the inherent nature of these two
surfaces.
(b) Diurnal range of sea temperature: The daily march of temperature mainly reflects the balance between
incoming solar radiation on and outgoing earth radiation. The cloud-free sky helps in greater heating and
cooling of sea surface, hence it bring it brings a high range of diurnal temperatures.
(c) Annual variation of temperature: Generally, the annual range of temperature found in the oceans is much
less than that of land and air. The difference between the annual highest and lowest temperatures of the
surface of the sea is hardly 10 degrees, though the smaller dependent seas exhibit greater annual ranges
of temperature due to the direct influence of the land areas. Thus, in the Mediterranean Sea the range of
temperature is 200F and in the Baltic Sea it is about 400F.
In general, the areas of high range are the lower latitudes, the coastal areas, the enclosed seas and the area
under the shifting wind belts. The shape of the sea also affects the annual range of temperature. Similarly,
north oceans record higher range than the southern oceans due to free mixing of water in the later.

HEAT BUDGET
Balance between the amount of heat energy received and the amount of heat lost by oceans through several
processes. On account of Heat Budget, temperature of oceans remains conserved over longer periods of time.
Q(t) = Qs + Qb + Qh + Qe + Qv + QI + Qa = 0
Qt = Total gain or loss of heat by body of water.
Qs = Amount of insolation received by the sea-surface.
Qb = Net rate of heat loss by sea through long wave radiations.
Qh = Rate of heat loss/gain through sea surface by conduction.
Qe = Rate of heat loss/gain by evaporation.
Qv = Rate of heat loss/gain by body of water due to currents.
QI = Rate of heat loss/gain by body of water due to Bio-chemical processes.
Qa = Amount of heat gained/lost by volcanism.
o This Heat Budget will have variable components at different latitudes (spatial distribution).
o Oceanic movements play a role in the latitudinal heat budget of the earth. I.e. primarily by ocean currents
(surface & deep ocean currents).
o In horizontal distribution, partially enclosed seas would register extremes of temperature as they are
surrounded by land and also mixing is very limited.
o Partially enclosed seas of low latitudes have very high temperature e.g. Red sea, Persian Gulf (30-310c)-
surrounded by desert.
o Partially enclosed seas of high latitudes have below freezing temperature e.g. – Baltic Sea, Hudson Bay.

SALINITY:
Average salinity – 35%, i.e. 35gm of salts dissolved in 1000gm of sea water.
Factors Controlling salinity:
(1) Addition of fresh water – Reduces the salinity.
(a) Zonal factors: Precipitation (highest in equatorial zone), melting of glaciers
(b) Azonal factors: Addition of fresh water by the river (local impact.)
(2) Extraction of fresh water – Increases the salinity.
Mainly by Evaporation (which is a function of temperature, wind velocity, Relative humidity etc.).
(3) Mixing – function of ocean currents, configuration of sea.
Warm Currents – more saline.
Cold Currents – less saline.

(A) HORIZONTAL :
Diagram: Showing latitudinal distribution of Salinity in N.H. & S.H.
On an average, salinity is found to be near normal in equatorial latitudes. Here greater amount of precipitation
adds lot of fresh water and extraction of fresh water is comparatively limited on account of greater cloudiness,
relative humidity and greater calmness in doldrums. Thus, despite being near to the equator, it is near normal.
As we move away towards tropics and sub-tropics, it increases and reaches to 36%0. Here, greater evaporation
due to greater insolation, persistent trade winds and low relative humidity coupled with less rainfall make it
more saline. However, this zone of high salinity is found a little more poleward in the northern hemisphere
than the southern hemisphere.
Salinity declines towards temperate latitudes. Here, greater precipitation leads to decline in salinity. Towards
poles, salinity further declines on account of addition of fresh water from the melting of ice and reduced
evaporation. Average salinity declines at a faster rate in northern hemisphere than the southern hemisphere
due to greater melting of ice in the northern hemisphere.
(B) HEMISPHERICAL:
Northern hemisphere is characterized by comparatively lesser salinity (34.5% 0) primarily on account of greater
addition of fresh water by precipitation and ice-melting compared to the extraction of fresh water (due to
lesser wind velocities). Greater continentality of NH causes more precipitation due to strong low pressure
centers formed over the northern continents. Also, northern hemisphere oceans are smaller in size. Thus, the
impact of addition of fresh water is greater here. On the other hand, Southern hemisphere is mainly a water
hemisphere characterised by grater wind velocities and greater extraction of fresh water due to greater
evaporation. Also, there is less addition of fresh water as Antarctica remains frozen all over the year. Also, the
large expansion of southern hemisphere ocean implies that the impact of fresh water addition is less
pronounced.
(C) Regional:
Diagram: Isohaline maps.
1. Atlantic Ocean:
o Generally salinity is high. In North Atlantic, very high salinity zone of 37% 0 coincides with the Sargasso Sea.
This area is least affected by gyre mixing. From here, salinity declines poleward & equatorward. Change in
salinity is very rapid near the coast of New-Found Land due to mixing of warm saline waters carried by the
Labrador Current.
o In the north-east Atlantic, isohalines bend sharply pole wards depicting greater salinity in higher latitude.
This is due to the impact of warm North Atlantic drift and Norwegian current.
o In the south Atlantic, high salinity is found (37%,) near the coast of Brazil. This is due to the impact of
greater extraction in tropics & sub-tropics & warm saline Brazilian current.
o Area of NW Atlantic (around New Found Land): Salinity gradient (rate of change) is steeper due to the
mixing of more Saline warm Gulf Stream and less saline cold Labradore current.
o In rest of south Atlantic, isohalines follow the latitudinal trends.

2. Pacific Ocean
Salinity distribution is more or less in line with the ideal latitudinal distribution because the
Pacific is a large open ocean characterised by greater mixing and lesser continentality. Thus,
high salinity zone coincides with tropical, sub-tropical mounts, from here, the salinity declines
towards poles and equator similar to the ideal latitudinal distribution of salinity. Still there can
be regional or localised variations.
 Area of NW Pacific (around Japan): Salinity Bradient (rate of change) is steeper due to the mixing of more
saline warm Kuroshio Current and less saline cold Oyashio current.
 Area of NE Pacific: high salinity due to the presence of warm saline waters of north Pacific current
 Tropical Eastern Pacific: due to less saline East Boundary Cold current.
 East Coast of Australia experience high salinity due to the presence of more saline warm
East Australian current.
3. Indian Ocean-
Diagram: Isohaline map.
North Indian Ocean depicts much more complex pattern of isohalines due to its greater continentality and
influence of ocean currents. Here, the coastline along with ocean currents (North-South Course) makes sure
that the 35% isohaline divides North Indian Ocean roughly into 2 equal halves.
In general, western half is more saline than the eastern half. In Arabian Sea salinity increases towards the
North as it is surrounded by deserts and high plateaus (less addition of fresh water by the rivers). On the other
hand, Bay of Bengal is characterized by lower salinity because large rivers like the Ganga, the Brahmaputra,
and the Irrawaddy etc. add large amount of fresh water.
o In the Southern Indian Ocean which is more open and characterized by greater mixing, salinity pattern
conform more of less to the ideal latitudinal pattern with only minor changes brought by the oceanic
currents.
(D) Regional Seas/Partially Enclosed Seas
ATLANTIC:

1. Hudson Bay and Baltic Sea - very low salinity (<30%); rivers & melting of ice.
2. Gulf of Mexico- Salinity declines towards North and reaches 35%, ,(lower than expected) primarily due to
addition of fresh water by Mississippi-Missouri River system.
3. Gult of Guinea-Low salinity (due to addition of fresh water by River Congo & River Niger
4 Mediterranean Sea - Salinity increase (even reach 37%, & 38%,). It is a partially enclosed sea Surrounded by
semi-arid/arid land.
PACIFIC:
(1) Low in yellow sea (river Huang He)-33%,
(2) Low in China Sea - 33%, (Rivers Yangtze Kiang (Chang Jiang), Sikiang, Mekong).

(3) Gulf of California - High (36%,) surrounded by desert & is partially enclosed.
INDIAN OCEAN:
(1) Red Sea- very High (39-40%,) Surrounded by the Arabian Desert.
(2) Persian Gulf- Very High, within the Persian GUl, salinity declines towards north due to the presence of
Tigris & Euphrates.
VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF SALINITY:
Diagram: vertical distribution of salinity.
1. Tropical-Sub-tropical (High salinity on the surface due to greater evaporation, but below the depth of 40m
it declines with the depth).
2. Equatorial – Not much change with the depth.
3. Polar sub-polar – Lower salinity on the surface due to melting of ice and ice-exclusion.
Ice-exclusion – as ice is formed lot of salt is left-behind (precipitate into the lower layers). In this zone, water
below the surface is very cold and dense and highly saline up to certain depth, while the upper layer is less
saline due to ice-exclusion.
SALT BUDGET:
Balance between the amounts of salt added into the ocean by various processes and sources and extracted
from the ocean by various processes and sources. On account of salt budget, oceans maintain an average
salinity which is very crucial for the survival of marine flora and fauna as they have narrow range of tolerance.
Sources adding salt:
ST = salt added from terrestrial region.
SB = salt added by marine biota.
SV = salt added from underwater volcanic eruption.
SS = salt added from space.
Sources extracting salt:
SM = extracted by humans.
SE = extracted by evaporation.
SO = salt extracted by other sources.
ST + SB + S V + S S + SE + S M + S O = 0
ST = major component of addition of salts into the ocean, more than 90% of salt is added. (leads to net
addition of salts).
SB = (extraction is faster than addition in short-period); marine life is a net extractor of salts from the oceans.
SE = large amount of extraction is caused, leads to formation of precipitates and later sedimentary rocks.
In recent times, almost equal amount of extraction is caused by humans.
SO = Includes breaking of waves causing spraying of salts etc.
It is important to note that the components of salt budget have different roles to play in different latitudes.
However, the average salinity in oceans is maintained, particularly beyond the depth of 2km on account to
Thermohaline circulations. As the surface currents lead to the mixing of water, they also affect the salinity and
the salt budget.

OCEANOGRAPHY Lecture Note-3

WATER-MASSES:
 It refers to an extensive portion of oceanic water that is characterized by the uniformity of density which in
turn is a function of temperature and salinity. Formation of water-masses represents the first stage of the
Thermohaline circulations. Once the water-masses are formed, they sink to their appropriate level of
density and begin to flow horizontally. As water-masses move across the latitudes, their temperature and
salinity conditions vary leading to variations in their density as well. Ultimately water-masses return to
their source regions to compensate for the loss of water in source regions and hence complete the giant
conveyer belts.
Diagram:
 In partially enclosed seas, surface salinity is higher and so the halocline is sharper. Presence of pycnocline
does not allow vertical mixing between the surface and the bottom layers. Pycnocline is absent in
polar/sub-polar water bodies as they are characterized by temperature inversion.
Diagram:
Source Regions -
 Water-masses are primarily formed in polar & sub-polar latitude where uniformly low temperature & the
phenomena of ice-exclusion lead to formation of very dense water masses. These water-masses ultimately
sink to their appropriate level of density and begin to flow horizontally as the horizontal movement is not
against the gravity and thus, requires limited energy. However, minor water masses which are
characterized by high evaporation and excessive salinity become denser, and sink to intermediate depths
and flow horizontally.
Diagram:
NADW – North Atlantic deep waters (largest), South of Greenland.
ABW – Antarctic Bottom Waters.
ABW – Arctic Bottom Waters.
 North Indian Ocean & North pacific ocean do not have water masses. North Indian Ocean does not extend
to the required latitude.
 North Pacific – no major water-masses, because, it is comparatively warmer and has greater rainfall which
inhibits the formation of water-masses. Due to absence of ridges, mixing takes place that increases
temperature.
Intermediate water-masses.
 Mediterranean Intermediate waters (MIW) – Mediterranean Sea has high salinity, leads to formation of
moderately dense water-masses which sink to intermediate depths.
 Similar situation in the Red Sea & the Persian Gulf, Baltic sea, Labrador sea etc.

THERMO-HALINE CIRCULATIONS
 These are deep oceanic circulations, which is the function of density differences found in the oceans. As
they are complex phenomena found at greater depths, it is difficult to understand and comprehend. Thus,
our understanding of the thermo-haline circulation is incomplete. However, one such circulation that has
been studied well is the conveyor belt circulation.
 The conveyor belt circulation begins in the North Atlantic, where the north Atlantic deep waters are
formed. This water mass sinks to its appropriate level of density and begins to flow horizontally towards
the south. It flows as a West Boundary Current under the influence of Coriolis force and the bottom
topography.
 Even in the South Atlantic, it remains as a West Boundary Current due to the presence of Challenger Ridge.
Here, it moves to the Antarctic Ocean through the Rio-Grande gap and joins the Antarctic Bottom Waters
and are together called the combined waters. Following the topography, the combined water mass moves
towards the East and forms the circum-Antarctic thermo-haline circulation. Branches from the combined
waters are thrown off into Indian and Pacific oceans. These branches circulate in these oceans and return
back. While returning back, their density has been declined as they mixed with other warm/less saline
waters. Thus, returning currents keep on rising towards the surface. The returning currents move from
east to west and ultimately turn into the Atlantic Ocean near south of Africa following the topography. It
primarily moves as an East Boundary Current, Ultimately, it reaches the source region of North Atlantic
deep waters, and compensate for the loss of water which occurred on account of the formation of north
Atlantic deep waters.
Significance:
1. Thermo-haline circulations help in maintaining the latitudinal heat budget of the ocean as they carry warm
& cold waters across the latitudes. In fact, they allow heat balance to be maintained for much significant
portion of oceans as compared to surface oceanic currents.
2. They also help the maintence of salt-budget of oceans which has a huge impact on the distribution of
marine life.
3. Thermo-haline circulations require prolonged time (tens of thousands of years) to complete the
circulation. Thus, they behave like a reservoir for the storage of heat as they affect the residence time of
received heat energy. Thus, their rate of movement controls the exposure of warm and cold water to the
 surface and thus, also affects the surface temperatures which ultimately have an impact on the global heat
budget.
4. Thermo-haline circulations determine the rate at which deep water are exposed to the surface and thus,
they also determine the rate of addition of Co2 into the atmosphere from the oceans. In other words, the
rate of movement of thermo-haline circulation indirectly determines the global heat budget by
determineing the composition of greenhouse gases.
5. Global warming can have both the positive as well as negative relationship with the thermohaline
circulation. The evidences of present time suggest that the thermo-haline circulations would behave as
negative feedback mechanism to global warming in future.
 There are define evidences which suggest that there is a slowing down of thermo-haline circulations. This
would have both the direct & indirect impact on global warming. Directly, it would reduce the amount of
warm waters exposed to surface in north Atlantic. Thus, it would lead to decline in surface temperatures in
North Atlantic region which causes increase in glacial cover in the northern polar region. This would
increase the albedo of earth & thus, will have negative impact on global warming. Indirectly, it would also
reduce the amount of Co2 added into the atmosphere from the oceans as reduced amounts of deep
waters would be exposed to the surface. Thus, it helps in reducing the proportion of greenhouse gases,
impacting Global Warming indirectly. In fact, there are evidences for increasing acidification of oceans
which bears testimony to above assertion.
Tracing of Water masses.
 Although direct measurements have been made of Deep Ocean Currents, most of our knowledge about
them comes from the study of conservative and non-conservative properties of these water masses.
 Conservation properties of sea water are those that are not affected/ changed by biological, chemical,
physical processes within the body of water-masses. Such conservative properties like temperature and
salinity can be changed only by mixing with other water-masses that have different values for those
properties. They can also be changed by the processes that occur at ocean surface like mixing of water by
river or other causes like Hydrothermal Vent.
 Temperature and salinity are excellent conservative properties which have been used to trace these
water-masses. More specifically, temperature and salinity diagrams have been used to trace the presence
and movement of water-masses.
 Temperature and Salinity diagram (T-S Diagram) is a curve where the temperature is plotted against
salinity. Water samples from the same water-masses have the same salinity and temperature and thus,
appear as a single point on the T-S diagram. Samples from different water-masses would appear as
separate points on the T-S diagram.
Diagram:
 When two water-masses are mixed, the temperature and salinity of mixed water-masses would be along
an almost straight curve drawn between the two points that represent the original water-masses. The
location of temperature and salinity values of the two water sources indicates the relative proportion of
the two original properties of water-mass. Thus, it helps in understanding the source of water-masses.
Diagram:
 Salinity and temperature are excellent tracers but they us only about which water- masses are mixed and
where water-masses are transported. Thus, it is not very helpful in explaining how fast the water-masses
 are moving & mixing. Thus, non-conservative properties of sea water are used along with the conservative
properties to provide a clear understanding of water-masses and thermo-haline circulation.
 Non-conservation properties such as Co2 and O2 concentration can be readily used as tracers.
Concentration of these gases is altered by marine organisms and decomposition of organic particles. Thus,
if we know the original O2 & Co2 concentration of water-mass at their source region, the relative ages of
water-masses can be calculated.
 However, in recent times human activities have added number of useful tracers. These include radioactive-
nuclear weapon testing and certain synthetic organic compounds like CFCs. In fact, some radio-active
isotopes naturally occur in oceanic water such as tritium which is a radio-active isotope of H2 produced by
cosmic rays in atmosphere. Although tritium occurs in small concentration, it can be useful in areas
unaffected by human activities. The decay rates of these isotopes are known and thus depending upon the
age of daughter nuclei, the rate of movement of water-masses can be easily calculated.

