The 7MD of

?L?B?P7J?ED Prehistory–AD 300

CHAPTER 1
The Beginnings of
Civilization
Prehistory–1000 BC

CHAPTER 2
The Ancient Near East
4000 BC–550 BC

CHAPTER 3
Nile Civilizations
5000 BC–AD 300

CHAPTER 4
Ancient India and China
2500 BC–250 BC

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Unique environmental and geographic fea-
tures led to the development of civilizations
This photograph shows the with common characteristics in different parts
Chephren and Mycerinus of the world.
pyramids in Egypt at sunrise.
The migration of peoples spread ideas and
goods from one part of the world to another.
Migrating peoples also adopted and adapted
the ideas and goods of the people they
encountered.

The belief systems of these early civilizations

varied widely, and they helped shape the soci-
eties in which they arose.

1
 C HAPTER

 Prehistory–1000 BC

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Early humans slowly spread
from Africa to other parts
of the world. These early
people struggled to survive by using basic
stone tools and weapons to hunt animals,
catch fish, and gather plants and nuts. For
hundreds of thousands of years, early people
lived in this way. Then, as the last Ice Age
ended, some people learned to farm. This
breakthrough gave rise to villages and
cities—and in time, to the first civilizations.

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Scientific evidence suggests that the earliest
humans lived in Africa. In this chapter you will learn
how humans spread to other parts of the world and
established the first civilizations.

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2.6 million
years ago 500,000 BC
Hominids begin to 1.6 million years ago Hominids live across
make stone tools. The ice ages begin. Europe by this time.
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4–5 million years ago 2–1.5 million years ago 200,000 BC
Early humanlike beings called Homo erectus appears. Homo sapiens, or modern
hominids develop in Africa. humans, appear in Africa.

2 CHAPTER 1
 History's Impact video program
Watch the video to understand the impact
of archaeology.

Reading
like a This early rock painting
Historian shows African herders driv-
ing cattle in the Sahara. The rock painting was made
9000 BC between 5500 and 2000 BC in a region that borders
Modern humans 7000 BC 3500 BC
have spread to all Cattle herding The Bronze Age what is now Algeria and Libya. The early art reveals
of the continents begins in the begins in some that the Sahara was once more fertile than it is today.
except Antarctica. Sahara in Africa. places. Analyzing Visuals Based on the style of the art
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 and the images shown, what might scientists be able
to learn about early Africa from this painting?
8000 BC 6500 BC
The Neolithic Era More than 5,000 people See Skills Handbook, p. H26
begins as agriculture live in Çatal Hüyük, in
develops. what is now Turkey.

THE BEGINNINGS OF CIVILIZATION 3

 GEOGRAPHY Starting Points
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Bones and the ruins 1. Identify What are the names of two of
of early human settlements provide scientists the early hominid fossil sites in Africa? Listen to History
with clues about the distant past. The oldest What are the names of two of the early
Go online to listen to an
bones of early humanlike beings and of humans agricultural sites in the Middle East? explanation of the starting
have been found in East Africa. Scientists have 2. Predict Based on the map above, what points for this chapter.
discovered that as people spread across the routes do you think early humans might
world, a key development was agriculture. The [Link]
have taken as they migrated out of
Keyword: SHL BEG
oldest farming sites are in the Middle East. Africa?

4 CHAPTER 1
 SECTION

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As you read,
BEFORE YOU READ take notes in
MAIN IDEA READING FOCUS KEY TERMS AND PEOPLE a graphic organizer like
this one. In the outer cir-
Scientific evidence 1. What methods are used to culture
cles, record details about
suggests that modern study the distant past? artifacts
studying the past, human
humans spread from 2. What does evidence suggest Mary Leakey
origins, early migration,
Africa to other lands about human origins? hominid
and the Stone Age.
and gradually developed Donald Johanson
3. How did early people spread
ways to adapt to their Louis Leakey
around the world?
environment. Paleolithic Era
4. How did early people adapt Early
nomads People
to life in the Stone Age? hunter-gatherers
animism

How can footprints reveal facts

about human history? In the
1970s anthropologist Mary Leakey took
 
some fellow scientists to an archaeological site in Laetoli,
Tanzania. Littered across the area were large piles of dried
elephant dung. One scientist playfully picked up some dung
 ÆÆ 
and hurled it at another member of the group. Soon, dung
was flying in all directions. As one man ran to avoid being
hit, he tripped and fell. When he began to get up, he was
amazed by what he saw. Before him were numerous animal
tracks, hardened in volcanic ash. The tracks turned out to be
around 3.5 million years old—a major find. An even greater
find was still to come, however.
As Mary Leakey was examining the tracks one day she
saw among them footprints that looked almost human.
An analysis of the footprints revealed that two humanlike
individuals had made them about 3.5 million years ago.
The remarkable find showed that early people had walked
upright on two legs long before scientists had thought, pro-
viding an important clue to the mystery of human origins.

Studying the Distant Past

The human story goes back more than one million years, A scientist studies
yet much of this story still remains a mystery. The rea- the Laetoli footprints
son is because writing, our main source of information in Tanzania.
about the past, has existed for only about 5,000 years.
As a result, we know little about prehistory, the vast
period of time before the development of writing. To
study prehistory, scholars must be detectives, search-
ing for clues and interpreting them to piece together
the story of the distant past.

THE BEGINNINGS OF CIVILIZATION 5

 A variety of scientific fields analyze clues Archaeologists excavate, or dig, at sites
to learn about prehistory. One scientific field where people have left traces. At these sites,
that contributes to our knowledge of prehistory called archaeological digs, workers carefully
is anthropology. This field includes a number excavate one small area at a time. They use
of areas of specialization. For example, some tools such as trowels and small brushes to
anthropologists study fossils to learn about unearth objects without shifting or damag-
human origins. Fossils are the preserved ing them. Using screens, workers sift through
remains or imprints of living things, such as removed soil for small items such as pieces of
preserved bones, teeth, or footprints. Other broken pottery. Researchers then use a variety
anthropologists study the cultures of past and of methods to date and analyze objects.
present societies. Culture refers to a society’s Anthropology and other scientific fields
knowledge, art, beliefs, customs, and values. continue to expand and revise our picture of
Anthropologists called archaeologists study the prehistoric past. For example, scientists
human material remains to learn about peo- who study genetics have recently revised our
ple in the past. Examples of human material understanding of human origins.
remains include architectural ruins and arti-
Find the Main Idea How do
facts. Artifacts are objects that people in the
scientists learn about prehistory?
past made or used, such as coins, pottery, and
tools. By analyzing material remains, archae-
ologists can make educated guesses about
people’s lives and cultures. For instance, by
Human Origins
analyzing tools, archaeologists can draw con- Throughout time, people have wondered about
clusions about how technologically advanced their origins. Where did the first people come
a society was, what resources it had available, from? When did they appear? Although we do
and some of the possible activities of people in not know all the answers, some key discoveries
the society. have provided important pieces to the puzzle.
Not all scientists agree on the meaning of these
discoveries, however; and future discoveries
may lead to new ideas about human origins.
FACES OF HISTORY The husband-and- Key Discoveries In 1959 anthropologist
7HOÆ7D:Æ EK?I wife team of Mary
and Louis Leakey
Mary Leakey (LEE-kee) found skull fragments in
East Africa that were more than 1.75 million
ÆÆÆÆ   made some of the
most significant
years old. When put together, the fragments
1913–1996 and 1903–1972 formed a skull with a heavy jaw and large
discoveries teeth, earning it the nickname “Nutcracker
related to human origins. These discoveries—such as the Nutcracker Man.” The skull was from an Australopithecine
Man skull, the Laetoli footprints, and the first Homo habilis fossils— (ah-stray-loh-PITH-i-seen), an early humanlike
have greatly expanded our understanding of early people. being or hominid (HAH-muh-nuhd). This term
Mary Leakey gained an interest in prehistoric archaeology during refers to humans and early humanlike beings
her childhood. While a teenager, she began working as an illustra- that walked upright.
tor, drawing tools and other artifacts for an archaeologist. This work In 1974 in Ethiopia, an anthropologist
brought her in contact with Louis Leakey in 1933. Born and raised in named Donald Johanson found a partial Aus-
Kenya, Louis Leakey had received a degree in anthropology and was tralopithecine skeleton. He described his find.
working in that field.
HISTORY’S VOICES
After marrying in 1937, the Leakeys spent the next 30 years in
East Africa searching together for clues to the origin and early devel-
opment of humankind. Many of the Leakeys’ greatest discoveries were
“the
We reluctantly headed back toward camp. Along
way, I glanced over my right shoulder. Light
made in the Olduvai Gorge, a steep-sided ravine in Tanzania. The glinted off a bone. I knelt down for a closer look
. . . Everywhere we looked on the slope around
sides of the gorge have yielded stone tools and fossils dating back
us we saw more bones lying on the surface. . .
some 2 million years.
Find the Main Idea How have Mary and Louis Leakey contributed to
The find launched a celebration in camp.
”
—Donald Johanson,
our knowledge of human origins? Ancestors: In Search of Human Origins

