THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The Digestive system is a system of body which
breakdown food into forms that can be absorbed and used
by body cells. It also absorbs water, vitamins, and
minerals, and eliminates wastes from the body. It
breakdown the larger molecules present in food into
molecules that are small enough to enter body cells by a
process known as digestion. The organs which are
involved in the breakdown of food are collectively called
the digestive system. The digestive system is a tubular
system which extends from the mouth to the anus.
PARTS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The digestive system can be divided into two parts:
1. The gastrointestinal (GI) tract, or alimentary canal (alimentary = nourishment), is a
continuous tube that extends from the mouth to the anus. Organs of the gastrointestinal tract
include the mouth, most of the pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine.
2. The accessory digestive organs are the organs which assist in digestion of food. These include
the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. Teeth aid in the physical
breakdown of food, and the tongue assists in chewing and swallowing. The other accessory
digestive organs never come into direct contact with food but they produce secretions which aid
in the chemical breakdown of food.
LAYERS OF GI TRACT:
Mucosa: It is the inner lining of the GI tract. It is subdivided into 3
layers called Epithelium, Lamina propria and muscularis mucosae.
• The epithelium may be simple or stratified which plays
role in protection, secretion and absorption. Epithelial
cells also secrete mucus and fluid into the lumen of the
tract.
• The lamina propria (lamina = thin) is areolar connective
tissue containing many blood and lymphatic vessels,
which transfers the absorbed nutrients to the other tissues
of the body. The lamina propria also contains the
mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT) which
contains immune system cells that protect against disease.
• Muscularis musosae is a thin layer of smooth muscle
fibers which increases the surface area of the stomach and
small intestine by many folds to enhance digestion and
absorption.
LAYERS OF GI TRACT:
Submucosa: The submucosa consists of areolar connective tissue
that binds the mucosa to the muscularis. It contains many blood
and lymphatic vessels that receive absorbed food molecules. It also
contains an extensive network of neurons known as the submucosal
plexus or plexus of Meissner (a part of ENS).
Muscularis: Muscularis contains both skeletal muscles and smooth
muscles. Skeletal muscles help in voluntary swallowing and
defecation. Involuntary contractions of the smooth muscle help
break down food, mix it with digestive secretions, and propel it
along the tract. The bundle of neurons present in this layer is called
myenteric plexus.
Serosa: It is a protective and connective tissue which forms the
outer layer of the GI tract which are suspended in the
abdominopelvic cavity.
THE MOUTH
• Mouth is also called Oral cavity or Buccal cavity. It is formed by
cheeks, hard palate, soft palate and tongue.
• Cheeks form lateral walls of mouth and are covered by skin from
outside and mucous membrane from inside.
• Hard palate forms anterior portion of roof of mouth. Hard palate
is made up of palatine and maxillae bones covered with mucous
membrane. Hard palate forms bony partition between oral and
nasal cavity.
• Soft palate forms posterior portion of roof of mouth. It forms
partition between oropharynx and nasopharynx. Soft palate is
also covered with mucous membrane.
• Uvula is small muscular process hanging from soft palate. It
prevents entrance of swallowed food and liquid into nasal cavity.
SALIVARY GLANDS
A salivary gland is a gland that releases a
secretion called saliva into the oral cavity. Saliva
is secreted to keep the mucous membranes of the
mouth and pharynx moist and to cleanse the
mouth and teeth. When food enters the mouth,
secretion of saliva increases, and it lubricates,
dissolves and begins the chemical breakdown of
the food. There are 3 pairs of major salivary
glands which secrete saliva. Several minor glands
are also present in cheeks, palates, tongue and
lips etc. which produce small amount of saliva.
Process of secretion of saliva is called salivation.
PAROTID GLAND
Parotid gland is the largest salivary gland and is
composed mostly of serous acini.
Parotid is roughly triangular in shape with an
apex just inferior to the angle of the mandible
and the superior base along the zygomatic arch.
Parotid gland is surrounded by thick capsule
derived from the deep cervical fascia and it is
known as parotid sheath.
The facial nerve divides the gland into superficial
and deep lobes; it’s branches form within the
parotid gland what’s known as pes anserinus
(goose feet).