OCEANIC WAVES :
 Waves are the disturbances or ripples formed over the sea-surface as energy moves from one place to
another in waves. Thus, unlike the oceanic currents, the oceanic waves do not involve the movement
(horizontal displacement) of water masses. In waves, it is only the energy that travels.
 Waves are formed when the producing force remains smaller than the resisting force due to which it is
unable to carry water particles and is only successful in creating disturbances.
On the basis of producing force, 3 fundamental types of sea waves can be recognized –
(1) Wind generated waves – created due to the frictional drag exerted on the sea surface by the winds.
Normally, they are progressive waves.
(2) Tridal waves – due to the gravitational pull of sun & moon as well as the centrifugal force generated by the
circulatory motion. Normally, they are standing waves.
(3) Catastrophic waves – These are formed by the abrupt disturbance of sea-surface on a large scale due to
rapid release of large amount of energy caused by catastrophic events like submarine
earthquake/volcanism, fall of meteorites etc.
On the basis of resisting forces, 2 types
(1) Capillary waves: Small intensity transverse waves with wavelength less than 6 cm.
(2) Gravity waves: With the origin of gravity as a resisting force, longitudinal direction in the waves is
added, which results in a complex disturbance of particles
On the basis of nature of the wave, 2 types:-
(1) Progressive waves – those which keep on moving forward. During their movement, gradually, their
characteristics change.
 E.g. Wind generated waves progressively become transverse to transverse-longitudinal to circulatory-
orbital to ultimately elliptical orbital waves.
 As the nature of wave changes, the wavelength as well as the amplitude also changes.
(2) Standing waves – are those whose forward movement is obstructed due to the presence of obstacles like
coast line. Such waves are generally large wave which impact most of water column is sea or ocean. These
waves are reflected back and forth due to the presence of obstructions. During this process, their nature
 changes very gradually. Thus, they remain intense for sufficient period of time. This back and forth
movement causes regular rise & fall in sea level.
e.g. – Tidal waves, Seiches.
o Seiches – standing waves which are formed in partially enclosed seas, gulfs, lakes, bays etc. Thus, they are
local/regional waves. These are formed when a progressive wave is obstructed by the presence of
coastline due to which it reflects back and forth within the water body. (In these waves, impact of Coriolis
force is minimum). They can also be formed due to tides (Lake Geneva – Switzerland).
o It may increase/reduce the intensity of Tsunami/tide if its frequency is matching/ mismatching with that of
Tsumi/tide.
o Seiches waves impact coastal areas in many ways. Besides performing other function of waves like
transportation/deposition of sediment, they can impact other waves e.g. intensity of other waves
(Tsunami/Tides) can increase or decrease depending upon the relationship that they have with the
frequency of a seiche wave.
Factors controlling the formation of waves:
(1) Strength of producing force – determine the wavelength & amplitude of wave e.g. earthquake can
produce stronger Tsunami than the ones by the landslides.
Diagram:
Amplitude of normal sea waves depends upon the velocity of winds.
(2) Fetch – It is an important factor in the case of wind generated waves. It refers to maximum distance/time
up to which the winds blow uninterrupted in the same direction. Thus, longer the fetch, stronger the waves
will be.
(3) Viscosity of sea water – Controls formation of waves. If it is low, water would be easily dispersed strong &
taller wave. Viscosity depends upon density which is a function of temperature & salinity.
(4) Depth of sea
Diagram:
 Control the velocity of sea waves. In shallower waters, friction exerted by the sea floor can lead to slowing
down of waves. As sea waves reach the shallow waters, it is their front portions that arrive first & thus, the
velocity of front portions declines. On the other hand, rear portions, which are still to reach the shallower
waters continues to travel with high velocity. Thus, the rear portion catch up the front portion leading to
increase in amplitude & decrease in wavelength of waves.
Wind Generated Waves -
 Formed by the frictional drag exerted by the winds on the sea surface. They are the result of interaction
among the producing force of winds & the resisting force of surface tension of water & gravity.
 Wind generated waves are progressive waves which pass through the following four stages:
(I) Capillary Wave Stage:
 Formed when the winds are weak & fetch is non-uniform. Thus, only small ripples are created whose
wavelength is less than-6cm.
Diagram – Two force
1. Wind’s force 2. Capillary action
 Here, winds try to lift particles vertically upward but surface tension pulls water particles downwards.
Thus, water particles rise up & fall down leading to the formation of transverse waves.
(II) Gravity Waves Stages:
Diagram:
 These are formed when winds become stronger & fetch is more uniform. Their wavelength is 6-16cm &
amplitude also increases. Due to increase in amplitude, force of gravity becomes active and hydraulic
gradients are created from crest of waves towards its trough. Thus, along with vertical disturbance of
particles, horizontal displacement from crest to trough takes place and gravity waves are formed. These
are transverse-longitudinal waves.
 Together, these 2 are called sea waves as they are mainly present in open seas & are smaller.
(III) Swell wave stage – When relative displacement remains strong and fetch becomes larger, larger waves
called swell waves are formed. As waves become larger, variable type of motion is organized in the waves
leading to the formation of circular orbital waves where water particles performs circulatory motion.
Diagram:
 Once the swell are formed, they can move either towards open oceans or towards the coasts.
(IV) Surf Wave stage:
Diagram:
 As waves reach shallower waters, circular orbital motion would give way to elliptical orbital motion due to
the impact of friction of sea flow which causes reduction in velocity of waves. This leads to increase in
amplitude of waves with decrease in wavelength. That is, kinetic energy is converted into potential energy.
As they keep on moving towards the coast, amplitude keeps on increasing. Ultimately waves loss its
balance and break near the coast as breakers.
Diagram:
(Q.1) Discuss the formation of wind generated waves in the oceans.
Long-shore Currents:
Diagram:
 When the wind direction is oblique to coastline, wave formed are also obliquely hitting the coastline. Thus,
swash produced by the breaking of waves also moves obliquely. However, returning backwash is
transverse to coastline. Thus, net movement of water and material through repeated cycle of swash and
backwash is parallel to coastline in average direction of waves. The movement of water material is called
long shore current and long shore drift respectively.
Undertow and rip currents:
Diagram:
 As the surf waves move towards coast they cause some actual displacement of water towards the coast.
This leads to piling up of water near the coast. This piled up water tries to return back towards open sea in
sub-surface region. However, the successive surf waves moving towards the coast do not allow this
movement to readily take place. Thus, piled up water looks for zone of weakness through which it can
return back. Generally, these zones are those where, winds are weak and thus waves are also weak. Thus,
return of water takes a more channelized form in sub-surface region and is called as Undertow current.
When waves are very strong, very strong undertow currents are formed in narrow channelized path and
are called Rip Currents. Rip currents are hazardous in nature.
 Storm surge – A kind of progressive wave caused by intensification of waves by storms like cyclones which
causes flooding in the coastal areas.
 TIDAL WAVES/TIDES :
 Tides refer to the rhythmic rise and fall of the sea level at specific intervals of time. These are produced on
account of the gravitational pull of sun and moon and also due to the centrifugal forces generated by the
circular motion of heavenly bodies.
 Tides generally occur twice a day (semi-diurnal). They are formed at an interval of 12hr 26 min as the earth
takes about 24 hr 52 min to bring again the same meridian, directly below the moon. Tides are very
gigantic waves whereby the waters till the deepest levels are displaced.
1. Newton’s Equilibrium theory :
 This theory provided a foundation on which all later works are based. It is based upon the universal law of
gravitation. According to this view, the earth and the moon are performing circulatory motions around a
central point called Bary’s point/Barycentre. The Barycentre is the centre of gravity between the earth and
the moon. On account of the gravitational pull that exists between earth and moon towards the
barycentre, centrifugal forces are produced. These centrifugal forces are equal at every point on the earth
surface and always directed away from the moon. According to him, Tides are produced at the point
nearest to the moon. Here they are the result of centrifugal force exceeding the gravitational pull. Thus,
tides become semi-diurnal in nature as they are produced twice a day due to gravitational pull &
centrifugal force.
Diagram:
 According to Newton, similar relation exists between the earth and the sun, although, here the Barycentre
is located inside the sun. So, tides produced on the earth’s surface are the vector sum of tides producing
forces of sun and moon.
 Despite its simplicity, there is some inherent weakness in this theory.
(1) Despite a sound mathematical foundation, the theory fails to take into account the gravitational pull of
earth. According to Laplace, gravitational pull of earth is multiple times greater than the gravitational pull of
the moon. Thus, vertical upliftment of water particles to produce high tides is improbable on account of the
gravitional pull and centrifugal force.
(2) Another weakness stems from the fact that Newton considered earth surface to be homogenous while
explaining his views. If his ideas were true, tides should be formed at same meridian at same time. However,
this is not true as tides occur at different time period on same longitudes. There are also other spatial
variations caused by the topography.
2. Dynamic Theory of Laplace:
 Laplace pointed out a very grave error in Newton’s theory where he found that gravitational pull of earth
is about 9 million times greater than the gravitational pull of the moon. Thus, upliftment of water particles
vertically to produce tides is impossible. In other words, vertical component of tide producing forces
cannot produce the tide. Thus, he approached the tidal phenomena from the viewpoint of dynamics of
water in motion. He proved that the horizontal component of tide producing forces is more important
than the vertical forces. Tides are produced as horizontal movement of water particles takes place towards
the sub-lunar and anti-podal point. The horizontal motion is not opposed to gravitational pull of the earth.
Thus, it is able to draw water particles towards these points over the earth’s surface.
 Thus, Laplace was able to eliminate the first fundamental drawback of Newton’s theory. However, his view
also suffered from other drawbacks of Newton’s theory. He also considered the earth to be homogeneous
surface.
Diagram:
3. Progressive Wave Theory – William Wavell:
 He produced a map of co-tidal lines (imaginary lines joining places having tides at same time). In this map,
he explained his progressive wave theory and the varying intensity of tides at different places.
He based this theory on 3 fundamental facts:
(1) Tides travel from east to west as Earth rotates from West to East.
(2) Earth’s surface is heterogeneous where continents & oceans are unevenly distributed.
(3) Tides can occur at different times at places located on the same meridian.
 He proposed that all tidal waves have their origin in southern oceans under the influence of lunar forces.
These waves travel progressively towards west in the form of forced waves. A northward deflection in the
direction of these waves takes place due to the position of land-masses which checks their westwards
flow. As they move further northward, they strike at the projections of continents and topography, due to
which new set of tidal waves are produced. These are secondary tidal waves which affect various coast
lines and create several variability in tidal phenomena. This theory is full of grave errors. Studies have
proved that the tides are regional rather than a global phenomenon. Thus, his view that the tides are
produced from southern oceans is far away from reality.
 This theory assumes that the age of tides increases from south to north which is contrary to the
observation. e.g. spring tides occur at almost same time along the western Atlantic coast.
 He failed to take into account the bottom topography & the configuration of oceans.

4. Standstill Theory of C.D. Harris:

Diagram:
 His theory insists that the tides are a regional phenomenon rather than a global phenomenon. It assumes
that oceans are divided into ocean basins which are more or less enclosed by the bottom topography.
Tides are produced in each of these basins. Tides oscillate in each basin around points of no
motion/amphidromic points in circular manner as they get reflected from the boundaries of the basins and
are impacted upon by the Coriolis force. In northern hemisphere, they oscillate in anti-clockwise manner
and clockwise in southern hemisphere. According to the theory, the configuration of basin would
determine the intensity as well as the time of tides.
 E.g. If the size of basin is optimum so that the tides return exactly at the time of the next tide, much larger
tide would be produced on account of resonance.
 Thus, according to theory, tides are nothing but standing waves produced regionally in different basins,
creating several variability.
 The theory also explains the details of variability in tidal phenomena e.g. it takes into account the relief
features and topographic influences. Local relief features can produce secondary tidal waves due to which
certain places can have tides for more than 2 times a day e.g. Southampton (England) – 4 times a day.

Variability in Tidal Phenomena:

 Temporal variability is the result of changing relationship (distance) between the sun, the moon and the
earth.
1. (A) spring tides:
 When all 3 lie in same line like happens during new moon and full moon conditions, extra-large tides called
spring tides are produced. Under such scenario, tides producing forces of the Sun & the Moon combine
together to form large tides.
(B) Neap tides:
Diagram:
 When moon lies in the first and the third quarter, sun & moon make right angles at the centre of the earth.
Thus, tides producing forces tend to cancel each other. Thus, comparatively smaller tides are produced
and called as the Neap tides.
2. Perigean and Apogean tides:
Diagram
 Neither the earth’s orbit of revolution around the sun nor the moon’s orbit of revolution around the earth
are pure circle but are elliptical. Thus, the distance between these heavenly bodies is variable and so is the
strength of tides. Very large tides called Perigean are formed when the distance is the shortest while
smaller tides called Apogean are formed when the distance is the farthest.
3. Equatorial & Tropical Tides:
Diagram:
 Earth rotational axis is tilted at 23.5 degrees. (rotation is tilted at an angle of 23.5 degrees relative to our
orbital plane – the plane of Earth’s orbit around the sun. The tilt in the axis of the Earth is called its
obliquity by the scientists) Due to this obliquity, southern hemisphere is closer to the sun during winter
solstices, northern hemisphere during summer solstices and the equator is closer during equinoxes. Thus,
the height of tides varies with the changing seasons. When the sun is solstices’ position, extra high tides
are formed during the day in summer hemisphere & during the night in Winter Hemisphere. During
equinoxes such high tides are formed only at the equator.
(Q.1): Tides are Complex Phenomena. Discuss

Diagram:
 Ocean floor is covered with thick mantle of sediments which are called oceanic deposit. These oceanic
deposits can be of inorganic to organic in origin.
Genetic Classification of Oceanic deposits:
 On the basis of source of origin, there are number of categories.