6 CHAPTER 1
 Johanson named the partial skeleton Lucy.
Tests showed that Lucy had lived more than &BSMZ
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3 million years ago. Based on an analysis of her
skeleton and knee joints, Johanson concluded Groups of hominids appeared in Africa between about 5 million
that Lucy had been about 4 feet tall and walked and 200,000 years ago. Later groups were more advanced than
upright. Walking upright is a major advance earlier groups and made better tools. What advantages did
because it leaves the hands free to use tools. Homo erectus have over Homo habilis?
In the 1970s Mary Leakey made yet another
key discovery at a site called Laetoli in Tanza-
AUSTRALOPITHECINE
nia. There, she and her team found hominid
footprints preserved in hardened volcanic ash. • Name means “southern ape”
Made by Australopithecines about 3.5 million • Appeared in Africa about 4–5 million
years ago, the footprints provided the oldest years ago
evidence at the time of early hominids walking • Stood upright and walked on two legs
upright. Mary Leakey considered the discovery • Brain was about one-third the size of
the most exciting of her career. those of modern humans
New finds continue to expand our knowl-
edge of early people. In 2001 a scientific team
found an early hominid skull in a desert region
of Chad, a country in Central Africa. The skull HOMO HABILIS
has features of both an Australopithecine and
a chimpanzee, and the creature it belonged to • Name means “handy man”
may have walked upright. The skull has been • Appeared in Africa about 2.4 million
dated to between 6 and 7 million years old. years ago
• Used crude stone tools for chopping
Later Hominids Based on the fossil record, and scraping
more advanced hominids began appearing • Brain was about half the size of
about 3 million years ago. In 1959 anthropolo- those of modern humans An early
gists Mary and Louis Leakey found a hominid Stone Age chopper
fossil in Olduvai (OHL-duh-vy) Gorge, located
in Tanzania. The hominid proved to be a new
species, which became known as Homo habilis, HOMO ERECTUS
or “handy man.” Homo habilis first appeared
about 2.4 million years ago in Africa. Compared • Name means “upright man”
to earlier hominids, Homo habilis had more • Appeared in Africa about 2–1.5 million
humanlike features, such as smaller teeth and years ago
hands that were better able to grasp objects. • Used early stone tools such as the
In addition, scientists think Homo habilis hand ax
• Learned to control fire
learned to make and use crude stone tools.
• Migrated out of Africa
These early tools were made by striking one
rock against another to create a sharp edge. A hand ax
With these crude tools, hominids could cut
meat, chop roots, or scrape meat from bones.
The use of tools greatly improved survival. HOMO SAPIENS
Other hominids that scientists named Homo
erectus, or “upright man,” appeared some 2 to 1.5 • Name means “wise man”
million years ago in Africa. Homo erectus had • Appeared in Africa about 200,000 years ago
a larger brain than earlier hominids and thus • Migrated around the world
• Same species as modern humans
was probably more intelligent. For example,
• Used a wide range of tools; learned
Homo erectus was a more skillful hunter than
to create fire; likely developed language
earlier hominids and created more advanced
tools. One such tool was a hand ax made from
A flint knife
flint, which is easy to shape into sharp edges.

THE BEGINNINGS OF CIVILIZATION 7

 Flint hand axes enabled Homo erectus to dig Out of Africa Based on the fossil record,
more easily, chop through tree limbs, and cut many scientists think that Homo erectus was
through thick animal hides. the first hominid to migrate out of Africa. For
Scientists also think that Homo erectus was example, Homo erectus fossils have been found
the first hominid to control fire. Once natural throughout Asia and Europe. The ability to
causes, such as lightning, had created a fire, walk fully upright and to control fire may have
Homo erectus learned to use the fire to cook enabled Homo erectus to make this migration.
food and to provide heat and protection. With Scientists hold different theories about the
the ability to control fire, Homo erectus could origins and migration of Homo sapiens. Accord-
live in colder climates as well. ing to one theory, Homo erectus groups around
the world gradually developed the characteris-
Modern Humans In time, hominids with tics of Homo sapiens over time. Recent genetic
the physical characteristics of modern humans evidence does not support this theory, however.
appeared. Scientists call modern humans Based on the latest evidence, most scientists
Homo sapiens, or “wise man.” Every person now think that Homo sapiens originated in
alive today belongs to this species. With larger Africa about 200,000 years ago. Homo sapiens
brains than earlier hominids, Homo sapiens then began to migrate out of Africa around
developed more sophisticated tools and shel- 100,000 years ago.
ters and eventually learned to create fire. The map “Migration of Early Humans”
Homo sapiens may have also been the first shows the possible migration routes of early
hominids to develop spoken language, perhaps Homo sapiens. After moving into Southwest
because of improved brain and speech organs. Asia—the region of the Middle East—early
With language, early people were better able to modern humans likely spread across southern
cooperate, hunt in groups, and resolve issues. Asia and into Australia. Open sea may have
Language also enabled people to form stronger separated Australia and Asia at the time, so
relationships and interact with other groups. early humans might have had to use some type
Identify Supporting of boat to make the crossing.
Details What four main types of hominids have People took longer to move into Europe and
scientists identified based on fossil evidence? northern Asia because high mountains and
cold temperatures made it harder to live in
those regions. As people improved their ability
Spreading Around the World to create fire and adapt, though, they spread
into Europe and northern Asia as well.
As later hominids learned to adapt better to
Scientists disagree on when and how the
the environment, they began to migrate, or
first people reached the Americas, but most
move, out of Africa. This movement occurred
scholars think that early people crossed a land
gradually over hundreds of thousands of years.
bridge from northeast Asia to North America.
Scientists do not fully know why later homi-
By at least 9000 BC, humans had spread to all
nids began to migrate, but one major reason
of the continents except Antarctica.
was a change in the climate.

The Ice Ages About 1.6 million years ago, Adapting to New Environments As
modern humans migrated around the world,
much of the world began experiencing long
they adapted to new environments. This pro-
ACADEMIC periods of freezing weather called ice ages. As
VOCABULARY cess of adaptation caused humans to develop
the world climate cycled between colder and
cycle to alternate some of the genetic variety that exists today.
warmer periods, huge sheets of ice called gla-
among two or more According to one view, two early groups of
things or events ciers advanced and retreated. When glaciers
modern humans were Neanderthals and Cro-
advanced, ocean levels fell, exposing areas that
Magnons. Neanderthals lived about 200,000
are today underwater. For example, during the
to 30,000 years ago. After that time, though,
ice ages, the Bering Strait that now separates
they seem to have disappeared. Recent genetic
Asia and North America was an exposed land
research suggests they died out and may not
bridge. Such land bridges helped early homi-
have actually been Homo sapiens. Scientists
nids spread around the world.
continue to debate this point, however.

8 CHAPTER 1
 Cro-Magnons appeared about 40,000 years
ago. Sturdy and muscular, Cro-Magnons were
Life in the Stone Age
physically identical to modern humans. They The first humans lived during the prehistoric
made finely crafted tools, had superior hunting period called the Stone Age. During this vast
abilities, and were better able to survive. They period, early people made tools mainly from
also created figurines and haunting cave art. stone. Scientists call the first part of the Stone
Age the Paleolithic (pay-lee-uh-LI-thik) Era, or
Analyze Information How Old Stone Age. It lasted from around 2.5 mil-
did the ice ages influence early human migration? lion years ago to around 10,000 years ago.