Approximately 75% or more of the parotid gland
overlies the masseter muscle (superficial lobe);
the rest lies in retromandibular area (deep lobe).
THE TONGUE
Tongue is an accessory digestive organ composed of
skeletal muscle covered with mucous membrane. It helps
to taste the food, swallow food and to speak.
Tongue and its associated muscles form floor of tongue.
Tongue is divided into 2 symmetrical lateral parts by a
median septum that extends its whole length.
Tongue consists of two types of muscles: The extrinsic and
intrinsic muscles
The extrinsic muscles move the tongue from side to side
and in and out to maneuver food for chewing, shape the
food into a rounded mass, and force the food to the back of
the mouth for swallowing. They also form the floor of the
mouth and hold the tongue in position.
The intrinsic muscles alter the shape and size of the
tongue for speech and swallowing.
THE TONGUE
A fold of mucous membrane in midline of undersurface of
tongue called lingual frenulum is attached to floor of mouth
and controls posterior movement of tongue.
The upper surface and lateral surfaces of the tongue are
covered with papillae. Many papillae contain taste buds, the
receptors for gustation (taste).
Some papillae lack taste buds, but they contain receptors for
touch and increase friction between the tongue and food,
making it easier for the tongue to move food in the oral cavity.
Lingual glands are also present which secretes mucus and fluid
containing an enzyme lingual lipase which breakdowns the
triglycerides.
THE TEETH
• Teeth are the accessory digestive organs which cut, tear and
pulverize the solid food to reduce it into smaller particles
which makes it easy to swallow and digest. Teeth are located
in aveolar processes of mandible and maxillae.
• Aveolar processes are covered with gingivae (gums) that
extend into each socket. Sockets are lined by periodontal
ligaments made of dense firbrous connective tissue with
anchors teeth into socket.
• A tooth has three parts: crown, root, and neck. The crown
is the visible portion above the level of the gums. Roots are
the portion embedded in the socket. The neck is the
constricted junction of the crown and root near the gum line.
THE TEETH
• Internally, dentin forms the majority of the tooth. Dentin gives the tooth its basic
shape and rigidity. It is harder than bone because of its higher content of calcium
salts. The dentin of the crown is covered by enamel, which consists primarily of
calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate.
• Enamel is also harder than bone because of its even higher content of calcium salts
(about 95% of dry weight). In fact, enamel is the hardest substance in the body. It
serves to protect the tooth from the wear and tear of chewing. It also protects against
acids that can easily dissolve dentin.
• The dentin of the root is covered by cementum, another bone like substance, which
attaches the root to the periodontal ligament. The dentin of a tooth encloses a space
which is called pulp cavity. This pulp cavity contains blood vessels, nerves, and
lymphatic vessels. Narrow extensions of the pulp cavity, called root canals, run
through the root of the tooth. Each root canal has an opening at its base, the apical
foramen, through which blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves extend. The
blood vessels bring nourishment, the lymphatic vessels offer protection, and the
nerves provide sensation.
DISORDERS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD): If the lower esophageal sphincter fails to close adequately after food
has entered the stomach, the stomach contents can reflux (back up) into the inferior portion of the esophagus. This
condition is known as gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). Hydrochloric acid (HCl) from the stomach contents
can irritate the esophageal wall, resulting in a burning sensation that is called heartburn. Drinking alcohol and
smoking can cause the sphincter to relax, worsening the problem. The symptoms of GERD often can be controlled
by avoiding foods that strongly stimulate stomach acid secretion (coffee, chocolate, tomatoes, fatty foods, orange
juice, peppermint, spearmint, and onions).
Vomiting: Vomiting or emesis is the forcible expulsion of the contents of the upper GI tract (stomach and
sometimes duodenum) through the mouth. The strongest stimuli for vomiting are irritation and distension of the
stomach; other stimuli include unpleasant sights, general anesthesia, dizziness, and certain drugs such as morphine
and derivatives of digitalis. Vomiting involves squeezing the stomach between the diaphragm and abdominal
muscles and expelling the contents through open esophageal sphincters. Prolonged vomiting, especially in infants
and elderly people, can be serious because the loss of acidic gastric juice can lead to alkalosis (higher than normal
blood pH), dehydration, and damage to the esophagus and teeth.