1. Lithogenous/Terrigenous deposits:
 Their origin is attributed to denudation processes- weathering, mass-wasting, transportation, erosion &
deposition which have been occurring over the continents for long time. They are transported by various
agents of erosion. e.g. moving water, winds, glaciers and ultimately deposited in the oceans. They are
mainly concentrated along the continental margins. However, in certain places, they can be seen as
dominating even in the deeper oceans primarily on account of turbidity currents.
Diagram:
Classification on the basis of size –
(1) Gravel: - Diameter > 2mm.
(2) Sand: - Diameter 2mm-0.0625 mm.
(3) Mud:- Diameter <0.0625 mm.
Mud Types:
(a) Black mud – excess of organic matter which has been unable to decompose, found in the areas of high bio-
productivity which is characterized by stagnant water. E.g. – coral reef region.
(b) Blue Mud – found in deeper areas i.e. lower part of slopes, because of dominance of ferrous oxide caused
by greater reduction of oxygen, the process is catalyzed by the presence of sulphur. E.g. Atlantic ocean,
Mediterranean Sea, Banda Sea (Indonesia).
(c) Green Mud – depth 150-300m, found in regions devoid of large rivers. Green colour is due to the presence
of silicates of potassium & iron – glauconites, some concentration of CaCo3 is also there. E.g. – Pacific
slopes, South Africa (Drakensberg Mountain) coast.
(d) Red Mud – Dominance of ferric oxide with significant proportion of CaCo3 (areas of fresh water) i.e.,
mouth of large rivers, where presence of large amount of O2 means maximum oxidation & thus reddish
colour. E.g. Delta of Ganges-Brahmaputra, Yellow river, Much of Atlantic Ocean.
2. Organic Deposit:
 Oozes – are the deposits where organic contents accounts for 1/3rd.
(1) Carbonate oozes
(2) Siliceous oozes
Presence of oozes is the function of: -
o Bio-productivity: - Upwelling zones
o Rate of dilution: - along continental margins, oozes do not dominate despite high bio-productivity due to
dilution by the terrigenous deposits.
o Rate of dissolution: - (Sea water is acidic and a good solvent).
Solubility of carbonate oozes.
 Carbonates slowly dissolve in upper layers as the upper layers are highly saturated with the carbonates.
But beyond the depth of 4km, solubility of sea water for CO32- ions significantly increases. Beyond this
level, CO32- content fully dissolves in sea water and thus, can’t be deposited as marine deposits. So, they
are found only in mid oceanic ridges.
Diagram –

Solubility of silica -
 Top layers are unsaturated with silica. Silica dissolves very rapidly in upper layers but the rate of solubility
declines with the depth and becomes constant beyond the depth of 2km. Thus, for the formation of
siliceous oozes, very high productivity is required so that the upper layers become more saturated with
silica and siliceous parts come out of the upper layer without fully getting dissolved. Such high bio-
productivity exists in the upwelling zones found in 500 S-600S latitudes encircling Antarctica, and North-
pacific, around the coast of japan.
 Note: Radiolarian oozes are absent in central Atlantic as they are diluted here by terrigenous deposits or
carbonate deposits.

Diagram:
3. Red Clay – These are primarily found on the deep ocean floor. Thus, they are the most widespread
deposits found on the ocean floor. Their source is highly variable as they can be derived from wind-blown
volcanic ashes or dust, submarine volcanoes, rock waste deposited by ice-bergs and even from some
organic matters (teeth & bones of fishes). Red colour is primarily because of the rusted organic
compounds. Their distribution depends upon the lack of dilution by the Terrigenous/organic deposits.
 E.g. North Pacific, central south Pacific, eastern Indian Ocean, deeper part of North-America basin,
Brazilian & Argentine basin.
4. Hydrogenous deposits:
 They precipitate out of sea water and get deposited on the ocean floor. Such precipitation occurs only
under extra-ordinary circumstances; therefore, their distribution is more localized. Their distribution is also
a function of the type of hydrogenous deposits.
(a) Hydrothermal deposits:
Diagram:
 These are formed when sea water becomes hot when it comes in contact with magma. It becomes O2
depleted and highly corrosive. As it enters the cracks and fissures of ridges, it dissolves several minerals. As
this hot solution comes out of ridges into the O2 rich open Ocean, the minerals dissolved in it get oxidized
in it get oxidized and are deposited as hydrothermal deposits.
(b) Evaporites:
These are formed when sea water evaporates and leaves behind the dissolved salts. These are deposited in a
sequence according to their solubility. Least soluble minerals precipitate out first and occupy bottom while the
most soluble minerals precipitate out last and are deposited at the top. They dominate only in the enclosed
and semi-enclosed seas.
(c) Phosphatic crust and nodules:
 These are formed when organisms get decomposed and dissolved in sea-water. In high bio-productivity
areas, sea water is enriched in phosphates and these phosphates precipitate out of sea water if it gets
depleted in O2. Since they are associated with high bio-productivity zones, they are mainly found up to the
depth of 2km. e.g. Arabian Sea deposits.
5. Cosmogenous deposits:
 Primarily formed from the meteoric dust derived from the meteorite impact on the earth surface. They are
very fine grained deposits. They do not dominate anywhere as the rate of deposition is very slow and are
diluted by other deposits.
(Q.2) Discuss the economic significance of ocean deposits.

Marine Biotic Provinces:

Diagram:
(1) Neritic – Entirely in photic zone, warmer, higher nutrient availability than the pelagic zone, highest bio-
productivity (Coral reefs, estuaries).
(2) Pelagic:
(a) Epipelagic – receives sunlight but scarcity of nutrients, within the pelagic zone, it has highest productivity
(but less than of the neritic zone).
 Even though, the productivity is comparatively low, the total bio-production is very high due to higher
proportion of surface area within these areas. (Areas of west wind drift & equatorial zone have higher
productivity.)
(3) Mesopelagic – low bio-productivity, big productivity, big marine organism can be found (during their
passage). Rest of the pelagic area-biological desert.

BENTHIC REALM
(A) Supra-littoral zone – lies above high tides zone and is occasionally submerged during very high tides.
(B) Littoral zone – Area between high tides and low tides.
o Bio-production in littoral and supra-littoral zone is a function of the type of Coastline. It is generally high
along rocky coastline where the water is clear (more sunlight & dissolved gases).
o These two zones will have small organism e.g. crustaceans, star fishes.
(C) Sub-neritic zone – receives sunlight, more availability of nutrients (is more than the neritic zone), sea floor
act as habitat.
e.g. Coral reefs. Beyond this limit, only diffused sunlight is present.
(D) Beyond 1000m, bio-productivity is very low (almost negligible).
(E) Deep Benthic realm has greater bio-productivity than the deep pelagic zone primarily due to the presence
of ocean floor which provides habitat. Also, here, the food chain starts from chemo-synthetic bacteria.

Geographical Classification of Ocean Deposits

Broadly 2 types
(1) Terrigenous deposits
o Gravel
o Sand
o Mud
(2) Pelagic deposits
o Biotic/biogenous/organic
 Calcareous
 Siliceous
o Red clay
o Pelagic deposits are very fine sediments which settle slowly and originate in the open oceans far from the
coast.
SEA LEVEL CHANGES
(1) Eustatic changes
(2) Isocratic changes
Throughout the geological history, the level of sea has changed with respect to the coast on account of
several processes having local to global impacts. Depending upon the extent & the impacts, such sea level
changes can be classified into 2 types.
(1) Eustatic changes – They have global impacts which can be resulted from climatic changes or even from the
tectonic activities.
(A) By climatic changes or glacial causes
 Such sea-level changes are the result of long term changes in climate which lead to alternative glacial and
inter-glacial phases. When the earth passes through the period of low temperature it is called glacial
phase. During this period, average temperatures decline, leading to the extension of glacial cover over the
land. This glacial expansion becomes possible as water is extracted from the sea. This causes global fall in
sea level. On the other hand, when the earth passes through the warm phase, it is called interglacial
phase. Increase of temperature during the interglacial phase causes melting of glaciers. The melt water
ultimately flows into the oceans causing global rise in sea level.
 In the past geological period, several such eustatic sea level changes have been occurred. Pleistocene
epoch witnessed several such eustatic sea level changes. It was characterized by 4 glacial and inter-glacial
phases which had their corresponding eustatic influence on sea level. Another such important sea-level
changes were witnessed during the carboniferous period, when the Gondwanaland was located near the
South Pole. This led to the formation of thick glacial cover ultimately causing Eustatic fall in sea level.

(B) Tectonic Causes

 During the cretaceous period, very high sea level was believed to have been present. Such an event is
called cretaceous flood. During this period, sea level would have been as high as 180m higher than the
present sea level. Such sea level changes cannot be explained by climatic changes, because, even if all the
glaciers present on earth today melt, they can cause only 100m rise in sea level. Thus, other causes,
primarily the tectonic causes have been suggested as responsible for such changes. Although, there exists
a debate and confusion over the exact nature of such tectonic forces.
 One of the prominent view put forwarded is related to the formation of Fold Mountains. According to this
view, prior to the formation of Fold Mountains or orogenetic phase, the geosynclinals stage is
characterized by large scale deposition of sediments on ocean basins. This caused reduction in the capacity
of ocean basin leading to corresponding rise in the sea level. It is cited as the primary reason for
cretaceous floods. The geosynclinals phase is followed by the orogenetic phase, whereby sediments are
removed from ocean basins and plastered onto the continents in the form of Fold Mountains. This leads to
increase in the capacity of ocean basin which causes eustatic fall in the sea level.
 Although appealing as it was able to explain several sea level changes which occurred during the
geosynclinals and orogenetic phases, the theory has certain shortcomings. Most importantly, it fails to
take into account the consequent isostatic adjustment which would occur due to loading and unloading of
sediments on the ocean floor. Thus, most of scientists today agree that geosynclinals orogeny can have
impact on sea level. But, as isostatic adjustment is never complete, it is agreed that such geosynclinals and
orogenetic phase cannot account for large sea-level changes as occurred in the cretaceous period.
 To fill the gap in the understanding of sea-level changes, another view has been put forward. It asserts that
the sea level changes are directly related to the rates of sea floor spreading. According to this view,
periods of high sea floor spreading are those when warm buoyant and elevated rocks are pushed far away
from the ridges causing increase in the width of mid-oceanic ridges. This would correspond with the
reduction in the capacity of ocean basin leading to eustatic rise in sea level. This explanation perfectly fits
 with cretaceous data as we know sea floor spreading rates were higher during cretaceous which would
have been the cause of cretaceous floods.
 However, slow sea floor spreading rates would manifest in the form of narrower mid-oceanic ridge. This
would increase the capacity of ocean basin thus; corresponding fall in the sea level has been occurred in
tertiary period following the Cretaceous period.
(2) Isostatic Changes
 These are local to regional sea level changes caused by isostatic adjustments occurring in certain
localities/regions.
Diagram:
 One of the most common causes of such local to regional sea level changes is related to isostatic
adjustments caused by the formation and melting of glaciers, leading to loading and unloading over the
land. E.g. – after Pleistocene, area around the Baltic Sea seems to have risen by 150m. Similarly, in the
Hudson Bay, this rise has been approximately 9 meter. Such local to regional changes can also result from
other tectonic activities like volcanism, folding, faulting, subsidence, upwarping, tilting etc. Whatever be
the cause of such local to regional sea level changes, they complicate the measurement of eustatic sea
level changes as they are super-imposed upon eustatic causes.

OCEANOGRAPHY Lecture Note-3

CORAL REEF
They are called the rainforest of oceans as they are characterized by very high bio-diversity. They are also
helpful in the maintenance of coastal ecology as they act as natural barriers/buffer zone between the
coastlines and the marine processes.
Coral reefs are calcareous redges found in sub-neritic zones (below low tide level). They are formed mainly by
the activities of tiny sea anemones called polyps. Polyps are immobile benthos, thus, they require suitable sub-
marine platform for their survival. Polyps are soft-bodied organisms, thus, they extract CaCo3 from the sea
and make shells to protect their soft body. Polyps prefer to live in colonies attached to marine platforms. As
one generation of polyps die, their shells are deposited and the next generation of polyps colonise over them.
This cycle is repeated and thus, leading to the formation of large coral reefs.
Essential Conditions required for the formation of coral reefs and survival of polyps:
(1) Require a suitable sub-marine platform as they are immobile benthos, shallow living polyps can thrive till
the depth of 60m.
 Zooxanthella – symbiotic relationship, give colour to coral reefs. Sunlight is very important for their
survival. (As they acquire food from the photosynthesis performed by the micro-algae, zoo-xanthella lives
in their tissues).
(2) Temperature should not go below 20oc. This is the reason why these shallow polyps and coral reefs are
practically confined within the 30o latitude (20oc isotherm).
(3) Salinity – suitable range of tolerance – 27%0 to 40%0. This is the reason why they are absent at the mouth
of rivers.
(4) Polyps require constant cleansing action by wave so that their mouths are not choked with sediments.
Waves are also important as they renew O2 and other nutrients supply to the polyps (generally, reef water is
deficient in nutrients). This is the reason that the reef is characterized by greater growth towards its seaward
margin.
Diagram:
(5) Phenomena like sudden fall in sea level by very low tides, dilution of sea water by tropical storms etc. may
prove to be harmful for coral reefs.

Type of Reefs:
1. Fringing reefs:
 These are smaller reefs (radius: - 1-2 km) that are formed bordering the coastlines. Generally, the lagoon is
absent in such reefs. Even if it is found, it is very small and shallow. It is the most common type found
around the world.
 In India – except Lakshadweep, all others are fringing reefs.
 No Barriers reefs in India.
2. Barrier reefs:
Diagram:
 Largest variety (width >50km), larger & deeper lagoons are enclosed between the reefs and the coastlines.
Lagoons are connected with the open oceans by numerous tidal and bay inlets.
3. Atolls:
Diagram:
 These are annular/circular reefs which enclose a shallow lagoon between them. Sometimes an island can
also be found in the centre of the lagoon. The logoon is connected to the open sea with numerous tidal
inlets. E.g. – Lakshadweep, Maldives etc.

THEORIES of CORAL REEF FORMATION:

 Besides the presence of different types of coral reefs, there is large variety in their shape, size, and
location as well as in the depths of formation. Such a complexity has given rise to a number of theories on
the origin of Coral reefs.
(1) Subsidence Theory of Darwin:
 Darwin’s theory is based upon the idea of evolution which he developed between 1837-1842 during his
Beagle expedition. According to him, the development of different types of coral reefs is nothing but
different stages in the formation of coral reefs. This process begins with the formation of fringing reefs and
end with the formation of atolls, with barrier reefs representing an intermediate stage.
According to him, there are 3 stages in the development of coral reefs:
(I) Fringing Reef stage:
 Fringing reefs develop along the suitable marine platforms. In this stage, reefs are small and lagoon is
generally absent. However, sometimes strong wave erosion can lead to the formation of shallow lagoons.
Soon the coastal land/island begins to subside due to tectonic forces.
(II) Barrier Reef stage:
 With subsidence, Coral polyps begin to grow at a faster rate in order to increase their chances of survival,
as faster growth means that they remain at the necessary depth for their survival. Soon, an equilibrium
stage would be reached where the rate of growth of reef matches the rate of subsidence of land. As the
 process continues, a much larger reef called the barrier reef is formed. During its formation, waves
continue to perform erosion, thus, a much larger and deeper lagoon is formed.
(III) Atoll Reef Stage:
 The process of subsidence continues under the influence of tectonic forces. Therefore, the reef continues
to grow upward and outward. Soon, the whole island subsides below the sea level and reefs cover the
entire Island leading to the formation of annular reefs called atolls.
To support his theory, Darwin provided evidences –
1- Shallowness of lagoons – It indicates that there is gradual subsidence of land. If land is taken to be stable,
lagoon would be filled with deposition of sediments.
2- Along the emergent coasts, which are indicative of emergence/ upliftment, the barrier reefs & the atolls
are conspicuously absent.
3- The coral reefs were found even beyond the depth of 1800m which suggests that the subsidence of land
must have occurred.
4- The drilling in reefs indicated that its thickness increases sea wards.
5- Absence of cliff along many coral islands validates the idea of subsidence, because cliffs are found along
those coastal regions where land has been stationary or stable.
Short Comings:
1. In the Central Pacific, several atolls are found without any evidence of large scale subsidence of land.
According to Darwin, subsidence is a necessary condition required for the formation of such atolls. In fact,
later both Murray and Daly enunciated that atolls can be formed on suitable sub-marine platform e.g. sub-
marine ridges, sea mounts, abyssal hills. Many of the atolls in central pacific are formed in this manner.
2. In the Pacific, along the island of Fiji, both the fringing reefs as well as the barrier reefs are found side by
side to each other, indicating that subsidence and evolution may not be the cause of their formation.