F ORENSICS
in History
Can DNA Help Trace Our Origins?
Archaeological evidence suggests that modern humans Scientists are using people’s genetic variations as mark-
appeared first in Africa and then slowly spread around ers to trace human ancestry. By taking DNA from people
the world, reaching the Americas last. However, not all around the world, scientists have begun comparing genetic
scientists agree with this view. Could your DNA help prove markers across populations.
where modern human globetrotters began their travels? So far, the results have traced everyone tested back to
What facts do we have? People may differ on the one woman in Africa who lived about 150,000 years ago,
outside, but genetically speaking all human beings are although other people lived at the time. Researchers think
99.9 percent identical. The 0.1 percent of genetic material, that perhaps no more than 1,000 people then made their
or DNA, that differs accounts for people’s many variations. way out of Africa between 50,000 and 70,000 years ago.
These genetic variations then get passed down from Draw Conclusions How can DNA be used to advance
generation to generation. archaeological theories?
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THE BEGINNINGS OF CIVILIZATION 9

 Reading
like a Historian The horned animal is an
aurochs, a wild ox that is
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Analyzing Visuals The prehistoric people hover just before the beast.
of Europe painted beautiful images deep with-
in caves, where only flickering firelight would
have lit the walls. The cave painting on the
right is from Lascaux Cave, in France. This cave
includes some 600 images of animals and
symbols that people created between 17,000
and 15,000 years ago. In shades of yellow,
red, brown, and black, the images cover the
walls and ceilings of the cave complex.
To interpret what this cave art image
suggests about the Stone Age, think about
• the subject of the image
• the details in the image
• the creation of the image

A?BBI
 READING LIKE A HISTORIAN
1. Subject What is the subject of the art? A graceful horse in
shades of orange and
2. Details Why might the people who made the art have black overlaps the
provided more details for some of the animals than others? aurochs. Smaller black
3. Creation What skills and materials would artists have horses run past below.
needed to create these images?
See Skills Handbook, p. H26

Stone Age People During the Stone Age, For example, people learned to attach wooden
people lived as nomads, moving from place handles to tools. By attaching a wooden han-
to place as they followed migrating animal dle to a stone arrow, people invented the spear.
herds. These early people lived in small bands, With spears, hunters could stand farther away
or groups, and relied on the resources around from their prey and throw their weapons, which
them to survive. For shelter, people took cover was safer. Another tool called a spear-thrower
Some people still in rock overhangs or caves when available. enabled Stone Age hunters to throw spears far-
live as hunter- For food, people were hunter-gatherers, hunt- ther than by hand. As a result, hunters could
gatherers. These ing, fishing, and gathering wild plants, berries, take down larger prey, such as bison and mam-
groups include moths, which resembled large elephants.
nuts, and other foods. In general, men hunted,
the San of the
Kalahari Desert in while women collected plants and cared for the Early humans gradually learned to make
southern Africa. children. Because each role was important to more refined and specialized tools. Later Stone
survival, men and women likely were equals. Age people learned to make string from plant
READING fibers and animal sinew. People then used the
SKILLS Stone Age Technology An important string to make nets and other traps to capture
Predicting What
development for early people was the use of fish and small animals. Other new tools and
types of new tools
do you predict that technology—the application of knowledge, weapons included the bow and arrow, bone
prehistoric people tools, and materials to make life easier. The hooks, and fishing spears. To travel by water,
developed to make first tools that people made were crude chipped some people learned to make canoes by hol-
survival easier?
stones. Over time, people learned to make bet- lowing out logs. Such developments greatly
ter tools out of wood and bone as well as stone. improved Stone Age life.

10 CHAPTER 1
 As later Stone Age people migrated out of Scholars know even less about the spiritual
Africa, they encountered new environments beliefs of early people. Anthropologists think
with different climates or plants and animals. that early people may have practiced animism,
People had to develop new tools and skills to the belief that all things in nature have spir-
adapt to these new environments. its. Cave paintings of animals might have been
For example, in colder regions, later Stone made to honor animal spirits. Early people
Age people needed more than fire to keep them might have believed in a life after death as
warm. As a result, people learned to make nee- well. Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons buried
dles from bone and then used the needles to their dead and placed food and objects in the
sew together animal skins for clothing. In time, graves. These items might have been for the
people learned to use skins and other materi- dead to use in an afterlife.
als to make shoes, hats, and carrying sacks.
Summarize How did Stone
In addition to clothing, people learned to
Age people use technology to adapt and survive?
build shelters. The first human-made shelters
were called pit houses, which were pits dug in
the ground and covered with roofs of branches
and leaves. Stone Age people eventually began
to build shelters above ground as well. Early
SECTION  ASSESSMENT
[Link]
Online Quiz
Keyword: SHL BEG HP
people used whatever was available to make
their shelters. In some places, people used wood Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People
to create a frame and then covered it with ani- 1. a. Recall What is an artifact, and what are two examples of artifacts?
mal skins. In eastern Europe, wood was scarce, b. Explain How do some anthropologists and archaeologists
so people used large mammoth bones instead. contribute to our understanding of prehistory?
c. Make Judgments Based on what you have learned about
Still other people built more permanent shel-
archaeological digs, would you want to work on one? Use information
ters out of wood, stone, or other materials.
from the text to support your answer.
Stone Age Art and Religion Over time, 2. a. Identify How have Mary Leakey, Louis Leakey, and
bands of early humans began to form societies. Donald Johanson contributed to our knowledge of human origins?
A society is a community of people who share a b. Contrast What set Homo sapiens apart from earlier hominids?
c. Evaluate In your opinion, how did the development of language
common culture. Stone Age societies developed
most benefit prehistoric people? Why?
cultures that included not only language but
also art and spiritual beliefs. 3. a. Describe What possible routes did Homo sapiens use to spread from
Africa throughout the world?
Cro-Magnons and other later Stone Age
b. Explain What do most scientists think helped contribute to some of
people produced a variety of art. They carved
the genetic variation seen among modern humans today?
ornaments and figurines out of antlers, bone,
4. a. Define What is a hunter-gatherer?
coral, ivory, and shells. Later Stone Age people
b. Summarize What types of art did later Stone Age people create?
also painted and carved images on rocks and
c. Elaborate How did Stone Age technology improve over time?
cave walls. Stunning examples of prehistoric
rock and cave art exist around the world. In Critical Thinking
this art, bulls toss their heads, wounded bison 5. Summarize Copy the graphic organizer below. Using your notes,
charge at hunters, and horses leap majestically. complete the graphic organizer by describing what scientists have
Symbols and human hands appear as well. To learned about human origins from each of the key discoveries listed.
create cave art, prehistoric artists used char- Discovery Importance
coal, clay, iron, and other materials to produce Nutcracker Man, 1959
colors such as black, reds, and yellows. Lucy, 1974
Scholars are not certain what purpose this Laetoli Footprints, 1970s
early art served. Prehistoric artists may have Chad fossils, 2001
been representing the world as they saw and
experienced it. They may have used cave art
to chronicle hunts or to teach hunting skills.
6. Description Write a paragraph describing the four main groups of early
Symbols might have recorded the movements hominids. Your description should include the name of each hominid
of the sun, moon, stars, or planets. Or, the art group, what scientists know about it, and how each group was more
might have had a spiritual meaning. advanced than the previous one.

THE BEGINNINGS OF CIVILIZATION 11

 SECTION

 >;Æ
;=?DD?D=ÆÆ
E<Æ =H?9KBJKH;
As you
BEFORE YOU READ read, take
MAIN IDEA READING FOCUS KEY TERMS notes in a graphic
organizer like this one.
The development of 1. What new tools and technolo- Neolithic Era
Record details about the
agriculture was one gies did early humans develop Neolithic Revolution
causes and effects of the
of the most important during the New Stone Age? domestication
beginning of agriculture.
turning points in human 2. How did early agriculture pastoralists
history and significantly develop and spread? megaliths
Causes Effects
changed the way in Bronze Age
3. In what ways did the develop-
which many people lived.
ment of agriculture change
Stone Age society?