(2) Stand-still Theory of Murray

 He provided the concept of non-subsidence/stand still theory of coral reef formation in 1883 following his
challenger expedition (1870-1876). He believed that the fringing reefs and the barrier reefs have
sequential evolution while atolls have a separate development altogether.
 According to him, the reef can develop over suitable sub-marine platforms found until the depth of 30
fathoms (55m). The development of reefs begins with the formation of a fringing reef in one of such
suitable marine platform.
 Once formed, the reef is subjected to wave erosion in its sea ward margin. This generates calcareous
debris which is deposited on the sea floor towards the sea-ward margin. As accumulation of debris
continues, it provides the necessary sub-marine platforms required for further growth of reef towards its
sea-ward margin. Thus, fringing reef grows outward and transforms itself into barriers reef over a
prolonged period of time. The development of lagoons is the result of dissolution by sea-water in the inner
parts of the reef.
 Atolls have separate origin altogether. Atolls develop over abyssal hills, sea mounts, guyots and ridges
located at suitable depths.

Criticism:
(1) It is questionable that how the fallen debris can provide such a necessary large sub-marine platform for
the development of barrier reefs.
(2) The manner of formation of lagoon suggested by him is unacceptable, because if solution was the reason,
fallen debris would be the first to dissolve.
(3) The theory is unable to explain the presence of reefs located beyond 30 fathoms depth.

Appraisal:
(1) Atolls formation e.g. Lakshdweep is explained.

(3) Glacial Control Theory of Daly (1915)

 According to Daly, development of coral reefs is non-evolutionary and all 3 types of reefs have separate
evolution altogether. Daly was convinced that the contemporary coral reefs were formed after the
Pleistocene ice age. During this age, sea level had fallen by about 33-38 fathoms and that caused the death
of all existing corals of that time.
 Fall in sea level led to the development of wave cut platforms along the coast. As the level rose during the
interglacial period, these wave-cut platforms provided the necessary condition required for the
development of coral reefs. Fringing reefs developed along the narrow wave cut platform while barrier
reefs were formed along wide and large wave cut platforms.
 Atolls development is in a manner similar to what envisaged by Murray i.e. over suitable marine platforms
provided by sea mounts, guyots and ridges.
Shortcomings:
i. His assumption that all the coral reefs developed after Pleistocene ice-age has been proved to be wrong as
several coral reefs are much older.
ii. If his view is accepted, a sea cliff should always accompany fringing reefs and barrier reefs. However, they
seem to be more of an exception rather than a rule.
iii. He was unable to explain the existence of coral reefs found beyond 38 feet depth.
Q.1. The complexity of coral reefs origin seems to have been fully addressed by the major theories of coral
reefs origin. Discuss
Q.4. Differentiate between subsistence theory and glacial control theory of coral reefs formation.

IDEA of DAVIS
Davis did not provide a separate theory on coral reef formation; instead he tried to strike a balance between
the already existing subsidence theory and glacial control theory, though his views were tilted in favour of
subsidence theory. He provided evidence in support –
(1) Presence of indented coastlines in the areas of erstwhile coral reefs validates the idea of subsidence and
consequent submergence of land.
(2) He suggested that the tectonic forces responsible for the subsidence may be the isostatic adjustment
caused by loading as a result of growth of coral reefs.
(3) Drilling of reefs and the finding that their thickness increases seawards was also validated by Davis.
(4) Davis also supported the idea that the shallowness of lagoon as well as its uniform depth becomes possible
due to subsidence. In the absence of subsidence, sediments would have filled the lagoon.
 However, Davis also recognized that the coral reef can be formed on account of climate changes with
corresponding sea level changes. Presence of sea cliffs along many coral reefs validated the fact that many
of them were formed over sub-marine wave cut platforms which can be the result of Pleistocene sea level
changes. Davis also acknowledged that the formation of atolls can take place separately on suitable sub-
marine platforms e.g. sea mounts, guyots, ridges as in the case of many Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean
Atolls.

CORAL BLEACHING:
It refers to the process of decolouration of coral reefs as coral polyps are forced to expel the symbiotic micro-
algae from their tissues under various natural to man-made stresses. Zoo-xanthallae are micro-algae that live
in symbiotic relationship with coral polyps within poly’s tissue. These algae perform photosynthesis and
provide food to coral and also provide colour to corals as they are highly colourful. In return polyps provide
them safe-habitat in their tissues.
When the zoo-xanthallae are expelled, bleaching occurs. If the bleaching event is less intense and stress is
removed in time, coral polyps can be re-colonised by the same or different micro-algae and they would
recover. However, if bleaching event is very severe and stresses are not removed in time, polyps cannot
recover and they die due to scarcity of food. Under such scenario, reef itself may be lost as the reef building
process is affected.

Causes/Stress of Coral bleaching:

1. Temperature change:
 Both increase as well as decrease in temperature beyond the range of tolerance of polyps can lead to
bleaching. In recent times, increase in temperature has become the most significant reason for extensive
coral bleaching in the world.
2. Solar irradiation:
 Increase in insolation received by coral reefs can lead to bleaching events. Both photosyntheticaly active
radiation & UV radiations have been implicated as responsible for bleaching.
3. Sub-aerial exposure:
 Sudden lowering of sea level following the events like extreme low tides, ENSO related sea level fall and
tectonic activity can lead to exposure of coral reefs to atmosphere triggering coral bleaching.
4. Changes in Salinity:
 Rapid dilution of reef water following the events like very heavy rainfall associated with climatic
disturbances like tropical storms can cause coral bleaching.
5. Excessive Sedimentation:
 It can choke the mouth of coral polyps causing stress that can be followed by bleaching events. However,
such events are found to have localized impact and are also reinforced by other factors. E.g. saw (wood)
dust by cutting of trees in A & N a few years back.
6. Increase in nutrient supply:
 It can cause increase in the density of zoo-xanthallae within polyp’s tissues 2-3 time more than the normal
level. Such an unsustainable level of zoo-xanthallae in polyps forces the polyps to expel them from the
tissues causing bleaching.
7. Xenobiotic:
 A xenobiotic is a chemical substance found within an organism that is not naturally produced or expected
to be present within the organism. If reef water becomes polluted with harmful chemicals, it can trigger
coral bleaching. Most important source of such chemicals is run-off from the land. However, sometimes
such chemicals can also be added purposely by humans. More wide-spread bleaching results due to oil
spells.
8. Epizootics:
 Sometimes pathogen induced diseases can lead to whitening of coral polyps tissues which would look like
a coral bleaching event although it is different from normal bleaching which is caused by expulsion of
micro-algae.

Extent of coral bleaching:

 Before 1970’s fewer coral bleaching events were registered partly because of less environmental
awareness, particularly in the case of coral reef and partly because such events were limited both in time
and space. Such events were the result of multiple causes and the severity and the extent of bleaching in
most of such events were less and coral used to recover.
 Since 1970’s, coral bleaching has attained a more global significance as well as there has been an increase
in frequency and intensity of bleaching. In many of these cases, there has been death of polyps and in
many case losses of coral reefs. Post 1970’s, coral bleaching events have one underlying common cause
i.e. increase in global ocean temperature. The severity of bleaching is also function of super-imposition of
other causes on this general cause.
 Since 1970, there are several regions which are experiencing coral bleaching at very fast rate and can be
rightly called as hotspot of coral bleaching.
i. Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean sea: 90% of reefs are experiencing some or the other kind of bleaching e.g. –
This is a very important trade route (suffered high oil spills) and is highly polluted.
ii. Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf and Red sea.
iii. Near Madagascar.
iv. China Sea and Indonesian Sea.
v. Great barriers reefs (especially northern part).
vi. Central pacific.
 In recent times, positive sea surface temperature anomalies have been registered in several areas
including South China Sea, Arabian Sea, Tasman Sea and Equatorial Atlantic. Such an anomaly is expected
to accelerate coral bleaching events in future.

Conservation of Coral Reefs:

Survival of coral reefs against coral bleaching depends a lot on human activities as ship transportation,
extraction of minerals from the sea floor, discharge of pollutants into the sea etc. have directly caused coral
bleaching. Other activities like deforestation & concretization have had indirect impacts on corals. Thus,
management of such human activities can go a long way in the management of coral bleaching and
conservation of coral reefs. In general 2 broad types of activities have been undertaken to manage coral
bleaching and conserve corals:-
1. Conservation of coral reefs through declaration of such areas as bio-diversity rich zones and bringing them
under the network of protected reserves e.g. Gulf of Mannar biosphere reserve, Nicobar biosphere
reserve.
2. Regulation of land use in the coast area through implementation of Coastal Regulation zone (CRZ) rule and
other land use laws. This is to ensure that pollution of reefs is minimized as land is the most important
source of pollutants.
 In certain emergency situations, some immediate steps can be adopted e.g. providing a stream of cooler
water with suitable salinity can help the coral reefs to recover from bleaching events.
 It is important to note that survival of coral reefs ultimately depends upon their genetic make-up. It has
been found that certain polyps, particularly larger varieties have greater resistance to bleaching events in
general and temperature changes in particular. Thus, in recent times Bio-technology research is being
taken up to understand the genetic make-up that makes them resistant to such changes so that in future
we can come up with newer solutions.
Mesophotic Coral ecosystem:
 According to recent UNEP report (Mesophotic coral ecosystem: A life boat for coral reefs), Coral Reefs
most likely to survive 21st century include those that sustain low impact from the terrestrial run-off and
temperature changes. These include large areas of inter-mediate depth reefs known as Mesophotic coral
ecosystems found at the depth > 30-40m. Mesophotic coral ecosystems are buffered from human and
natural disturbance which negatively affect the shallow water reefs.

Characteristics Shallow water coral reefs Mesophotic coral reefs

1) Depth range From low tide level to approx. From 30-40 to 150m. Not detectible in
40m, detectible in satellite satellite images.
images.
2) Light levels Generally well-lit environment. Middle to low lit-environment.
3) Dominant habitat Zoo-xanthallae, scleractinian (rod Plate like scleractinian, zoo-xanthallae, macro-
building taxa like), octa-coral calcareous micro- algae, sponges.
algae, sponges.
4) Thermal regime Accommodated to higher stable Generally temperature is colder but naturally
thermal regime due to which more variable, particularly those located on
they are highly susceptible to continental slopes. In general, Mesophotic
extreme thermal levels/events. coral ecosystem are protected from extreme
thermal regime by deep water column.
5) Hydro-dynamic Subjected to various hydro- Lie below the depth of breaking waves & are
regime dynamic influences like ENSO unaffected by breaking of waves. However,
related events, breaking of storms are very strong and thus have direct
waves, sea level falls as well as and indirect effect on upper Mesophotic
mobilization of sea floor regime. Similarly, They can be affected by
sediments along the coast. human activities. Eg: Oil and gas exploration,
Mineral mining, introduction of invasive
species etc.
UNCLOS: (The United Nations Convention on the Low of the Sea)
UNCLOS also called the law of sea treaty is an international agreement that resulted from 3 rd UNCLOS which
took place between 1973 and 1982. It defines rights and responsibilities of coastal nations with respect to
their use of world oceans, management of marine natural resources and conservation of marine environment.
It came into force in 1994 and replaced the already existing several treaties on oceans.
UNCLOS is based on two fundamental Principles:
1) Oceans are common heritage of human kind i.e. oceanic resources belong to the whole humanity and
advantages derived from them should be shared.
2) Part of the oceans have greater impact on certain states due to which they can have exclusive rights
over these parts. Ex. Continental shelf and margins are extension of land territory of coastal states.
UNCLOS defines two types of states:
(1) Coastal States: States which has a coastline.
(2) Flag Stages: These are those states where the vessels are registered.
UNCLOS divides the oceans into several zones:

Internal Waters:
 It is all the water that lies on the landward side of the baseline. It is the sovereign territory of coastal state,
which is free to set laws and regulate its use. Foreign vessels have no right of passage.
Territorial Waters: (From baseline to 12 Nautical miles)
 The coastal state has sovereign rights where it is free to set laws and regulate its use. Here foreign vessels
have been given the right to innocent passage. Ex. Strait of Malacca is an important trade route. Vessels
should pass across expeditiously with no stoppage and without harming the peace, good order, and
security of coastal state. Submarines should rise above sea and show their flags.
 Under certain circumstances, coastal states can temporarily suspend innocent passage in specific areas
particularly with respect to National Security.
Contiguous/Pursuit Zone (up to 24 nautical miles into the sea):
 Here, sovereignty is not complete, Here, coastal states can formulate and enforce laws in four specific
areas: Custom, Taxation, Immigration, Pollution. If infringement has taken place, the criminals can be
pursued up to this zone.
Exclusive Economic Zone (From baseline to 200 nautical miles):
 Coastal states have sole right of exploitation of all natural resources lying in this zone with respect to
economic resource. Foreign vessels have the right to free passage. Foreign states can also lay submarine
pipes and cables in this region.
Continental Shelf:
 It is defined as natural prolongation of land territory of coastal state or 200 nautical miles from coastal
state’s baseline, whichever is greater. In any case, it may never exceed 350 nautical miles from the
baseline (for countries with very broad shelf) or may never exceed 100 NM 2500m isobaths.
o Beyond, EEZ lays the deep sea, which is the common properity of all human community.
o Landlocked states have been given the right of transit to sea through coastal states. (Nepal, Bhutan from
West Bengal and Bolivia from Chile, Peru).
o UNCLOS creates a duty bound regime to ensure that management (Environmental Management) of
oceanic zones is undertaken.
Part 12 of UNCLOS specifically deals with Marine Pollution and protection. It clearly identifies that
management and protection of coastal part of sea up to EEZ is the responsibility of coastal state. Beyond this
zone, the duty lies the international community.

International Sea-bed Authority:

Gives responsibility of Management and regulation of exploitation of deep sea minerals. (It would give
information, identify location, and invite bids for exploitation).
 It also needs to take care of the oceanic environment and ensure that degradation is minimized. (Before
inviting bids it performs oceanic EIA)
 It is also responsible for allocating the benefits derived from deep sea mining for entire human community.
Part 12 also identifies the sources of pollution from: Land based sources, Seabed activities, Activities in water
column, by dumping, from vessels, atmospheric pollution.
Article 123 of UNCLOS:
 The states bordering enclosed or semi enclosed sea should coordinate the implementation of their rights
and duties with respect to protection and preservation of Marine environment. It is important to do so
because pollution in one part of the sea, particularly the partially enclosed seas can have spill over effects
and can endanger marine environment in the connected seas.
 For example, South China Sea- China doing harmful activities, Japan can complaint of spill over effect on
Yellow Sea.