What might seeds reveal about Then, as the scientists continued to study the site, they
the past? In Syria, on the banks of the had another major surprise. Beneath the first settlement
Euphrates River, researchers carefully but was an even older one, dated to about 11,500 years ago.
quickly combed a prehistoric settlement to learn its secrets. Once again, the scientists carefully sifted through the dirt
A dam would soon flood the site, and time was running and found numerous seeds—but with one major difference.
short. As the team of scientists raced to collect artifacts and These seeds were wild, yet they were still quite similar to
other remains, a picture of the past began to emerge. the cultivated seeds from the later settlement. The excited
Flint and stone tools and the remains of houses showed scientists realized that the people who had once lived there
that people had settled at the spot around 9,500 years might have learned the mysteries of farming in perhaps a
ago. Using a specialized sifter, the scientists also found single lifetime, far quicker than scientists had thought.
many seeds mixed among the dirt. An analysis of the seeds Today the settlements lie hidden beneath Lake Assad,
showed that they were cultivated, revealing that the people but their secrets are hidden no more. There, people learned
had known how to farm. The scientists were thrilled. They to farm. This development would radically change life and
had found one of the first farming settlements. move people into the fast lane on the road to civilization.

Æ  
The settlements the team found
were located at this site, which
is in Syria. The area now lies
beneath Lake Assad.

12 CHAPTER 1
The New Stone Age With the development of farming, people
began to practice domestication, the selective
With the development of more sophisticated growing or breeding of plants and animals to
tools, the Paleolithic Era gave way to a period make them more useful to humans. Each year,
that scientists call the Neolithic Era, or New people saved and planted the seeds from only
Stone Age. In some places, such as parts of the best plants, such as the hardiest. Slowly
Southwest Asia, this period began as early as over time, wild plants became domesticated.
8000 BC and lasted until about 3000 BC. In Growing and domesticating plants provided
other places, the era began much later and people with larger food supplies.
lasted much longer.
Several advances in toolmaking defined Animals Before they domesticated plants,
the New Stone Age. Whereas before people prehistoric people had already domesticated
had chipped stones to produce sharp edges or animals. As with plants, animal domestication
points, in the New Stone Age people learned required the careful selection and breeding of
to polish and grind stones to shape tools with the best animals, such as the tamest or those
sharper edges. These new methods enabled that produced the most meat, milk, or wool.
people to make more specialized tools, such as
chisels, drills, and saws. However, the most sig-
nificant advances of the Neolithic Era had to
do with food, not tools.
Contrast How did toolmak- Domestication
ing in the New Stone Age differ from toolmaking in the
As early people began farming, they
Old Stone Age?
learned to domesticate plants and animals.
For example, people selected the goats
Development of Agriculture with the shortest horns to breed. Over
time, many domesticated plants and
For tens of thousands of years—most of human animals bore little resemblance to
history—people lived as nomads, surviving their wild ancestors.
by hunting and gathering food. Then, around Why might people prefer
10,000 years ago, some people learned to farm. livestock with shorter horns?
The development of agriculture is one of the
most important turning points in human his- Domesticated
tory because it radically changed how people goat skull
lived. As a result, historians refer to the shift
to farming as the Neolithic Revolution.

Plants Around 10,000 years ago, a warming

trend brought an end to the last Ice Age. As the
climate grew warmer and drier, sea levels rose.
These changes caused many Ice Age plants and Wild goat skull
animals to become extinct, or die out. At the
same time, new plants and animals appeared
in some places. For example, wild grains such
as barley and wheat began to spread through-
out Southwest Asia.
In areas where wild grains spread, some
people began to gather them for food. As peo-
ple gathered grain each year, they may have
Domesticated Wild wheat
noticed that new plants tended to grow where
wheat
seeds fell. In time, people experimented with
planting seeds and learned to farm. This pro-
cess occurred gradually over a long period.

13
 Scientists think that the first animals that Growth of Agriculture The development
people domesticated were dogs. By 10,000 BC, of agriculture occurred independently in dif-
people in North America and parts of Asia had ferent parts of the world at different times. In
tamed dogs, perhaps for use in hunting and the regions where agriculture developed, peo-
as guard animals. In time, prehistoric people ple domesticated the plants and animals that
applied their knowledge of wild herd animals were available. Those domesticated plants and
and learned to domesticate cattle, goats, pigs, animals then gradually spread to other areas.
and sheep. In Southwest Asia, people domesticated
By domesticating animals, people could barley, wheat, pigs, and sheep. In East Asia and
raise livestock to provide a more stable supply South Asia, people grew barley, rice, and millet
of meat, milk, and skins or wool. In addition, and raised cattle, goats, and water buffalo. In
people could use large animals such as cattle northern Africa, people domesticated sorghum
to carry or pull heavy loads and to help with and cattle. In Mexico and Central America,
farming. Like plant domestication, animal early crops included beans, corn, and squash;
domestication provided prehistoric people with while in South America people domesticated
a larger and more reliable food supply. potatoes and llamas.

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14 CHAPTER 1
 Eventually, agriculture spread throughout Agriculture and trade made societies more
much of the world. People made the transi- complex and prosperous, and differences in
tion to agriculture gradually, however, and social status began to emerge. Some people
often continued to hunt and gather plants as gained more wealth and influence than others.
they learned to farm. In addition, some people Other people rose to positions of authority, over-
remained hunter-gatherers, perhaps because seeing the planting and harvesting, running
their territories were not suited to farming. building projects, or planning defense. Men
performed the heavier work in farming and
Identify Cause and Effect
often held positions of authority. As a result,
How did people benefit from farming and the domesti-
men began to gain dominance and status over
cation of plants and animals?
women in many agricultural societies.
Religion began to become more formalized
Agriculture Changes Society in agricultural societies as well. Some societies
began to construct structures for religious pur-
READING
SKILLS
Agriculture dramatically changed Stone Age poses. For example, in Europe some Neolithic Predicting How
societies. For one, the world population grew do you predict
societies built monuments out of megaliths, or that agriculture
significantly because agriculture provided huge stones, for burial or spiritual purposes. changed Stone
a larger and more reliable food supply. For Some Neolithic people began to worship gods Age societies?
another, people’s ways of life changed. Some and goddesses associated with animals or the
people began to live as nomadic pastoralists, elements—air, water, fire, and earth. For exam-
people who ranged over wide areas and kept ple, one European tribe worshipped bulls, while
herds of livestock on which they depended for another honored a thunder god. Other people One of the most
food and other items. Other people gave up the may have worshipped their ancestors. famous examples
nomadic lifestyle and formed settlements. By A more settled agricultural life had some of megaliths
living in settlements, people could farm and can be seen at
negative effects as well. For example, warfare Stonehenge near
pool their labor and resources. increased as societies began to fight over land Salisbury, England.
and resources. As people became more depen-
Early Farming Societies In early farming dant on farming, they were more affected
settlements, people often lived close together in
by crop failure as a result of bad weather or
houses made of mud bricks or other materials.
other causes. In addition, disease increased. In
On the land around their settlements, people
settlements where people lived close together,
grew crops and raised livestock. As popula-
disease spread more rapidly. Furthermore,
tions grew, some settlements developed into
increased contact between people and animals
villages and towns. By about 6000 BC, villages
caused some animal diseases to cross over to
and towns of up to several hundred people had
humans. These diseases included the flu, mea-
arisen in parts of the world.
sles, and smallpox.
With the growth of agricultural societies,
people’s everyday activities changed. Instead New Technologies As their ways of life
of hunting and gathering food, many people began to change, people developed new tools
worked in the fields and tended livestock. Men, and methods to make life easier. Early farmers
women, and children probably divided up the used hand tools such as hoes and sharpened
tasks involved in these activities. At the same sticks to prepare the soil for planting. Farmers
time, with more food available, some people scattered their seeds by hand and may have
could spend more time doing activities other used animals to trample and loosen hard soil
than food production. For example, some peo- to work in the seeds. Then about 6000 BC, peo-
ple became skilled at making crafts or tools. ple began to use animals such as cattle to pull
As agriculture enabled people to produce plows. With the plow, farmers could till larger
extra food and products, trade increased. Set- areas to produce more crops.
tlements traded with one another to obtain raw To prepare foods such as grains, Neolithic
materials and products that they lacked. For people developed new tools such as pestles and
example, in Southwest Asia a popular trade grindstones. In addition, people learned to use
good was obsidian, a dark volcanic glass used clay to make pottery. Early pottery was used
to make tools, jewelry, and mirrors. for cooking and to store grains, oils, and water.

THE BEGINNINGS OF CIVILIZATION 15

 Villagers grew barley,
HISTORY CLOSE-UP Villagers used channels peas, and wheat, and
to move water from the grazed livestock in
river to their fields. fields and pastures
Çatal Hüyük: An Early around the village.

Farming Village
The village of Çatal Hüyük is among the oldest farming sites.
Around 8,000 years ago the village was home to some 5,000
to 6,000 people, who lived in more than 1,000 houses. The
houses were built so closely together that there were few if
any streets. The people of Çatal Hüyük farmed, hunted, and
fished; traded with people in distant lands; and built shrines.

Because homes were built

so close together, people
entered their homes
through rooftop openings.

Families buried ances-

tors beneath the floor
of religious shrines in
the main living area.

A?BBI Inside their homes, families

 INTERPRETING VISUALS cooked food, stored grain,
1. Infer Why might villagers have placed the and used pottery and
entrances to their homes on the rooftops? wooden bowls and cups.

2. Contrast How were the houses in Çatal Hüyük

different from modern American houses?

16 CHAPTER 1
 The domestication of animals made it pos- Nicknamed Ötzi the Iceman, the Neolithic
sible for Neolithic people to use wool from goats man and his belongings were well preserved.
and sheep to create yarn. Some early farming Ötzi’s outfit was made of three types of ani-
societies learned to spin yarn and weave it into mal skins stitched together. In addition, he
cloth to make garments and blankets. wore leather shoes padded with grass, a woven
Eventually, people learned to use metal, grass cape, a fur hat, and a sort of backpack.
first copper and then bronze, a mix of copper Among his belongings were a deerskin quiver
and tin. Bronze is harder than copper and pro- with arrows, a flint dagger, and an ax with a
duces stronger objects. As people began to make copper blade. Heavy wear on Ötzi’s front teeth
items from bronze, the Stone Age gave way to a suggest his diet included coarse grains.
time period that scientists call the Bronze Age. Scientists do not think that Ötzi lived in
This transition occurred as early as 3000 BC in the cold, mountainous location where he was
some areas, but much later in others. found. Moreover, an arrowhead in his shoulder
suggests he was murdered. Perhaps Ötzi had
Çatal Hüyük Archaeologists have found the gone into the mountains to try to escape an ACADEMIC
remains of several Neolithic settlements and enemy but then grew too weak to continue. VOCABULARY
villages. One that has provided a wealth of domestic relating
information is Çatal Hüyük (cha-tal HOO-yuk). Summarize How did the to everyday life or
This Neolithic village was located in present- development of agriculture affect Neolithic societies? the home
day Turkey and was home to some 5,000 to


6,000 people around 6000 BC. The village cov- [Link]
ered more than 30 acres, making it the largest SECTION ASSESSMENT Online Quiz
Neolithic site that archaeologists have found. Keyword: SHL BEG HP
The people of Çatal Hüyük grew crops such Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People
as barley, peas, and wheat in the fields around 1. a. Recall What characteristics define the Neolithic Era?
their village. In addition, they raised sheep b. Explain How did tools in the Neolithic Era differ from those in
and goats, hunted wild cattle, and fished in a the Paleolithic Era?
nearby river. Based on artifacts found at Çatal 2. a. Describe What is involved in plant and animal domestication?
Hüyük, such as shells, villagers traded with b. Summarize How did the development of agriculture benefit
people as far away as the Red Sea. prehistoric people’s lives?
The houses in Çatal Hüyük were built close c. Elaborate How did geography contribute to the development and
together, and the village had few if any streets. spread of agriculture?
Because of the closeness of the buildings, peo- 3. a. Identify Who is Ötzi the Iceman, and why is he significant?
ple entered their homes through openings in b. Contrast How did life for early hunter-gatherers differ from that
the roofs. Most homes had one main room in for people in early agricultural societies?
which a family lived, and one or two side rooms c. Develop What have scientists learned about Neolithic farming
societies by studying Çatal Hüyük?
for storage. In the main room, areas were set
aside for sleeping and for domestic tasks, such Critical Thinking
as cooking and making crafts. In some homes, 4. Identify Supporting Details Create a graphic organizer like the one
areas were also set aside for religious shrines. below. On the left side, describe the key facts related to the development
These shrines often contained small female of agriculture, including both plant and animal domestication. On the
statues, large sculpted bulls’ heads, and one or right side of the graphic organizer, note the ways in which the develop-
two bodies buried beneath the floor. In addi- ment of agriculture affected Neolithic societies.
tion, families covered the interior walls of their
homes with colorful, vibrant paintings.

Ötzi the Iceman Archaeological discoveries

continue to add to our knowledge of Neolithic
societies. In 1991 hikers in Italy’s Ötztal Alps
found a frozen male body that had been pre- 5. Persuasion Write one or two paragraphs in support of the position that
served by the cold, icy conditions. Scientific the Neolithic Revolution is one of the most important turning points in
tests showed that the body was about 5,300 human history. Address both the positive and negative effects of the
years old and from the Neolithic Era. development of agriculture.

THE BEGINNINGS OF CIVILIZATION 17

 SECTION

 EKD:7J?EDIÆÆ
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As you read,
BEFORE YOU READ take notes in
MAIN IDEA READING FOCUS KEY TERMS a graphic organizer like
1. Why did some early villages this one. Record key facts
From farming villages surplus
develop into cities? about the first cities and
arose cities, and with division of labor
civilizations, including
them, the first civilizations, 2. What characterized the traditional economy
why civilizations change.
marking the beginnings of world’s first civilizations, and civilization
recorded history. where did they develop? artisans Cities Civilizations
3. What factors cause civiliza- cultural diffusion
tions to change over time?

When is a town wall not enough? this water, the people of Jericho grew barley and wheat
The townspeople of Jericho stood back and herded sheep and goats. In addition, the townspeople
to admire their hard work. A massive traded across the region. Jericho’s mighty wall, agriculture,
stone wall with a 30-foot high watchtower now encircled and trade represented the first steps toward civilization.
their town. Jericho’s residents had every right to be proud. Yet, Jericho’s wall failed to protect the town. Sometime
Around 8000 BC, when most people still lived as nomads, during the 7000s BC, the community at Jericho ceased to
Jericho was the first walled town known to exist. To build exist. Over time, many other groups settled at Jericho and
such a wall took engineering skill, planning, and leadership. rebuilt its wall. Even so, Jericho never developed into a
Located in the Jordan Valley north of the Dead Sea, civilization—the first civilization was still to come.
ancient Jericho was an oasis in an otherwise arid land. A
spring at the site provided a continual source of water. With

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The site of ancient
Jericho, located in the
Jordan Valley, and some
of the ruins that remain.