Law of Seas and Marine Pollution:

 UNCLOS ensure management of marine pollution and protection of marine environment through its
several general obligations as well as through part XII of convention which specifically deals with marine
pollution and protection of marine environment.
 Part XII clearly identifies duty of various states/parties, recognized under the convention, with respect to
marine pollution and protection of marine environment up to contiguous zone as well as exclusive
economic zone duty primarily lies with flag states. Thus, it has created an innovative duty based legal for
the protection of marine environment with clear cut demarcation of jurisdictions.
 The UNCLOS has expanded the concept of marine pollution as well as sources of such pollution. It
recognises various pathways through which pollutants are introduced into marine ecosystem. These
pathways are –
1. Pollution from land based sources – Direct discharge of pollutants and run-off into oceans. These include
urban sewage, agricultural waste & run-off and other toxic waste.
 E.g. – In US, US environment protection agency calculates mining along with industrial activity is
responsible for 40% of hazardous pollutants into oceans; agro-runoff can carry soil particles laden with
nitrogen compounds etc. This can lead to problems like algal bloom in oceanic areas.
 UNCLOS clearly identifies that responsibility of management of such pollutant lies with coastal states
which have to formulate laws and regulation to ensure that such pollutants are reduced.
2. Pollution from sea-bed activities – subject to national jurisdiction –
 It includes issues arising due to exploitation of minerals and other resources located on the continental
shelves.
 e.g. extraction of petroleum & natural gas, sand, CaCo3, phosphates from continental shelves.
 Management of these resources is responsibility of coastal states.
3. Pollution from activities in area
 It refers arising due to use of water column located above the sea-floor. Management of this area is
responsibility of both coastal & flag states.
4. Pollution by dumping:
 Certain countries can resort to dumping of waste in the seas which can have adverse impact not only in
dumping country but also in entire geographical region. Here duty of ensuring such dumping is stopped
lies with coastal states adjoining the geographical region.
5. Pollution from vessels:
 Vessels passing through sea can cause various types of pollution. E.g. sound pollution, discharge of cargo
residue, spread of harmful algae or invasive species through ballast tanks. The management of such
pollution is the responsibility of flag states.
6. Atmospheric pollution:
 Wind-blown pollutants (dust & debris)
 e.g. Dust from Gobi desert has led to pollution of yellow sea.
 There are evidences that such dust events have connection with decline in the health of coral reefs along
the Florida coast.
 Humans accelerated global warming and increasing ocean acidification is having devastating influence on
marine ecosystem causing modification in distribution of species.
 Besides source included in part XII, the convention recognises principle of common heritage and creates
International Sea bed Authority in past XI of convention. Here it recognises that the deep sea minerals
belong to entire mankind as well as there can be harmful impact of such deep sea mining in marine
environment.
 As per UNCLOS it is responsibility of ISBA to regulate the use of deep sea minerals by granting licenses for
such activity. It is also responsible for the protection of marine environment and ensuring that advantage
of resources are shared among the mankind, especially for under developed countries.
 Besides general obligation of part XII to protect and preserve the marine environment it also obligates
under art 123 that states bordering enclosed or semi- enclosed seas should coordinate the implementation
of their right & duties with respect to protection & preservation of marine environment. Following this
obligation, many cases can be listed as example.
 Case between Ireland & UK over a MOX plant was to be constructed in Britain coast (Irish Sea). Ireland
opposed & the case was won in an International Tribunal.
 Singapore and Malaysia from Indonesian Sea: the former tried to reclaim land & Malaysia opposed it and
won the case.
Pros of UNCLOS:
 Clearly demarcating ocean zones.
 Clearly demarcating duties of each state.
 Clearly demarcating stake holders involved.
 Successfully created ISBA (International Seabed Authority) to regulate deep sea.
Shortcomings of UNCLOS:
 Control over land based sources of pollution remains minimal despite the fact that UNCLOS recognizes it as
important source.
 UNCLOS doesn’t have any authority to implement clauses related with pollution of marine environment; it
is based on duty-based approach (i.e. at mercy of states to fulfill their duties).
For example, Mediterranean Sea council has been formed which imposed regional restriction with respect
to dumping of waste in Mediterranean Sea.
 Some countries argue that although EEZ based regime is said to be comprehensive, the area remains small
when compared with the total area of oceans.
 ISBA: The role of ISBA seems to be contradictory. It has been given the role of allocating the deep sea
blocks for exploitation but it is also has been given the role of ensuring that the marine environmental
degradation is reduced. So, conflict of interest arises. There should be an independent agency to check
that environmental provisions are strictly applied.
 Distribution of benefits from deep sea mining: there is no clear cut formula for such allocation and it is
done on ad-hoc basis, which differs from case to case.
Evaluation of UNCLOS:
There has been commodification of ocean where various environmental principles seem to be breached like:
o There seems to be no clear-cut way of implementing the polluters pay principle. Many of the oceanic
resources may lie in the coastal fringes which belong to the coastal states, but they are the resources of
entire human community. For example, Coral reefs. (Great Barrier Reef not only belong to Australia).
o Seabed is a benthic realm filled with life but economic development has given greater focus. The fact that
there can be irreplaceable damage to biodiversity hasn’t been taken into account (so, fish resources
declined in all the fish regions of the world.)
o Marine plastic pollution is emerging as one of bigger worries for oceanic environment but control on
oceanic plastic pollution is minimal. There is more regional effort than international effort.
o We haven’t applied carrying capacity concept to oceans and thought it to be unlimited. Like all other
systems, the Oceans have limited carrying capacity.

OCEANOGRAPHY Lecture Note – 5

MARINE RESOURCES: MEANING AND IMPORTANCE
World oceans are archives of world culture and civilization because sea floors have kept and preserved
numerous boats, vessels, ships and war equipment etc. of different types ranging from ancient times to
modern age of advanced culture of science and technology. The sunken boats, vessels, cargo ships, warships
Iashed with nuclear weapons, nuclear submarines not only tell the story of the stages of development of skills
and technology of ship building but also reveal the history of sea wars and piracy. Thus, besides the treasure
of natural marine resources including both biotic and abiotic (minerals) resources, sea beds also have
immense treasure of world culture and civilization, and historical records of sea wars, sea piracy, sea trade and
commerce, great voyages, exploration and discovery. Such marine resources may be termed marine cultural
and historical resources.
The biotic and abiotic resources found in the oceanic water and bottoms are called marine resources,
which include marine water, inherent energy in the oceanic water (e.g. wave energy, tidal energy etc.), biotic
life of marine water (plants and animals), marine deposits and abiotic elements (minerals, fossil fuels etc.),
biotic and abiotic matter of ocean bottoms, benthic organ isms [Link] marine resources are unique in the
sense that they are renewable as most of the organisms can be regenerated. Since time immemorial, oceans
have always been useful for human society and have attracted man in different ways. Man has been using
oceans in a number of ways sice long e.g. for transport, communication and trade, fishing, defence purposes,
mineral extraction, recreation, medicines, waste disposal etc. Presently, the importance of oceans has
increased manyfold because of increased demand of food and minerals. Consequently, man, besides
traditional ways of exploitation of marine resources, has become capable of modernizing traditional methods
through his skill and advanced science and technologies. For example, the productivity and production of
marine organisms (plants and animals) have been increased many fold through marine culture (mariculture),
aquaculture, ocean ranching etc.
There has begun a race for the exploitation of minerals associated with oceanic water, ocean deposits
and ocean crusts and accordingly, the strategic importance of oceans has also increased. Many branches of
oceanography have been developed for specific purposes e.g. marine geology, marine biology (for detailed
study of marine organisms), and economic oceanography (for the systematic study of marine resources),
resource oceanography etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF MARINE RESOURCES
Seas and oceans are endowed with different varieties of biotic and abiotic resources of two major sources.
Firstly, the rivers while draining through land areas of the lithosphere bring different types of materials into
the seas. These materials contain a variety of mineral elements of different type of plants and animals.
Secondly, some resources are manufactured by plants in shallow waters. It may be remembered that the
oceans are vast reservoirs of biotic resources. Nearly, 40,000 species of molluscs, and 25,000 species of fishes
are found in marine waters. Besides mineral resources, different types of vitamins and medicinal elements are
also found. Generally, marine resources are divided into three categories as biotic resources, abiotic (mineral
and energy) resources and commercial resources (navigation, aviation, trade and transport etc.) Similarly,
marine resources are also classified into living resources and non-living resources. Alternatively, marine
resources can also be divided into mineral resources, energy resources and food resources. Based on above
mentioned considerations marine resources can be divided into the following categories.
1. MARINE BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES
(A) Food resources
(i) Animal resources (fishes, crabs, prawns, zoo planktons etc.)
(ii) Plant resources (phytoplanktons, sea grass etc.)
(B) Non-food resources-Corals
Alternatively, marine biological resources can also be divided into the following 3 categories:
(A) Plankton communities
(i) Phytoplanktons (ii) Zooplanktons
(B) Nekton communities
(i) Pelagic fishes (ii) Demersal fishes
(C) Benthos communities
(i) Epibenthic community (ii) Benthic organisms (iii) Inflora and infauna
2. MARINE MINERAL RESOURCES
(A) On the basis of location
(i) Minerals of the continental shelf deposits
(ii) Minerals of the continental slope deposits
(iii) Minerals of the deep sea bottom deposits
(B) On the basis of nature
(i) Metallic minerals
(ii) Fuel minerals (petroleum, natural gas)
(iii) Construction materials (gravels, sands, etc.)
3. ENERGY RESOURCES
(A) Conventional energy
(i) Petroleum (ii) Natural gas
(B) Non-conventional energy
(i) Tidal energy (ii) Wave energy
(iii) Biomas energy
(C) Other Possibilities
1. Energy from Temperature gradient (OTEC)
2. Energy from Salinity gradient
3. Wind farms along the suitable coastal areas
4. Energy from Ocean currents
5. Solar panels over the oceans etc.
4. Freshwater resources
Manufactured water (transformation of saline sea water through the processes of desalinization into potable
water)
MARINE BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES (MBR)
The richess and reserves of marine biological resources (marine biomass) depend on the penetration of solar
radition (sunlight) into seawater and efficiency of biological cycle. The marine biome is divided on the basis of
habitats of marine organisms into upper marine water surface zone, middle zone and lower deep sea zone. It
may be mentioned that there are up and down vertical movement of marine animals. Thus, there is transfer of
nutrients from the upper surface downward. The upper surface is called photic layer (up to 200m depth)
where the one called phytoplanktons thrive through the process of photosynthesis. This upper or photic layer
is also called as marine green pasture. This layer is succeeded below by dimly lighted zone and aphotic zone.
The plant and animals communities of marine environment and the environment of their habitats are
collectively called the marine biome which is vertically divided into two types as 1. Pelagic biome 2. Benthic
biome.
The pelagic biome on the basis of depths and plant life is further divided into two types as 1. Neritic pelagic
biome, which includes continental shelves with an average depth of 200 m, and 2. Open sea pelagic biome. On
the basis of the availability of sunlight, marine biomes are divided into two major divisions as 1. Photic biome
(up to the depth of 200m), and 2. Aphotic biome (from) 200 m depth to the bottom of the sea). Aphotic biome
is divided into three subtypes viz. (i) mesopelagic biome (depth up to 1000 m from sea level), (ii) bathypelagic
biome (depth up to 4000 m from sea level, and (iii) abyssopelagic biome (extends up to the depth of 6000 m
or more). Benthic biome is divided into 3 zones as 1. Littoral zone includes those areas of sea shores and sea
coasts which lie within the high and low tide waters, 2. Sub-littoral zone includes the sea bottoms below the
water of the continental shelves, and 3. Deep sea benthic zone (from 200m to 6000m or more depth).
Again, the marine organisms (plants and animals) are divided into 3 categories on the basis of their habitats as
1. Planktons- are floating and drifting micro plants and animals of photic zone. These are further divided into
phytoplanktons (plant planktons) and zooplanktons (animal mainly fishes. These marine animals move in the
the zones of the oceanic environments. 3. Benthos include those plants (non-photosynthetic or non-
phototrophs) and animals which live at the bottom of the seas and oceans.
1. Plankton Community
They include the groups of buoyant and floating marine plants and animals which live in the photic (euphotic
zone or eupelagic zone) up to the depth of 200 m from the sea level. Plant planktons, called as phytoplanktons
produce food through the process of photosynthesis with the help of sunlight, water and atmospheric carbon
dioxide and thus, they are the primary producers and are also called the autotrophs. Algae and diatoms are
the most important members of this community. This community grows so quickly that within a short span of
time they cover very large area of sea surface. Such area of dense cover of algae and diatoms is called marine
pasture. There is reproduction explosion in some of the red-grey microscopic plants. Consequently, extensive
area of red-gray plants is developed. Such area is called the red tide. The size of zooplanktons ranges from one
millimeter to several meters. Zooplanktons are of three types. 1. Herbivore zooplanktons, 2. Carnivore
zooplanktons and 3. Detrivore zooplanktons. In fact, zooplanktons act as a bridge between the marine
pastures of phytoplanktons of photic zone and the largest sea animals.
2. Nekton Community
They consist of swimming animals of various depths o the seas and oceans. Most of the animals of nekton
group are vertebrates. Fishes of numerous species are important members of this community. Sea fishes
are divided into two groups viz. pelagic fishes and demersal fishes. These fishes are main sources of marine
biological resources. The swimmer marine mammals of nekton community are divided into two groups e.g.
1. Those marine animals which live in waters as well as on lands such as scales, and (ii) the second category
of swimming marine mammals includes those animals which spend their entire life in sea water such as
whales. Whales are divided into two families viz. 1. Toothed whales, and 2. whale bone whales. Toothed
whales are predators and range in size from smaller one (such as sperm whale) to giant size (such as killer
whales). Dolphins and porpoises are also included in the toothed whale family. Whalebone whale family of
fishes includes blue whales and humpbacked whales. Sea cow such as manatees is also important species
of swimming mammals of nekton community. Guano, mainly boobies and cormorants are important
swimming birds.
3. Benthos Community
Includes all those plants and animals which live on the sea bottoms right from the littoral marine biome to
the open sea biome. The organisms of this community are characterized by large species diversity. The
total known species of benthos animals represent 16 per cent of the total species of all the marine
animals. Benthos organisms are divided into two categories on the basis of their habitats e.g. 1. epiflora
and epifauna, and 2. Inflora and infauna. Epiflora and epifauna live on the surfaces of sea bottoms whereas
infauna and inflora live in the detritus and are generally buried whether completely or partially in the
ocean bottom deposits. Sea weeds, large algae, eel grass and turtle grass are important benthos plants.
Benthos animals mostly include several species of molluscs e.g. bivale mussels, oysters and cockles.
Majority of the benthos animals are scavengers (e.g. shark, sable fish, hagfish, octopus etc.). The life of
marine benthic animals living on the 1000-4000m deep sea bottom largely depends on the organic matter
of the upper surface of sea water and remains of nekton animals.

Net primary Productivity of Marine Biome

The average net primary productivity of different marine biomes (according to I.G. Simmons, 1974) is 350
dry gram per square meter per year for continental shelf biome; 125 dry g/m2/yr for open sea biome; 500
dry g/m2/yr for upwelling zone biome; and 155 dry g/m2/yr for the entire oceanic biome. The total
primary productivity is 9.30 x 109 tonnes/yr for continental shelf biome; 41 x 109 tonnes/yr for the entire
oceanic areas.
Corals are important animals in the groups of marine organisms. These are generally called as rainforests
of the oceans. The coral colonies provide different types of habitats for different purposes of marine
organisms. Most of sea fishes lay eggs in the coral colonies. In fact, corals are the base of marine biological
community. The marine biological health depends on the richness of corals. Human economic activities are
responsible for coral bleaching causing mass coral deaths due to global warming consequent upon
deforestation, rapid rate of industrialization etc. (see chapter 13 of this book for coral bleaching). The
 average sea temperature increased 20C from the normal during 1997-98 due to which there was large-
scale destruction of corals worldwide through coral bleaching. More than 70 per cent corals of Andman
and Nicobar, and Lakshadweep were destroyed.

FOOD RESOURCES
On the basis of use, marine food resources are divided into two types e.g. (i) protein rich food resources
for the use of human being (e.g. fishes), (ii) animal feed mainly for domesticated animals. The contribution
of fish in the world annual income from marine resources off all categories stands second. The largest
share of world annual income comes from trade and transport. Fin fish make 90 per cent share of total
world catch of fish while remaining 10 per cent is contributed by whales, crustaceans (e.g. lobster),
molluscs and several types of invertebrate animals. The following are the main forms of fishing and fish
farming:
1. FISHING
Fishing refers to the direct catching of sea fish through different means and methods. Sea fish are grouped
in different categories on different bases. On the basis of depth, these are grouped into two categories e.g.
(i) clupeids, which lives in the upper water surface e.g. herring, sardine, pilchard, shads, ancovy etc., and
(ii) gadoid, living in the deep sea mainly at the sea bottom, e.g. cod, haddock, hake etc. the fishes of
clupeid family account for 45 per cent of the total world catch while gadoid family contributes 15 per cent.
Flounders (small flat fishes) contribute 15 per cent of total world catch. The remaining 25 per cent is
contributed by tuna, mackerel etc. (7 per cent), and other types of flatfishes, rose fishes, sea perches,
mullets, jacks etc. On the basis of location sea fishes are grouped in 3 categories viz. (i) pelagic fishes (e.g.
mackerels, tunas, herrings, anchovies etc.); (ii) demersal fishes (e.g. cod, sole, haddock, halibut etc.); and
(iii) anadromous or migratory fishes (e.g. salmons).
Fishing areas (fisheries) are divided in two categories on the basis of temperature of sea water
(1) Cold water fisheries, which have already been developed since long, and (2) tropical and subtropicl
fisheries, which have the potential for further development. The tropical and subtropical fishing areas
have high potential for extensive fish catch in future. In fact, fishing has been greatly developed in the
northern hemisphere and the continental shelves of mid-latitude temperate seas have become the
largest fishing ground because of availability of plenty of important and specific species of fishes (like
mackerels), relatively low content of oil and fat, large demand of fish as human food, modern and
advanced techniques and related means for fishing, provision for canning and preservation of fishes
etc. On the other hand, high content of fat and oil in the fishes of tropical and subtropical water and
the resultant less demand for human food, lack of abundance of a few lucrative species of fishes in
specific areas, mixed presence of several species in a place (area) etc. have discouraged the
development of fishing up to the desired level in the tropical and subtropical seas.
Major Fishing Areas are identified and grouped into definite fishing zones on the basis of
concentration, abundance and catch of fishes. The following 3 major and 13 sub-regions of fishing have
been identified:
 XAAM BUDDY HIMANSHU THAPA’S GEOGRAPHY

Diagram: Major Fishing Grounds of the World.