18 CHAPTER 1
From Villages to Cities Characteristics of Cities As populations
increased and economies became more com-
The development of agriculture and the growth plex, some villages grew into the first cities.
of settlements marked a major advance in These cities differed from early villages in sev-
human history. As societies became more set- eral ways. First, cities were larger and more
tled, and villages grew in size and complexity, densely populated than villages. For example,
the first cities began to appear. the first known city was Uruk, located between
Advances in farming and changing econo- the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in what is now
mies helped lead to the development of cities. Iraq. Around 3000 BC Uruk was home to some
Like the transition from a nomadic life to a 40,000 to 50,000 people and covered more than
settled agricultural life, the transition from 1,000 acres. In comparison, the village of Çatal
villages to cities took place gradually. Hüyük at its height had only about 5,000 to
6,000 people and covered about 30 acres.
Advances in Farming As time passed,
Second, city—or urban—populations were
early farmers continued to develop new meth-
more diverse than village populations. Early
ods to increase farm production. One of the
villages usually consisted of a few extended
most significant advances in farming was the
families or clans, whereas early cities usually
development of irrigation systems. An irriga-
included many unrelated people.
tion system is a network of canals or ditches
Third, early cities often had a more formal
that links fields of crops to nearby streams or
organization than villages. For example, most
to storage basins of water.
early cities had a defined center. City centers
The use of irrigation enabled early people
often contained palaces, temples, monuments,
to farm more land and to farm in drier con-
government buildings, and marketplaces.
ditions. As a result, farmers could plant more
Many early cities had defined boundaries as
crops and produce more food. With irrigation,
well, marked by defensive walls, which sepa-
some farmers began to produce a surplus, or
rated the city from the surrounding villages.
excess, of food. With surplus food, villages could
The large number of people living in cities
support larger populations.
provided the labor to create these large-scale
Changing Economies Because irrigation building projects.
made farmers more productive, fewer people Finally, early cities served as centers of
needed to farm to feed the growing population. trade. Merchants and farmers from the sur-
As a result, some people were able to work full- rounding villages traveled to city markets to
time in jobs other than farming. For example, exchange goods and raw materials. The people
people skilled in making tools and weapons in the city produced goods to trade in turn. This
could devote all their time to that work. Other trade fed city economies.
people became full-time weavers, potters, or Contrast How did early
religious leaders. The economic arrangement cities differ from early farming villages?
in which each worker specializes in a particu-
lar task or job is called a division of labor.
Food surpluses and a growing division The First Civilizations READING
of labor resulted in economic changes. Early SKILLS
The world’s first civilizations formed from Predicting Based
farming villages had traditional economies. In
some of these early cities. A civilization is a on what you have
a traditional economy, economic decisions are
complex and organized society. The first civili- read so far, where
made based on custom, tradition, or ritual. In do you predict that
zations arose in fertile river valleys—the Tigris
early villages, most people were farmers and the first civilizations
and Euphrates in Southwest Asia, the Nile in developed?
relied on trade to obtain a few raw materials.
Africa, the Indus in South Asia, and the Huang
With the development of irrigation, how-
He (also called the Yellow River) in China. In
ever, villages could produce extra food as well
these river valleys, the rivers flooded annually.
as valuable trade products. In some villages,
These floods spread mineral-rich silt from the
leaders began to make economic decisions
river bottoms onto the nearby land. As a result,
based on fueling trade and feeding the grow-
the river valleys had fertile land that could
ing population.
support a growing population.

THE BEGINNINGS OF CIVILIZATION 19

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As large cities began to form, the first civilizations appeared. A civilization Specialized Labor This model from the
is a complex society with a number of specific characteristics. In what civilization of ancient Egypt depicts special-
way are the characteristics of specialized labor and government ized laborers hard at work pounding grain
and religious institutions connected? into flour, rolling dough, and baking bread.

Record Keeping and Writing One early

method of record keeping was a clay pouch
that held clay tokens. Each token’s shape
and markings indicated a specific trade
good, such as oil, perfume, or sheep.

Although early civilizations differed, they officials gathered taxes and organized defense.
had several characteristics in common: In some early civilizations, religious leaders
• Developed cities such as priests held government power, while
• Organized government in other early civilizations, influential elders,
• Formalized religion warriors, or families held power.
• Specialization of labor
• Social classes Formalized Religion Early civilizations
• Record keeping and writing had formal religious institutions that included
• Art and architecture ceremonies, rituals, and other forms of wor-
ship. To gain the gods’ favor, priests and other
Developed Cities Cities with developed religious leaders performed rituals, such as
social and economic institutions, or patterns of sacrificing animals or offering gifts of food. To
organization, formed the basis of early civiliza- honor the gods, people built large temples and
tions. Early cities served as political, economic, participated in various ceremonies.
and cultural centers for surrounding areas. Because religious leaders often interpreted
Major cities in the early river valley civiliza- the will of the gods, priests became powerful
tions include Ur and Uruk near the Tigris and figures in many early civilizations. At the same
Euphrates rivers, Memphis on the Nile River, time, priests and rulers sometimes competed
Mohenjo Daro on the Indus River, and Anyang for power. To prove their authority, some lead-
near the Huang He. ers claimed that they ruled by the will of the
gods or that they represented one of the gods
Organized Government As cities grew, on Earth. As a result, government and reli-
governments formed. Building large irriga- gious institutions were often closely connected
tion systems and feeding a growing population in early civilizations.
required planning, decision making, and coop-
eration. Early governments probably formed in Specialization of Labor As cities became
response to such needs. The governments in the more complex, the division of labor increased
first civilizations created laws and established and many new jobs developed. For instance,
systems of justice. To help coordinate people’s officials gathered taxes, engineers planned
efforts, government officials supervised food irrigation systems, and soldiers defended city
production and building projects. In addition, walls. While some people farmed, others built
large public works, such as temples and roads.

20 CHAPTER 1
 The Arts China’s Shang civilization created
intricate works of bronze, such as the elephant
below. A delicate Ibex decorates a pottery
shard from India’s Harappan civilization.

Government and Religious Institutions

These figurines from the early civilization of
Sumer depict praying holy men in sheepskin
skirts. Such figurines were placed in temples.

Artisans, or skilled craftspeople, devoted their represented a specific item, such as a goat or
time to crafts such as basketry, carpentry, a piece of pottery. The tokens were stored in a
metalwork, or pottery. Merchants and traders clay pouch. To retrieve the tokens, the pouch
exchanged the products that artisans made and had to be broken open. The Inca civilization of ACADEMIC
brought back acquisitions from other areas. Peru, which developed later in South America, VOCABULARY
used knotted colored strings to keep accounts. acquisition some-
Social Classes As urban societies developed Systems of writing began to develop about thing that has been
institutions and specialized labor, a social order 5,000 years ago. The first writing systems used obtained or bought
developed as well. This social order was based pictographs, or picture symbols, to represent
on people’s occupations, wealth, and influence. objects or ideas. In time, people created more
In early civilizations, rulers, priests, and nobles advanced writing systems that used abstract
had the most power and ranked highest in the symbols to express a wider range of ideas. With
social order. Merchants and artisans usually the development of writing, early civilizations
ranked next. Below them were farmers and began to create a written record of their society.
unskilled workers, who made up the majority Such ancient texts and records are still impor-
of the people. A class of enslaved people often tant: they provide historians with a wealth of
formed the bottom of the social order. Some information about early civilizations.
slaves were people who had been captured in Along with writing, people in early civili-
war, while others had been sold into slavery. zations developed calendars. Because of the
growing importance of farming, people needed
Record Keeping and Writing As life in to track the changing of the seasons and when
early cities grew increasingly complex, people
it was time to plant or harvest. People in early
needed ways to keep permanent records. For
river valley civilizations also needed to know
example, merchants needed to keep records of
when yearly floods would occur.
trade goods, and officials needed to track tax
In response to such needs, some early civi-
payments. In early civilizations people used a
lizations created calendars. These calendars
variety of methods of keeping records before
were based on the phases of the moon, which
the development of writing. For example, the
were easy for early people to see and track.
early civilization of Sumer, which developed
Early lunar, or moon-based, calendars were
along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, used
inaccurate, though, because the lunar year is
clay tokens and pouches to keep records. The
several days shorter than the solar year.
shape of each token and the markings on it

THE BEGINNINGS OF CIVILIZATION 21

 The Arts The people in early civilizations
produced amazing works of art. The styles and
Change in Civilizations
techniques that artists used reflected each civ- Once early civilizations developed, they contin-
ilization’s culture. Early artists created statues ued to change over time. Factors such as the
and paintings of gods and goddesses, heroes, environment, conflicts, and the movement of
and rulers. As the use of bronze spread, some people and ideas affected civilizations and led
artisans created intricate art pieces in bronze. to change. While some changes weakened civi-
Works of art often adorned city squares, lizations, others strengthened them and led to
public buildings, and royal tombs. The most growth and expansion.
elaborate pieces of art, such as monumental
Environmental Influences Because of
statues of rulers, were meant to reflect a civili-
their dependence on farming, people in early
zation’s power and bring its ruler prestige.
civilizations relied on their environments. The
Draw Conclusions What forces of nature could easily bring destruction
was the relationship between job specialization and and ruin, however. Raging storms could destroy
the development of social classes in early civilizations? crops and leave people without enough food.

ECONOMIC SYSTEMS
H ISTORY Traditional
Economy
People make economic choices
based on customs and traditions.
and Economics Command A central government makes all
Economy economic decisions.

Needs and Wants Market

Economy
Private individuals make economic
choices based on competition.
All people need certain things to survive, such as
water, food, and shelter. In addition, people want Mixed Uses a mix of traditional, command,
Economy and market economies.
things in addition to their needs, such as jewelry
or cars. To satisfy their needs and wants, people
make economic choices. In a society, the three factor into such events. For example, imagine
basic economic choices are (1) what to produce, two countries each rich in what the other lacks.
(2) how to produce it, and (3) for whom to pro- They form an alliance to meet their needs and
duce it. Societies develop economic systems to wants together. In history you will find many
make these choices. Understanding economic such examples. Finding the “why” behind events,
systems is essential for understanding history. then, is often a matter of discovering the needs
Economic Systems in History Prehistoric and wants involved and the economic systems
hunter-gatherers met their needs and wants used to pursue them.
simply. As cities and civilizations developed,
Draw Conclusions How might an understand-
though, satisfying needs and wants became
ing of needs and wants and economic systems
more complex. People faced new choices: What
help you understand the causes of a war?
do we need to prosper? What do we want that
we cannot produce for ourselves? With whom
will we trade to obtain those things? Such ques-
tions forged new economic relationships, and
different economic systems developed.
Economic Systems in Your Life Much of
history involves the interaction of societies in Two merchants
pursuit of their needs and wants. Conquests, rev- bargain in this carving
olutions, periods of artistic development—needs produced sometime in
and wants and differing economic systems often the 900s to 700s BC.

22 CHAPTER 1
Flash floods could wipe out whole cities, and Conflicts also arose between civilizations
drought could kill off livestock. Farming used and nomadic groups. Not all people had chosen
up the land, and after a period of time the soil to live in settled communities. Nomadic pas-
lost fertility. Food shortages and other natural toralists, or herders, traveled with their herds
disasters could weaken a civilization and leave over wide-ranging territories. These nomadic
it open to outside attack. groups were loosely organized into tribes led by
A need for resources, such as metals, stone, chieftains. Nomadic societies had simple social
and timber, could also cause civilizations to organizations but developed rich cultures.
change. As early civilizations expanded, they Toughened by the need to protect their
began to use more resources. Some resources herds, nomads were usually skilled warriors. In
ran out. Other areas lacked needed resources. addition, once they learned to domesticate the
In such cases, people had to look for alternative horse, nomads became highly mobile. Although
solutions. In areas with few trees, for example, nomadic groups and settled communities often
some people began to use dried animal dung traded, nomads sometimes launched raids on
as fuel for cooking. To obtain scarce resources, villages and cities. Further conflicts arose as
civilizations expanded trade. nomads and farmers competed over land.

Spread of People and Ideas The spread Identify Cause and Effect
of people and ideas was another source of How did cultural diffusion affect early civilizations?
change in civilizations. Throughout history, the
movement of people through trade, migration,
and conquest has helped spread cultures and
ideas. Traveling merchants learned new lan-
guages to conduct trade with foreign groups.
SECTION  ASSESSMENT
[Link]
Online Quiz
Keyword: SHL BEG HP
Migrants brought their language, customs, and Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People
traditions with them when they moved to new 1. a. Define What is a division of labor?
areas. Civilizations often imposed their own b. Identify Cause and Effect How did irrigation systems help
cultures on the peoples they conquered. contribute to the development of the first cities?
The spread of ideas, beliefs, customs, and 2. a. Recall Where did the world’s first four civilizations develop?
technology from one culture to another is called b. Summarize What conditions existed in river valleys that encouraged
cultural diffusion. As a result of cultural diffu- the development of the first civilizations?
sion, people adopted new customs, skills, and c. Evaluate Why do you think that record keeping and writing are
technologies. Advances such as writing, metal- necessary characteristics of civilization?
working, and farming techniques spread from 3. a. Identify What are some factors that cause civilizations to change?
one civilization to another. Artists borrowed b. Explain What are some causes of cultural diffusion, and how did it
designs and materials from other cultures and affect early civilizations?
blended them with their own styles to create c. Elaborate What are some possible ways that trade, migration,
new forms and designs. Religious beliefs spread or invasion might lead to the spread of technology?
as people adopted the gods and goddesses of Critical Thinking
other civilizations and made them their own.
4. Identify Supporting Details Use your notes and a graphic organizer
like the one shown below to identify and describe each of the character-
Expansion and Warfare Expansion and
istics that early civilizations had in common. You will need to add rows to
warfare contributed to change in civilizations
your graphic organizer.
as well. As civilizations grew, they needed more
land and other resources to support their grow- Characteristics Description
ing populations. Conflicts over land, water, and
other resources occurred and often led to war.
Civilizations waged war to gain control of
rich farmland, important sea ports, or regions
with valuable resources. Through conquest,
civilizations expanded their control over land 5. Exposition Write two paragraphs that explain how migration and
and people. Through such means, some civili- cultural diffusion contributed to civilizations changing over time.
zations developed into states and kingdoms. Consider the spread of both people and ideas.

THE BEGINNINGS OF CIVILIZATION 23

HISTORY & Geography Interactive

River Valleys
and Civilizations
Pure, sparkling water—it makes life possible.
River Transportation
Water also made civilization possible. The
River travel allowed early
first civilizations all arose in river valleys.
civilizations to trade goods and
Common geographic features made these
ideas. This man is traveling on
river valleys ideal for farming. The rivers
the Tigris River, one of the two
provided water for irrigating crops. The soil
main rivers of Mesopotamia.
along the rivers was highly fertile, nourished
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River water was key to farming in
early civilizations. Irrigation canals
enabled people to channel the
water to their crops. These fields
are located along Egypt’s Nile River.

24 CHAPTER 1
 Flooding The first civilizations all arose
along rivers that flood their valleys each year.
The receding floodwaters left behind fertile
silt, enriching the soil and producing abun-
dant crops. At the same time, flooding could
be destructive, as in this scene of flooding on
the Huang He (Yellow River) in China.

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   INTERPRETING MAPS Keyword: SHL BEG

1. Location Where were each of the four river valley civiliza-

tions located? What do all the locations have in common?
2. Human-Environment Interaction What advantages did
the locations of the first civilizations provide in addition to the
advantages mentioned here?

THE BEGINNINGS OF CIVILIZATION 25

¡&RVBUPS
 CHAPTER

 E9KC;DJÅ
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Historical Context The four documents below describe some of the ways in
which archaeologists learn about the past without the benefit of written records.
Task Study the selections and answer the questions that follow. After you have
studied the documents, you will be asked to write an essay explaining how archae-
ologists learn about prehistory. You will need to use evidence from these selections
and from the chapter to support your essay.

Excavating the Royal Cemetery of Ur The burials of King A-bar-gi and Queen Sub-ad were
accompanied by interment [burial] of more than 80 other
British archaeologist Sir Leonard Woolley excavated
people, . . . including soldiers with gold- and silver-headed
the ruins of Ur, an ancient city in Iraq, from 1922 to
spears, female attendants wearing headdresses of lapis,
1934. Woolley’s excavation of the Royal Tombs of Ur
carnelian, and gold, . . . and an array of spectacularly beau-
provided a wealth of information about the ancient city
tiful artifacts such as gaming boards and harps. Recovery
and the people who lived there. Along with royalty the
was slow and painstaking; because of the quantity and in
cemetery included the remains of court attendants and
many cases the fragility of the remains, the overall area
soldiers, sacrificed to serve their masters after death.
was divided into squares. Finds in each square were cleared
The following passage describing Woolley’s excavation
and removed before work on the next square was
is from the Fundamentals of Archaeology, a 1979 text-
begun. . . . A nearly complete funerary scene could later be
book by Robert J. Sharer and Wendy Ashmore.
reconstructed by combining information from each square.

An Archaeological Dig in Syria

The photograph on the right shows a
team of researchers and workers at an
archaeological dig in Ebla, Syria. The
team is excavating the ruins of a Hittite
city from around 1600 BC. The person
in the foreground is using a transit, a
device for surveying a site. With this
device, workers can determine location,
plot a map of the site, and divide the site
into specific units to map the location
and depth where objects are found.