(1) Pacific Ocean fishing area includes five sub-areas: (i) north Pacific area, (ii) western, middle Pacific area,
(iii) eastern middle Pacific area, (iv) south-western Pacific area, and (v) south-eastern Pacific area (mainly
the Peruvian coast).
(2) Atlantic fishing areas comprise 6 sub- areas e.g. (i) north-west Atlantic area (coastal areas of north-eastern
USA-New England region and eastern Canada-coastal areas of New Brunswick, Nova scotia, Newfoundland
and Quebec), (ii) northeast Atlantic area (coastal area of north – western Europe), (iii) western – middle
Atlantic area (Caribbean Sea), (iv) eastern – middle Atlantic area (western coastal areas of north and
middle Africa), (v) south – west Atlantic area (Coastal area of Argentina), and (vi) southeast Atlantic area
(western coastal zone of south Africa).
(3) Indian Ocean fishing areas include two sub-areas e.g. (i) western fishing area, and (ii) eastern fishing area.
As regards the total world catch of fishes, the Pacific, the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean fishing regions account
for 53, 40 and 5 per cent of world catch respectively. Besides, Mediterranean Sea contributes 2 per cent share
of total world catch. As regards world catch of single species of fish, ancovy accounts for the largest share,
followed by herring, Atlantic cod, Alaskan walleye Pollock and South African pilchard. On the basis of degree of
the development, world fishing areas are divided into 5 major fishing regions:
(i) North-east pacific region extends from Aleutians in the north to Philippines in the south. This region
includes eastern coaster coastal waters of Russia, and fisheries of China, S. Korea, Japan and Philippines.
Salmon, tuna, king crab, herring, Pollock, halibut and cod are the main fishes of this region. China, Japan and
South Korea contribute 13, 8 and 3 per cent of total world catch.
(ii) North-east Atlantic region extends along the European coasts from Portugal to Iceland. Major fishing
countries are Norway, Great Britain and Denmark. North Sea is a prominent fishing area. This region accounts
for the largest world catch of cod. Herring and haddock are other important fishes of this region.
(iii) North-west Atlantic region includes the continental shelves of New England region of the USA, New
Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Newfoundland of Canada. Grand Bank and George bank are important fishing
grounds of the world. The productivity of fishes becomes very high due to meeting of cool Labrador Ocean
current and warm Gulfstream near Newfoundland. Cod is the most important fish of this region. Besides,
herring, halibut, squids, flounders and redfish are the other important varieties to be caught in this region.
(iv) South-east Pacific region includes the western coastal areas of South America mainly the Peruvian and
Chilean coastal waters. Peru is famous for rich haul of anchovy species. The coastal waters of Peru are
characterized by continuous upcoming of nutrients from below due to upwelling of cold water mass. The Peru
cold current thus, flowing from the south to north is beneficial for the growth and abundance of anchovies. In
the event of strong El Nino, which cause the southward movement of warm water mass along the western
coast of South America, Peru cold current is weakened, the upwelling of cold water mass stops and the supply
of nutrients is also stopped and hence anchovies die of starvation. Now Peru has become the leading country
in fishing. As regards the catch of a single species of fish, Peru stands first in the world as Peru catches more
than 10 million tones of anchovies per year. Peru has registered sudden phenomenal growth in fishing since
1957.
(v) West central Pacific region extends from Philippines to the eastern coastal areas of Australia. The
important fishes of commercial value of this region are mackerel, tuna, mullet, redfish bass, oyster, crabs etc.
Fishing has not been developed up to the mark in India though its total coastlines run for a length of 7,517 km
and ideal platforms of continental shelves for fishing are spread over an area of 311,680 square kilometers.
The western and eastern coastal areas account for 75 and 25 per cent of total annual fish catch respectively.
The potential of annual fish catch of India has been estimated as 20-25 million metric tones but actual annual
fish catch is less than one million metric tones due to a host of factors e.g. tropical climate; herbivore attitude
of majority of Indian population and related less demand of fish as human food; traditional old methods of fish
catching and limited means; lack of modern techniques of canning and storage of fishes etc.
2. MARINE FARMING
Marine farming, also known as mariculture or marine culture, includes the processes of increase in
productivity, reproduction, breeding and production of certain sea animals by making them captive in certain
localities of sea water, feeding them on additional nutrient feed on a commercial basis. In fact, mariculture is a
form of aquaculture, wherein certain young animals are kept captive in certain well marked localities of sea
water for certain period of time in order to fatten them on additional feed for the market. In other words,
young sea animals of certain species are taken away from their native spawning grounds and are kept captive
in another area where they are fattened on additional feed until they are ready for the market.
Mariculture is not entirely a new method rather it was practiced even in ancient time in a few countries like
Japan, China, Java etc. Evidences of oyster farming (rearing) in ancient times have been found in Japan. Marine
farming of carps was prevalent in Roman and medieval periods in Europe while rearing of milk fish was in
practice in the 15th century in Java. The following sea animals are used for rearing under the process of
mariculture: oyster, mussels, scallops, shrimp, carp, salmon, trout, catfish, Asian milkfish, mullet, tuna etc.
It may be pointed out that the food demand is increasing alarmingly due to ever-increasing world population.
It may not be possible to meet the increased food demand in the the future exclusively from the land
resources and therefore it has now become necessary to focus attention towards marine food resources to
increase the world food supply to feed the teeming millions. It has now been realized that instead of
overfishing there should be marine farming (rearing) of fishes for sustainable yield. Keeping this fact in mins,
several countries have initiated the mariculture. The oyster rearing is the most prevalent form of mariculture.
First, they are collected and then these spawns of oysters are seeded in new sea areas specially marked and
prepared for this purpose. One female oyster lays 10 million eggs at a time. Since oysters flourish on sea
bottoms and hence before seeding of spawns all the predators are combed and removed away. After the
spawns become yound, they are brought to other specified areas known as Claires for fattening, where they
feed on diatoms. Different methods have been developed for oyster farming in different countries, e.g.
suspension culture in Japan, rack and stick cultivation system in Australia etc. There is marine farming of
pompano, Pacific sardine and mackerel at commercial level in the USA. Lobsters are reared in the coastal
areas of New England region while shrimps are cultured in Gulf of Mexico-Prawn rearing has got momentum
in the coastal waters of many countries. Prawn farming has proved success in India, Thailand and Philippines.
3. Ocean Ranching
Ocean ranching, also called as ocean husbandry, refers to the taming and training of sea mammals (like
porpoise, dolphin, whale etc.) in marine environment. A host of scientists are busy in active researches for the
development of scientific techniques to tame and train wild sea mammals to be used for different purposes.
Porpoises are being trained to obey the signals and directions given by remote control and to mimic human
sounds. Dolphins are trained for the following purposes: to help divers, to carry and bring back tools for the
repair of anchored ships, relief work etc. In some areas porpoises are being trained as aqua-cowboys. Though
the ocean ranching is in its initial stage, there are ample possibilities for its development in the near future.
4. Whaling
The catching of whale is called whaling. It may be remembered that whale is a mammal and gives birth to
calves. Generally, whales are divided into 2 categories e.g. (i) Toothed whales feed on fishes, squids and
crustaceans. Sperm whale is the major species of this family and is found in tropical and temperate seas. It
may be as large as 18 m in length with average weight of 35 tonnes. Killer whale is the most dangerous species
of toothed whales and feeds on seals, porpoises, penguins and other small whales, (ii) Toothless whale is
generally called as baleen whale and comprises the species of blue whales, finback whales, humpback whales,
gray whales, sei, minke etc. Blue whales are the largest of all the species of toothless whales and are on verge
of extinction. It may be pointed out that blue whales breed in subtropical seawater during the winter and then
migrate to polar areas during the summer for feeding. Fishermen find this period as the most convenient time
for their catching. Blue whales now need protection and conservation. Since long ago, man used to hunt
whales to get different materials for various purposes e.g. meat and blubber for human food, oil for lighting
and ambergris. The oil from sperm whales is used as lubricants in the factories and to prepare soaps and
cosmetics. Meat of whales is also used as feed for other animals while whale bones are used to manufacture
fertilizers.
In the beginning traditional tools and methods were used for whaling (like open boats and hand harpoons)
and thus whales were not put to severe threats of extinction but now these have become endangered species
because of the introduction of modern techniques of whaling like ‘steam whaler’, ‘pelagic whaling’ etc. A few
species of whales, like large baleen whales, have been so massively killed that they are on the verge of
extinction. Blue whales, humpback whales and gray whales have also been victims of massive over whaling.
Attempts are being made at world level for halting massive killing of whales and a few international
regulations have been formulated for their conservation. The International Commission on Whaling (ICW)
determines the limit of whale catch in terms of BWU (blue whale unit, one BHU = one whale, 2 fine whales, 2.5
humpback whales, or 6 sei whales) per year from time to time. A few countries have imposed self-restriction
on whaling (e.g. USA, Great Britain, Norway, and Netherlands) known as whaling moratorium. Killing of
mother whales with their calves has been banned.
MINERAL RESOURCES
Different metallic and non-metallic minerals of the seas are found in two forms as follows:
 Minerals mixed with seawater dissolved is seawater.
 Minerals of sea deposits on sea floors
(i) Minerals of continental shelf and slope deposits
(ii) Minerals of Deep Ocean bottom deposits
(iii) Subsurface minerals
Minerals Dissolved in Seawater
Important minerals of this category are salt, bromine, magnesium, gold, zinc, uranium, and thorium etc.
According to an estimate one cubic kilometer of seawater contains 41.25 million tones of solid materials in
dissolved form. Nearly 85 per cent of salt dissolved in seawater is constituted by sodium and chlorine. The
popular method of manufacturing of salt from seawater involves the processes of holding of seawater in the
evaporation basins prepared in the coastal land areas and evaporation of water by solar heat. The crude salts,
obtained through evaporation of water by sunlight and precipitation of salt contents, are made for human use
after these are further refined. About one third of total world salt is manufactured in this manner. In India salt
is made from seawater along the coasts of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Gujarat alone produces 50
per cent of total salt production in India. Seawater is saline and hence it is refined and is transformed into
freshwater so as to make it potable water, which is called manufactured water. There is increasing demand for
the manufactured water in the coastal countries of warm arid regions due to rapid rate of urbanization.
Consequently, several techniques of desalinization have been developed.
According to an estimate 4 grams of gold can be obtained from every one million tones of seawater. It is
estimated that the total reserve of gold dissolved in seawater is 5 millions tones. It may be pointed out that it
is not economical to extract gold from seawater as the commercial exploitation is not possible because of high
cost involved.
Minerals of Sea Deposits
On the basis of sources and location, minerals of sea deposits are divided into two categories viz. (1) minerals
of surface deposits, which are further divided into 3 subcategories e.g. (i) minerals of continental shelves, (ii)
minerals of continental slopes, and (iii) minerals of deep sea bottom deposits; (2) subsurface minerals.
1. Minerals of the Deposits of Continental Shelves and Slopes
Minerals of deposists on continental shelves and slopes include zircon, monazite, magnetite, gold, placer,
diamond, platinum, sulphur, phosphorite and several types of building materials (like sands, gravels, boulders
etc.). Monazite reserves are found in the coastal areas of India, United States of America, Brazil, Sri Lanka,
Australia and New Zealand. India has the largest reserve of monazite in the world (90 per cent) in the placer
deposits of Kerala coasts. About 29 per cent of rutile mineral of the world is found in Australian coasts. In fact,
rutile is titanium dioxide and is used for coating on welded rods. Magnetites are associated with volcanic rocks
and thus these are found in those continental shelves and slopes which are characterized by valucanicity.
Magnetites are, thus, found along the circum-Pacific volcanic belt i.e. along the western coastal areas of North
and South America and eastern coasts of Asia. Japan coastal areas are estimated to have a magnetite reserve
of 36 million tones. Cassiterite is a type of tin which is separated due to weathering of granites. Maximum
reserves of cassiterites are found in the coastal areas of Thailand, Malasia and Indonesia. Gold deposits are
found in the continental shelves of Alaska and Oregon (USA), Chile, South Africa and Australia but its
extractionis commercially not beneficial because of extraction coast. Phosphorites are mixed with muds and
sands of continental shelves and slopes and are found in nodule form. Phosphorites are used for the
manufacturing of fertilizers. Their estimated world reserves are 50 million tones, which are found in the
continental shelves of Mexico, Peru, Australia, Japan and South Africa and their extraction at commercial level
has yet to be started.
Sands and gravels are significant building materials which are widely found on the beds of continental shelves
of those areas which are characterized by strong sea waves and currents. Such marine resources are very
important to those coastal lands which have industrial and urban complexes. Sands and gravels are used or
may be used in future for the construction of different types of buildings, roads and bridges. It may be
mentioned that the mining of sands and gravels from seabeds of continental shelves may prove hazardous for
marine life mainly for benthos biocommunities. Sand and gravel mining can change the ecological system of
coastal water by
 Interfering with photosynthesis by phytoplanktons due to disturbance in the otherwise
 calm coastal water except waves and tides;
 clogging the filtering device of marine organisms such as fishes and coral animals,
 transferring major portion of nutrients from seabeds to upper zone of seawater,
 forcing some animals to migrate to other non-mining areas,
 killing coral polyps and hence retarding their growth etc.
2. Minerals of Deep Ocean Bottom Deposits
(1) Manganese nodules
Manganese nodules are the most significant minerals found in the ocean bottom deposits. Pacific Ocean
contains the largest deposit of manganese nodules which is found up to the depth of 4000 m. The manganese
nodules comprise several minerals like nickel, copper, cobalt, lead, zinc, iron, silicon etc. along with the
maximum percentage of iron and manganese. Blake plateau is the second largest area of manganese nodules.
These are derived through two most prevalent techniques e.g. (i) air lift technique, and (ii) continuous bucket
line system. Commercial mining of manganese nodules has not been developed due to very high mining cost.
The following figure depicts world distribution of manganese nodules.
World distribution of manganese nodules. Source : after D.S. Cronan, Deep-sea nodules: Geochemistry, in
Marine manganese deposits, edited by G.P. Glas by, 1977.
(2) Cobalt
Cobalt is a strategic mineral because of its use in military aircrafts (jet fighter planes), mainly in the
manufacturing aircraft engines, and also in other industries. Cobalt-rich marine deposits have been discovered
to be associated with seamounts, guyots and some islands. There are rich cobalt deposits around the Hawaiian
Islands in the Pacific Ocean. Seamounts in the Pacific Ocean carry large deposits of cobalt as each seamount is
expected to have 3 to 4 billion metric tons of cobalt ore.
(3) Phosphate
Since phosphate is the result of organic matter, it is believed that phosphates would be abundantly found in
those areas of the oceans where the biological productivity is very high. Thus, phosphates are found in the
shallow water zone of continental shelves and other offshore regions where the depth of seawater does not
exceed 1000 meters. The coastal waters of upwelling zones account for large deposits of phosphates. It may
be mentioned that the phosphate is a very essential element as it is required by both plants and animals
including man. Phosphate rocks are also found on the land areas and are extensively used in the
manufacturing of phosphate fertilizers. Phosphate, are generally found in the form of phosphoric nodules on
shallow sea beds. There are three important areas of marine phosphate:
 Off the coast of Morocco
 Off the coast of southern California (USA)
 Off the coast of Carolinas (USA)
 Small deposits around Nausu Island (smallest independent nation, are of the country=5000 acres) in the
Pacific Ocean
3. HYDROCARBONS
The subsurface minerals (hydrocarbons) are mostly found in the oceanic crust of continental shelves and
include gas hydrates, petroleum (mineral oil) and natural gas.
(1) Gas Hydrates
Gas hydrates having methane (CH4) are the white deposits of solid and frozen water molecules and are found
along the fissures on the sea beds at the depth ranging from 300 to 500 meters in the continental margins.
Large deposits of gas hydrates have been discovered in the sediments of the Arctic Ocean, Mexican Gulf,
continental margins of North and South Carolinas (USA), Japan etc. It may be mentioned that the processing of
gas hydrates for energy purposes may also release unwanted polluting gases as is the case of combustion of
present hydrocarbons (mineral oil and natural gas). Thus, while developing technologies for processing gas
hydrates, care should also be taken to tame any pollutants coming out of the process of transformation of gas
hydrates into energy.
(2) Mineral Oil and Natural Gas
Subsurface minerals are mostly found in the oceanic crust of continental shelves and include mineral oil and
natural gas. Many countries have already started commercial production of petroleum and natural gas.
Mineral oil and natural gas are the most developed marine mineral resources. There is great possibility of their
expansion and development in the future. Mineral oil and natural gas together contribute 90 per cent of all
marine mineral resources. Offshore oil fields have been developed in the continental shelves of Mexican gulf,
Persian gulf, North Sea, North Alaska, South Californian coast, Arctic Sea, India, Brazil, Australia, Taiwan, Japan
etc. Besides, offshore oilfields are being developed in Indonesia, east Africa, north-west Africa, Tasmania, East
Asia etc. Reserves of offshore mineral oil have been explored in the offshore regions of Konkan coast
(Maharashtra), Gujarat coast, Malabar and Coromandal Coasts, Krishna-Cauvery delta Sundarban etc. From
the standpoint of production, three offshore oil fields of India are most significant e.g. Bombay High, Bassein
and Aliabet. The Bombay (Mumbai) High offshore oil fields are located 176 km north-west of Mumbai and are
spread over an area of 2,500 square kilometers. The estimated oil reserve is 200,000,000 tonnes. Production
started in 1976 and oil is drilled from the depth of 1400 m. Bassein offshore oilfields are located to the south
of Mumbai High, the production from this field may be more than that of Mumbai High oilfields if fully
developed. Aliabet offshore oilfields are located in the Gulf of Khambat which is 45 km away from Bhavnagar.
Recently, there is a discovery of vast reserves of hydrocarbons, measuring 15.5 billion tones of mineral oil and
84.5 trillion cubic meters of natural gas over an area of 6.2 million square kilometers on the sea beds of the
Arctic Ocean. Now, Russia has staked her claim over and area of 1.2 million square kilometers of the Arctic sea
beds which is expected to have a reserve of 10 billion tones of hydrocarbons. The United States has refuted
the claims of Russia and is also claiming large area of sea beds under her command. Besides, Norway, Canada
and Denmark have also staked their claims over hydrocarbon reserves in the Arctic Ocean.
NON-CONVENTIONAL MARINE ENERGY RESOURCES
Ocean tides, sea waves and thermal gradient between upper warm surface of sea and lower cold water mass
etc. are the main sources of generation of electricity. Tidal and wave energy have been developed in the
coastal areas of some of the countries. Two favourable conditions are necessary for the development of tidal
energy viz. large tidal range and narrow water passage having swift tidal currents. Thus, the tidal electricity
can be generated only in those coastal areas where these conditions are met. A minimum tidal range of 5m is
a prerequisite for the electricity generation. Fundy Bay in Nova Scotia of Canada is characterized by a tidal
range of up to 15m, while most of the coastal areas are frequented by low tidal range of 2m or even less.
Thus, the areas for generation of electricity from tidal energy are limited. Big power plants have been
established in the Rhine estuary of Brittany of France, at the Kislaya Guba in Marmansk of CIS (Commonwealth
of Independent States), at Kandla in India etc.
Sea waves carry enormous amount of energy but only limited effort and progress have been made to develop
wave energy due to the cost factor. Three methods have been developed to generate electricity from sea
waves e.g. (i) vertical displacement method, (ii) Salter device, and (iii) dam atoll method. A pilot power plant
to generate electricity from sea waves has been planned at Vijinijham.
The offshore winds mainly in the North Sea have great potential for wind energy. Holland has started
harnessing the wind energy in her offshore region by establishing the wind mills. Numerous poles measuring
380 feet have been erected in the offshore region. A length of 210 feet of the poles remains above the sea
surface, 70 feet length is under water and the remaining 100 feet length is buried in sea beds. The turbines
can withstand powerful sea waves up to 14 m height. One such offshore wind mill generates enough
electricity that can illuminate 3000 houses in Holland. In future other nations may also harness offshore wind
energy.
VITAMINS AND DRUGS RESOURCES
Marine pharmacologists are presently busy in researches to use marine organisms (plants and animals) as
vitamins and medicines to cure different diseases. It may be pointed out that a distinct discipline of marine
pharmacology has been developed. Marine pharmacologists are busy in investigating physical and chemical
properties of marine organism like crabs, sea weeds, sea cucumbers, barnacles, horseshoe crabs, sharks, cods
etc. Shark oil and cod liver oil are already in use as energy tonics. Now cod liver oil is also available in capsule
form.
CONSERVATION OF MARINE RESOURCES
It is evident that the pressure on marine resources would increase in the. future; therefore, it is necessary to
initiate necessary suitable steps for exploitation, utilization, conservation and preservation of marine
resources. After land resources, marine resources are the resource frontier for human community and,
therefore, there are possibilities of their extensive exploitation and utilization in different forms.
 The intensity and magnitude of exploitation of marine resources would increase under the pressure of ever-
increasing world population. Thus, there is a need for in depth study and understanding of abiotic and biotic and
biotic aspects of marine environment.
 Some of the marine biological resources (like fishes) are overexploited while abiotic (physical) resources (minerals,
energy, and building materials) still await their exploitation at commercial level.
 Decrease in the abundance of fishes due to overfishing has been reported from different parts. This may lead to
reduction in world production of fishes in future.
 There has been spatial difference in the development of different fishing areas due to dynamics of different species
of fishes (movement of fishes for breeding, spawning, feeding in different areas).
 Changes is marine biological environment due to overfishing.
 Marine biological environment is adversely affected by the introduction of modern methods and equipment of
fishing.
 Fish production (catch) depends on the estimate and prediction of future demand of fish for human food and animal
feed. Sometimes, the estimated and predicted future demand of fishes comes true while some times proves false.
 It becomes difficult to estimate the total number and quantity of marine living organisms. The accurate estimate of
the growth and mortality rate of marine organisms is a prerequisite condition to ensure their sustainable yield.
There should also be accurate knowledge of their absolute quantity.
 Marine organisms do not honour any artificial boundary fixed by man because they freely move in different areas of
seas both horizontally and vertically.
 It becomes practically difficult to enforce any international regulation related to exploitation of marine resources.
Thus, unregulated expoitation of marine resources generates more competitions and makes exploitation process
more costly.
 Successful fishing does not depend on the size of their (fishes) areas and richness of their reserves but depends on
their concentration and abundance at a particular time in a specific area.
 The knowledge of nature and dynamics of fishes is necessary for successful and profitable fishing.
Measures of Management
The following points should also be taken care of for the efficient management of marine resources in order to
ensure sustainable yield, rational exploitation, optimum utilization, conservation and preservation (of rare species)
or marine resources and pollution free marine environment.
 There should be well regulated exploitation of marine resources. This requires the accurate knowledge of exact
quantity of abiotic resources and process and rate of regeneration of biological (living, plants and animals) resources
 There should be efficient exploitation of marine resources. It requires the quantification of these resources. This
may be achieved through proper survey of fishing areas by applying ‘Eco sounder technique’, by maintaining catch
statistics, determination of their age on the basis of the study of ring growth on fish scales, mapping of breeding
places of fishing and determination of their numbers etc.
 Accurate estimate and prediction of the future demand of fishes for human food and animal feed.
 Proper arrangement of canning and refrigeration for storage of fishes.
 Efficient methods and techniques of fishing.
Pollution Control
Efforts should be made to keep the seas and oceans free from anthropogenic pollution for rich and healthy
condition of marine environment and ecology. The following are the major sources of marine pollution:
(1) Discharge of waste water, sewage, and toxic chemicals from the urban areas and industrial establishment of coastal
areas into the seas;
(2) Dumping of urban and industrial garbage of coastal cities and industries into the seas;
(3) Disposal of solid waste materials mainly plastics in the sea water;
(4) Leakage of enormous quantity of mineral oil from oil tankers.
(5) Pollutants from offshore oil wells (according to an estimate on an average about 241 million gallons of oil are leaked
every year from oil tankers in the oceanic water);
(6) Increase in the acidity of seawater due to increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide consequent upon rapid
rate of deforestation;
(7) Increase in the concentration of heavy metallic materials like lead, copper, zinc, chromium, nickel etc. from land
areas brought by the wind;
(8) Arrival of radioactive substances from nuclear plants, nuclear-powered ships and testing of nuclear weapons into
seawater etc.
CONSERVATION
It is expected from the world community to initiate concrete and effective steps to keep the oceanic water free from
pollution in the interest of both marine biological community and human community. If complete check on the
discharge and disposal of pollutants of different sorts into oceans is not possible, minimum quantity of pollutants to
be discharged should be determined and agreed upon. There are two formidable problems in the conservation of
marine resources as the international character of marine resources and equal right of all countries for their use;
high mobility of marine organisms. It is necessary to formulate and enact international laws and to enforce them
strictly for the sustainable utilization of marine resources. Several attempts have been made in this regard and many
laws have been formulated like the law of high sea; laws related to piracy, trade of slaves, law of exploitation of sea
bottoms etc. but these laws are not enough for the desired purposes. There is a need for effective laws related to
the exploitation of deep sea resources, strategic and military uses of seas, scientific researches and international
cooperation to make marine resources useful for world human community.
There is earnest need for serious ecological researches for the understanding of marine biological processes (both
chemical and physical). Further development of marine biology is required for the study of marine ecology. The
endangered species of marine organisms mainly fish, which are at the verge of extinction due to overfishing need
immediate protection. For example, 8 species of whales which have become endangered are facing extinction. Baleen
whales are the most endangered among them. The number of blue whales and humpback whales has also been fallen
alarmingly due to modern and efficient methods of whaling. A few countries like the U.K, Norway, Netherlands etc.
have self-imposed moratorium on whaling for the protection of whales. International cooperation is the need of the
hour in this regard.
MARINE POLLUTION
Let us first define pollution and thereafter marine pollution. Since pollution is viewed from different angles, as an
environmental problem by the geographers in general and environmental geographers in particular; as a social problem
by the sociologists; as an economic problem by the economists; as an ecological problem by the ecologists etc., it may
be defined in a number of ways. It is agreed that the pollution is, without doubt, the outcome of urban-industrial and
technological revolution and rapacious and speedy exploitation of natural resources, increased rate of exchange of
matter and energy and ever-increasing industrial wastes, urban effluents and consumer goods. According to
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT, 1970) pollution is defined in the following manner.
”Residuals, or wastes, are generated in all stages of production and consumption of goods or services. Residuals become
pollutants or an environmental problem of some kind and in some degree when they have harmful effects in the
atmosphere, the oceans or the terrestrial environment. Harmful effects are effects that are harmful to man, or to
animals, plants or inanimate objects or conditions that are important to man. Their importance to man may be
biological, economic, religious, moral, aesthetic or intellectual”. Savindra Singh has defined pollution in a very simple
manner. This definition, as given below, may be applied to all types of pollution ranging from physical to economic,
political, social and religious pollution.
‘Disequilibrium condition from equilibrium condition in any system is called pollution’
Savindra Singh, 1991
A pollutant is defined as any form of energy or matter or action that causes disequilibrium state from equilibrium state
in any existing natural ecosystem.
Water pollution may be defined in the following manner: “Water pollution refers to deterioration of physical (such as
colour, odour, turbidity, taste, temperature etc.), chemical (such as acidity, alkalinity, salinity etc.) and biological
(presence of bacteria, Coliform MPN, algae etc.) characteristics of water from various storages (such as river water, lake
water, pond water, groundwater) through natural (e.g. fallout of volcanic dust, landslides near the water bodies,
sediments supplied by soil erosion and weathering processes) and anthropogenic (e.g. industrial, urban, agricultural,
domestic, radioactive, mining sources etc.) processes to such an extent that it becomes harmful to human beings, plants
and animal communities.” Savindra Singh, 1991
Marine pollution has been defined by the United Nations Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine
Pollution in 1982 as follows:
Marine pollution is the introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the marine environment,
including estuaries, which results or is likely to result in such deleterious effects as harm to living resources and marine
life, hazards to human health, hindrance of marine activities, including fishing and other legitimate uses of the sea,
impairment of quality for use of sea water and reduction of amenities
Nature of Seawater Pollution
Sea water is polluted mostly near the coast through the disposal of urban and industrial waste matters into the coastal
waters. Concentration of a single matter in the littoral water causes serious environmental problem. For example, the
concentration of mercury in the Mina Mata Bay (Japan) due to dumping of mercury-rich sludge from Mina Mata city into
the bay caused severe mercury poisoning. The resultant disease, known as the Mina Mata Disease, claimed several lives
in this city of Japan in early 1950s. Dumping of industrial wastes, urban effluents and toxic chemicals into the coastal
water leaves adverse effects on many marine organisms. Many of the corals are reported to have been killed off the
Andaman and Nicobar coast (islands in the Bay of Bengal, India) because of toxic industrial effluents. Fish are severely
affected due to sea water pollution.
Along with the anthropogenic marine pollution, there are also natural sources of seawater pollution such as natural
seepage of oil from seabed, emission of gas hydrates through the fissures on seafloor, submarine volcanic eruptions
which emit different gases etc.
The most formidable hindrance in the study of marine pollution is the absence of baseline data regarding the natural
conditions of different components of marine habitats, and hence it becomes difficult to ascertain the degree of marine
pollution. The following are the difficulties in the study of marine pollution:
 It becomes difficult to ascertain the degree of marine pollution as there are no sufficient data regarding the natural
conditions of marine environment before the occurrence of anthropogenic pollution.
 Marine scientists do not have the baseline data to distinguish between the polluted and non-polluted regions.
 It is difficult to distinguish between the natural and anthropogenic processes of marine pollution.
 It is not easy to determine as to how much marine pollution has been caused by anthropogenic and natural sources
separately.
 Since the ocean water is mobile, pollutants are distributed over larger areas and hence concentration of pollutants
cannot be precisely determined.
 The only reliable technique to measure the level of marine pollution is standard laboratory bioassay but it suffers
from two shortcoming: 1) this technique cannot predict the long term effects of sub lethal doses on marine
organisms. 2) this technique is unable to detect and predict new chemicals which are produced when some
pollutants combine with other chemicals in the oceans.
Areas of Concentration of Marine Pollutants
Since the major marine pollutants come from anthropogenic sources, it is logical to think that maximum concentration
of marine pollutants occurs in the coastal waters or marginal seas. Some pollutants, such as oil spills and oil slicks, are
also discharged in the open oceans by oil tankers due to accident or mechanical failures but such pollutants are
dispersed over larger areas and hence no harmful concentration occurs. The following are the areas where there is
maximum concentration of marine pollutants:
 On the sea bottoms,
 Along the pycnocline layer,
 Coastal waters, and
 At the interface between the air and the sea.
 On the sea surface
1. On the sea bottoms: Solid pollutants, such as silts, sands and heavy chemicals sink and settle down on the seafloor.
Chemicals, if attached with silt particles, sink to the seabed. A few benthic animals, mainly the burrowing animals
mix these pollutants with sea bottom deposits. Many of the boats, ships and vessels ranging from transport ships to
commercial and warships have sunk and are settled on the seafloors since the beginning of ancient human
civilization. The sinking of giant 269 m long RMS Titanic, the largest passenger ship of her time, is a fine example to
demonstrate the garbage of man- made structure to be deposited on sea the bottoms. Titanic sunk on April, 14,
1912 in the Atlantic Ocean, near the Grand Banks to the south of Newfoundland. The ship was broken in two parts
and the wreckage settled on seabed at the depth of 3844 meters. The passengers numbering 1513 out of total 2224
passengers on board were killed. The wreckage was discovered during 1985-86, nearly after 75 years. Numerous
cases of sinking of ships of varying dimensions have been reported since the tragedy of the RMS Titanic. A few
nuclear submarines, equipped with nuclear warheads have sunk in the oceans. The wreckage of nuclear submarine
and warships becomes environmental hazard to deep pelagic and benthic marine organisms.
2. Along the pycnocline layer: A pycnocline layer, located between the depths of 300m to 1000m from the sea surface,
is the zone of sharp change in seawater density. In fact, pycnocline separates 2 water masses of varying densities.
Pollutants brought by the rivers are trapped in pyconocline and repetition of this process increases the
concentration of pollutants in such areas where the freshwater brought by the river is separated from the saline and
brackish seawater. Such situation occurs in the estuaries.
3. Coastal waters: They are the areas of maximum concentration of pollutants in the oceans because the sources of
pollutants, such as ports, cities and towns, industries etc. are located in the immediate vicinity of sea shore. These
economic and commercial centres produce and discharge huge quantities of pollutants of various sorts into the
coastal waters. Besides, large rivers also dump pollutants, which are carried by the river, into coastal waters. Thus,
the coastal zones of the sea, having sea ports, industries, urban centres etc., are most polluted areas of the oceans.
4. At the interface of air and sea: A very thin layer of 0.1 to 10 millimetres thickness at the junction or interface
between the air and sea surface is called neuston layer. This is also called the sea surface micro layer. This layer
contains the concentration of chemicals, solid particulates etc. which become injurious to microscopic
phytoplankton and zooplankton communities.
5. On the sea surface: The sea surface is polluted generally by oil slicks, that is the very thin layer of mineral oil on the
sea surface. The oil tankers spill enormous volume of mineral oil either due to accidents or due to mechanical
failures in the ships. The spilt oil quickly spreads over large areas of sea surface and forms extensive oil slicks. Since
the mineral oil comprises organic compounds, it is biodegradable but oil spills kill many sea organisms within short
period of time. Since the spilt oil is decomposed by organismic activities within short period of time i.e. 24 hours to a
few weeks, the marine organisms recover soon and maintain their growth.
The marine pollutants are generated from two basic sources as follows:
 Natural sources
 Anthropogenic sources
The natural sources include two basic sources:
 Sea floors
 Land areas
The natural sources include seepage of mineral oil and emission of gas hydrates from sea floors and volcanic activities on
the bottom of the oceans. The anthropogenic sources produce largest number and amount of pollutants of marine
pollution. These are elaborated below along with the pollutants of marine pollution.
Table 18.1: Sources and pollutants of marine pollution
Major Pollution Sources of Pollutants
Natural Sources Anthropogenic sources
1. Hydrocarbons seeps of oil from transportation of
(mainly oil) ocean floors, emission oil tankers in the
of gas hydrates from oceans, offshore
fissures of ocean floors, oil drilling and
submarine volcanoes, production, oil
atmosphere, bacteria, refineries on coastal
rivers etc. lands, aerosol etc.
2. Heavy metals submarine volcanic industrial and
eruptions, river discharge municipal
into the oceans, weathering effluents
of continental rocks and
their transport to the
coastal waters by surface
runoff, sediments etc.
3. Nutrients river discharge, upwelling municipal
of cold seawater, atmosphere, and industrial
bacterial decomposition effluents, washout
4. Synthetic chemicals etc. none of fertilizers from agricultural
fields etc. industries, transportation,
municipal and industrial effluents,
fertilizers and pesticides from
agricultural fields etc.
The following are the major marine pollutants:
 hydrocarbons, mainly mineral oil (fossil fuels),
 municipal and industrial effluents, sewage pollutants, metal pollutants,
 synthetic chemical (chemical fertilizers and biocides),
 sediments from ocean dredging and mining,
 overfishing,
 dumping etc.
The following are the relative percentages of marine pollutants from different source.
Table 18.2: Percentage of marine pollution from different sources
1. Run off and point discharge 44
2. Air pollution 33
3. Shipping 12
4. Dumping 10
5. Offshore oil and gas production 01
1. Hydrocarbons Marine Pollution
Hydrocarbons (mineral oil) are bio degradable chemicals comprising two main elements of hydrogen and
carbon and a few minor elements, such as nitrogen and metals. The seepage and spills of oil from natural as
well as anthropogenic sources are the major cause of hydrocarbon marine pollution. The major sources of oil
pollution of the oceans include the following:
 River runoff transports and dumps large quantity of industrial hydrocarbon wastes coming out of
numerous industries into the coastal water, and contributes largest percentage (31.1) of hydrocarbon
pollution load of the oceans.
 The transport of oil by tankers across the oceans contributes 21.8 per cent of total hydrocarbon pollution.
The oil spills at various stages of oil tanker operation i.e. at the places of loading of oil, in the transit, and at
the unloading places. Such spillage of petroleum from oil tankers along the oceanic routes is considered
normal situation, and is called ‘standard operational discharge’.
 There is leakage of substantial amount of oil from the oil refineries located along the sea coasts.
 The refinery leaks contribute 13.1 per cent of the total hydrocarbon pollution load of the oceans.
 The atmospheric fallout of hydrocarbons contributes about 10 per cent of hydrocarbon pollution of the
oceans.
 Natural sources include seepage of oil from ocean bottoms, emission of gas hydrates from fissures on the
sea floors. Natural seepage of hydrocarbons from seabed contributes about 10 per cent of total
hydrocarbon pollution load of the oceans
 The oil tanker accidents contribute only 3.3 per cent of the total hydrocarbon pollution load of the oceans.
Question arises, if the oil tanker accidents contribute only small percentage of oil pollution in the oceans,
then why it draws attention of different segments of society soon after the accident? This is because of the
following reasons:
 The hydrocarbon pollution of the oceans from other sources, except deliberate actions of man, is a very
slow process but oil spills from tanker accidents cause pollution immediately. It may be recalled that
millions of tons of oil were released by Iraqi Gov., in the Persian Gulf during 1991 Gulf war.
 There is quick spill of oil from the tankers due to accidents and hence oil immediately spreads over large
area of sea surface and forms oil slicks which covers vast area of sea surface and become biological, and
tourism hazards (on the beaches).
Table 18.3: Relative percentages of petroleum pollution of the oceans from different sources
Sources Percent
1. River runoff (industrial hydrocarbon coasts) 31.1
2. Oil tanker operation (transport of oil by tankers along ocean routes) 21.8
3. Coastal facilities (such as oil refineries) 13.1
4. Atmospheric fallout of hydrocarbons 9.8
Since oil spills from tankers due to accidents cause immediate damage to the marine environment and marine
organisms through oil slicks, it is necessary to present a brief report of a few such oil spills.
Few Case Studies
1. Torrey Canyon Oil Spills, 1967
Huge volume of oil spilled over from the oil tanker, named Torrey Canyon, which was carrying 100,000 tons of
crude oil on March 18, 1967 when the said oil tanker struck Seven Stone Reef off the coast of Cornwall,
England. The spilt oil soon spread over sea surface as extensive oil slicks which were soon carried by the winds
across the English Channel to the shores of France. Efforts were made to disperse oil slicks using toxic
chemicals in order to save the Cornish beaches of Cornwall for the tourists but the likely adverse effects of
toxic chemicals on marine organisms were ignored. Consequently, the marine organisms, mainly fish, limpets,
barnacles etc., were adversely affected by toxic chemical dispersants. It took 4 to 5 years for the adversely
affected species to re-establish themselves in their habitats.
2. Florida Oil Spills, 1969
About 680,000 litres of oil spilled from the oil tanker Florida in September, 1969 in the Buzzard Bay of
Massachusetts (USA) when the oil tanker ruptured near West Falmouth Harbour. The huge volume soon
spread over sea surface and formed extensive oil slicks which destroyed marsh grasses and killed marine
animals of intertidal and sub tidal biomes which were worst affected by oil slicks. It took 3 to 5 years for the
marsh grasses and sea animals to recover from oil disaster and re-establish themselves.
3. Argo Merchant Oil Spill, 1976
The oil tanker Argo Merchant ran aground on Fishing Rip Shoals off Nantucket Island, Massachusetts, USA in
December, 1976, with the result 29,000,000 litres of oil spilled from the tanker in the sea. Since the prevailing
winds are offshore, here the oil slicks were spread by easterly offshore winds in the open ocean and oil slicks
disappeared soon i.e. within a period of one month.
Mumbai High Oil Spills, 1982, 1987
Oil disasters also occur off the Mumbai coast from the offshore oil wells. For example, one such oil spill
accident took place near Bombay High on July 30, 1982 when Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC)
suffered a loss of Rs. 900 million, involving damage of drilling rigs and precious crude oil. A major oil disaster
from Bombay High occurred on July 30, 1987 when a big oil tanker of Union Oil Company leaked 117,000 tons
of crude oil into the sea.
5. Exxan Valdez Oil Spill, 1989
A supertanker, named Exxan, carrying crude oil measuring 200 million litres from the port of Valdez, on the
southern coast of Alaska, ran aground on submerged rocky Bligh Reef just 40 kilimeteres away from theport of
Valdez, on March 29,1989. The accident was so severe that 8 of total 11 cargo oil tanks kept on the super
tanker, were ruptured and about 44 million litres of crude oil spilled into the sea. The resultant extensive oil
slicks were driven by the winds, tidal currents, waves etc. towards the Alaskan coasts wherein 1775 kilometres
stretch of Alaskan shorelines were heavily polluted and many seabirds and sea animals were killed.
2. Municipal and Industrial Effluents
The municipal and industrial wastes generated by urban centres, ports and industrial establishments located
on the coastal lands and along the major rivers are dumped into coastal waters by underwater pipes and
rivers. The municipal and industrial wastes are classified into 3 broad categories as follows:
 Sewage effluents
 Metals
 Synthetic chemicals
The municipal and industrial pollutants reach the coastal waters in two forms, namely in solid form, and in
dissolved form. These pollutants, when discharged into the coastal waters, are expected to be diluted by the
tidal currents, waves etc., but not all pollutants are diluted. Some portion remains undiluted and pollutes the
harbours, bays, estuaries, saltmarshes, other wetlands, tidal flats etc. and adversely affects the marine
organisms as well as humans.
(1) Sewage Pollution
Sewage effluents from the municipal corporations of urban and industrial areas located in the vicinity of the
sea coasts and along the rivers contain solid and semi-solid forms of organic and inorganic chemical which are
discharged into coastal waters by underwater pipes and rivers. Besides, sewage effluents also carry some
inorganic nutrients such as phosphate and nitrates and bacteria and viruses. It may be mentioned that
phosphate and nitrate are essential nutrients which are used by phytoplanktons during the process of
photosynthesis. The greater concentration of these nutrients in the coastal waters, estuaries and wetlands
increases photosynthesis triggering phenomenal growth of phytoplanktons. This process of plankton bloom is
called eutrophication.
The phenomenal increase in phytoplanktons increases BOD (biological oxygen demand) which causes decrease
in zooplanktons because they cannot survive in an ecosystem of depleted oxygen. Thus, the sewage pollution
of coastal waters adversely affects marine food chains. Near the shore waters of all the big coastal cities, ports
and industrial centres of the world have been heavily polluted by sewage effluents.
J.E. McDowell (1993) has studied the impact of sewage pollution mainly chemical pollution on organisms from
cell system to community level. The chemical pollution of coastal ecosystem causes physiological changes,
behavioural changes, diseases, reduction in reproduction, decrease in the viability of larvae etc. in marine
organisms. At community level, chemical contamination introduces changes in species abundance and
distribution, biomass etc.
(2) Metal Pollution
Metals, which contaminate seawater and enter the marine food chain via different trophic levels, include
mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic, copper etc. These metallic elements reach marine ecosystems through (1)
natural, and (2) human sources. Under natural processes, these metals are released from the continental
rocks when they are weathered, eroded and brough to the oceans by rivers. Volcanic eruptions also discharge
some quantity of such metals which are blown by the winds and are dispersed in the oceans. Submarine
volcanic eruptions also contribute some quantity of such metals. Human source of metal pollution includes
metals discharged from urban and industrial areas. It may be mentioned that some small quantity of metals is
required by marine organisms and natural sources provide sufficient amount of these metals as nutrients
required by the marine organisms. The excess amount of metals such as mercury, lead, nickel in the bodies of
sea animals becomes poisonous and when they are consumed by human beings, these poisonous elements
cause several lethal diseases. For example, the concentration of mercury in the Mina Mata Bay of Japan due to
dumping of mercury-rich sludge from Mina Mata city into the bay caused severe mercury poisoning. The
resultant disease known as the ‘Mina Mata disease’ claimed several lives in the city of Japan in early 1950s.
(3) Synthetic Chemicals
Synthetic chemicals, the product of human activities, entering the marine ecosystems are known as
halogenated hydrocarbons or organochlorine. DDT ) dichloro-dilphenyl-trichloro-ethane) and PCBs
(polychlorinated biphenyls) are the most lethal members of man-made synthetic chemicals. DDTs are used
(now their use has been banned in some countries) as pesticides to protect crops from lethal pests and to kill
disease carrier bacteria and viruses to contain certain human diseases such as malaria, tuberculosis, typhoid
etc. DDT has long residence period in the soils and sediments. These chemicals are washed out of the
agricultural lands by surface runoff and are ultimately discharged into coastal waters by the rivers. PCBs are
synthetically produced by man and are used in the industries which manufacture and produce electrical
appliances, plastics, adhesives, paints, foams etc. These chemicals reach the oceans via atmosphere. It may be
mentioned that both DDT and PCBs have been banned in some countries including the USA. The coastal
waters mainly of the estuaries are contaminated by these lethal toxic chemicals which reach the marine food
chain through the processes of bioaccumulation and bio magnification.
Every minute, one garbage truck worth of plastic is dumped into the ocean. Yearly, a colossal 1.4 billion
pounds of trash ends up in our beautiful oceans. Of this waste, much of it is plastic.
Garbage Patches in the world oceans
A garbage patch is a continuously increasing plastics and other debris concentration in the middle of the gyre
formed by the oceanic currents. The major garbage patches of the world oceans are shown in the figure