26 CHAPTER 1
Çatal Hüyük Ötzi the Iceman
Archaeologist Ian Hodder has led the excavation at The 5,300-year-old body of a Neolithic traveler,
Çatal Hüyük, a Neolithic farm village, since 1993. In nicknamed Ötzi the Iceman, has provided a wealth
the following passage from the article “This Old House” of information on Neolithic life in Europe. The pas-
in the June 2006 edition of Natural History magazine, sage below is from the article “Testimony from the
Hodder describes why the Çatal Hüyük site is such an Iceman” in the February 2003 edition of Smithso-
archeological goldmine. nian magazine. In the article, writer Bob Cullen
describes how the long-dead Iceman still speaks.
How much can be learned from what is perhaps the most
intriguing feature of all about Çatalhöyük: that the site Until Otzi, archaeologists had been required to recon-
was built and rebuilt over the centuries in ways that struct Neolithic civilization from skeletal remains,
provide an unusually rich record of the minutiae [small flint tools, and arrowheads, bits of pottery and the
details] of daily life? The main reason for the abundance beginnings of metallurgy. The glacier’s damp, freezing
of the archaeological record [at Çatalhöyük] was that temperature had preserved not only Otzi himself but
the Çatalhöyükans used a particular kind of construction also a grove of organic artifacts—clothing, wooden
material. Instead of making hard, lime floors that held handles for tools and weapons, feathered arrows never
up for decades (as was the case at many sites in Anatolia before seen by modern eyes. . . . The radiocarbon dat-
and the Middle East), the inhabitants of Çatalhöyük made ing of Otzi’s ax blade forced a revision in the generally
their floors mostly out of a lime-rich mud plaster, which accepted date for the advent [start] of copper smelting
remained soft and in need of continual resurfacing. Once in the Alpine region. The feathers on two of his arrows
a year—in some cases once a month—floors and wall showed that Neolithic man understood the ballistic
plasters had to be resurfaced. Those thin layers of plaster, principles that make an arrow rotate and fly more accu-
somewhat like the growth rings in a tree, trap traces of rately. The embers that he carried wrapped in maple
activity. . . . The floors even preserve such subtle tokens of leaves in a birch-bark container suggested how Neo-
daily life as the impressions of floor mats. lithic people transported fire from place to place.

A?BBI
 READING LIKE A HISTORIAN
D OCUMENT 1 b. Evaluate Based on this passage, do you think that luck
a. Identify What method did Woolley use to excavate Ur’s plays a role in archaeological research? Explain your answer.
royal cemetery, and what objects did he find? D OCUMENT 4
b. Draw Conclusions What types of conclusions do you a. Describe What have scientists learned from Ötzi?
think that archaeologists could draw about Ur based on b. Explain Why is Ötzi such a significant find?
the items found in the excavation of the royal cemetery?
D OCUMENT 2
a. Identify What are some of the tools and equipment that
the workers are using at the excavation? Archaeologists use many methods to learn about prehis-
b. Interpret Based on the photograph, what are some of tory without the benefit of written records. Using the docu-
the activities that take place at an archaeological dig, and ments above and information from the chapter, form a
what are some of the difficulties that workers face? thesis about the ways in which archaeologists learn about
prehistory and some of the challenges they face. Then
D OCUMENT 3 write an essay providing details to support your thesis.
a. Identify Main Ideas What aspect of Çatal Hüyük has pro-
vided archaeologists with a wealth of information? See Skills Handbook, p. H25, H26

THE BEGINNINGS OF CIVILIZATION 27

 CHAPTER

 >7FJ;HÆ;L?;M
VISUAL STUDY GUIDE

Key Discoverer Hominid Group Appeared About

Discovery and Location
Australopithecines 4–5 million years ago
Nutcracker Man, 1959 Mary Leakey, East Africa (Southern Ape)

Lucy, 1974 Donald Johanson, Ethiopia Homo habilis 2.4 million years ago
(Handy Man)
Laetoli footprints, 1970s Mary Leakey, Tanzania
Homo Erectus 2–1.5 million years ago
(Upright Man)
Homo habilis fossil, 1959 Mary and Louis Leakey,
Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania Homo Sapiens (Wise Man) 200,000 years ago
Chad skull, 2001 French Team, Chad • Neanderthals • 200,000 years ago
• Cro-Magnons • 40,000 years ago

Paleolithic Era Neolithic Era The First Cities

(Old Stone Age) (New Stone Age) and Civilizations
• nomadic bands of hunter-gatherers • farming and the domestication of • irrigation leads to food surpluses
• use of simple, chipped stone tools plants and animals • development of division of labor
• use of fire • polishing of stone tools • rise of the first cities and civilizations
• development of language • settlement of farming villages • development of government and
• creation of cave paintings and • increases in types of activities, trade religious institutions
figurines and differences in wealth • emergence of social classes
• burial of the dead • pottery, weaving, and the plow • invention of record keeping/writing

Review Key Terms and People 6. By experimentation, people learned the practice
Complete each sentence by filling the blank with the of , or the selective growing or breeding
correct term or person. of plants and animals for human use.
1. refers to a society’s knowledge, art, 7. Pottery, tools, and weapons are examples of
beliefs, customs, and values. , or objects made and used by humans.
2. are people who survive by eating 8. The development of agriculture is sometimes
animals that they have caught or plants they called the because of the profound effects
have collected. of agriculture on history.
3. is the spreading of cultural traits from 9. Skilled craftspeople called fashioned
one society to another. baskets, pottery, and metal goods by hand.
4. Characteristics of include developed 10. Herding societies did not establish permanent
cities, record keeping and writing, and the settlements but instead lived as ,
specialization of labor. moving their herds from place to place in search
5. To is to alternate between two events. of grazing land.

28 CHAPTER 1
 History's Impact video program
Review the video to answer the closing question:
How do archaeologists discover new ways of thinking
about ancient cultures?

Comprehension and Critical Thinking Analyzing Visuals

SECTION 1 (pp. 5–11) Reading Like a Historian The image shows two cave
sculptures of bison, which prehistoric people carved out of
11. a. Recall How do scientists study prehistory
the wall of a cave at Tuc d’Audoubert, Ariege, France.
without the aid of written records from that time?
b. Summarize What are three ways in which early
humans adapted to new environments during the
Stone Age?
c. Develop If you were an archaeologist and
found bead jewelry and stone chopping tools in an
ancient woman’s grave, what might you conclude?
SECTION 2 (pp. 12–17)
12. a. Identify What was the Neolithic Revolution,
and why was it important?
b. Identify Cause and Effect How did the domes-
tication of plants and animals change prehistoric
societies during the Neolithic Era? Bison Cave Sculpture, Tuc d’Audoubert, Ariege, France
c. Make Judgments What can scientists conclude 17. Draw Conclusions Based on the carvings, what
about life during the Neolithic Era from Ötzi the conclusions can you draw about the people who
Iceman? Consider Ötzi’s clothing, articles and made them?
weapons, location, and death in your answer.
18. Infer Why do you think that early prehistoric
SECTION 3 (pp. 18–23) people made these carvings?
13. a. Recall What were the common characteristics [Link]
of early civilizations? Using the Internet Practice Online
b. Explain How did the world’s first civilizations Keyword: SHL BEG
19. What would it be like to be an
develop, and what did the four locations where archaeologist and search for artifacts from the
they developed have in common? past? Using the keyword above, do research to
c. Elaborate In early civilizations how were learn about recent archaeological finds. Select
religion, government, and social classes all two or more artifacts that interest you and write
interconnected? a short, informative article about them that could
go in a school science magazine. Describe each
Reading Skills artifact in detail.
Predicting Use what you have learned about
predicting to answer the questions below.
14. As people began using bronze to create tools, the
Exposition: Writing an Explanation The
Stone Age gave way to the Bronze Age. What
Neolithic Revolution dramatically changed
do you predict was one way in which the use of
prehistoric societies.
bronze tools affected early human societies?
20. Assignment: In an essay, explain how the Neo-
15. Which characteristics of civilizations do you lithic Revolution affected the way in which people
predict were most beneficial in helping the first lived, the types of activities people performed, and
civilizations grow and endure? the technology people used. To provide support for
16. As early civilizations grew and expanded, how do your explanation, use information from this chap-
you predict that nomadic pastoralists and more ter and from other research as needed. Be sure to
settled civilizations interacted? collect facts and examples to illustrate your points.

THE BEGINNINGS OF CIVILIZATION 29