The area of increased plastic particles is located within the North Pacific Gyre, one of the
five major ocean gyres.

One of the much studied garbage patch is the Great Pacific Garbage Patch.
The Great Pacific Garbage Patch
The Great Pacific garbage patch, also described as the Pacific trash vortex, is a gyre of marine debris particles
in the central North Pacific Ocean. It is located roughly from 1350W to 1550W and 350 N to 420N. [1] The
collection of plastic, floating trash halfway between Hawaii and California extends over an indeterminate area
of widely varying range depending on the degree of plastic concentration used to define it.
The patch is characterized by exceptionally high relative pelagic concentrations of plastic, chemical sludge and
other debris that have been trapped by the currents of the North Pacific Gyre. Despite the common public
image of islands of floating rubbish, its low density (4 particles per cubic meter) prevents detection by satellite
imagery, or even by casual boaters or divers in the area. It consists primarily of an increase in suspended,
often microscopic, particles in the upper water column.
The patch is not easily seen from the sky, because the plastic is dispersed over a large area. Researchers from
the Ocean Cleanup project claimed that the patch covers 1.6 million square kilometers. The plastic
concentration is estimated to be up to 100 kilograms per square kilometer in the center, going down to 10
kilograms per square kilometer in the outer parts of the patch. An estimated 80,000 metric tons of plastic
inhabit the patch, totaling 1.8 trillion pieces. 92% of the mass in the patch comes from objects larger than 0.5
centimetres.
The Great Pacific garbage patch formed gradually as a result of ocean or marine pollution gathered by ocean
currents. It occupies a relatively stationary region of the North Pacific Ocean bounded by the North Pacific
Gyre in the horse latitudes. The gyre’s rotational pattern draws in waste material from across the North
Pacific, including coastal waters off North America and Japan. As material is captured in the currents, wind-
driven surface currents gradually move debris toward the center, trapping it.